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THE  PEOPLE'S 


FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA 


EMBRACING 


FARM  STOCK  IN  ALL  ITS  DEPARTMENTS,  INCLUDING  THE  BREEDING,  CARE, 

AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  HORSES,  CATTLE,   HOGS,  SHEEP,   POULTRY, 

BEES,  ETC.  ;  FOODS  FOR  ANIMALS;  BARNS  AND  BARN-YARDS; 

THE  DISEASES  OF  HORSES   AND  LIVE  STOCK, 


WITH  NUMEROUS  APPENDIXES 


INVALUABLE    FOR 


REFERENCE  IN  ALL  DEPARTMENTS  OP  AGRICULTURAL  LIFE. 


VOLUME:  i 


CONTENTMENT. 


THE  PEOPLE'S 


EMBRACING 

COMPREHENSIVE  AND  PRACTICAL  TREATISES. ON 
FARM  TOPICS  OF  EVERY  DESCRIPTION, 

INCLUDING 

FARM    MANAGEMENT;    FENCING;    FARM   DRAINAGE;     FERTILIZERS;    THE    SOIL,   AND    ITS    IMPROVE- 
MENT; GRASSES;  CORN;  WHEAT;   MISCELLANEOUS  CROPS  OF  EVERY  DESCRIPTION; 

ROOT  CROPS;    FRUIT  ON   THE   FARM;     GARDENING;     INSECTS;    TIMBER- 
GROWING;      FARM    HOMES    AND    SURROUNDINGS;     SMALL 
FARMS    FOR     POOR     M£N  ;     HANDY    THINGS 
ABOUT     THE     FARM,    ETC. 

TO    WHICH    IS   ADDED 

A  COMPLETE  VOLUME  ON  FARM  STOCK  IN  ALL  ITS  DEPARTMENTS,  INCLUDING  THE  BREEDING, 

CARE,  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  HORSES,  CATTLE,  HOGS,  SHEEP,  POULTRY,  BEES,  ETC.  ; 

FOODS  FOR  ANIMALS;  BARNS  AND  BARN-YARDS;  THE  DISEASES 

OF  HORSES  AND  LIVE  STOCK, 

WITH    NUMEROUS 


<§WO  UOLUMES  IN  ONE. 


By  WALDO   R.  BROWN, 

Late  Agricultural  Editor  of  the  Cincinnati  Enquire*  ;  Author  of  "Success  in  Farming,'1  "  Highland  Farm 
Papers;"  Contributor  to  the  Rural  New  Yorker,  Country  Gentleman,  .\ew  York  Tribune,  Etc. 


ASSISTED  BY  THE  FOLLOWING 
L.  N.  BONHAM, 
Agricultural  Editor  Cincinnati   Commercial. 

R.  S.  THOMPSON, 
Author  of  "Science  in  Farming." 

R.  VV.  STEWART,  D.  V.  S., 
The  Popular  Veterinary  Surgeon. 

HENRY  TALCOTT, 
Pres't  Ashtabula  Co.  (Ohio)  Sorghum  Association. 

JOHN  G.  OXER, 

The  Successful  Cattle  Breeder. 

HON.    NORMAN   J.    COLMAN, 

U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Agriculture. 


CORPS  OF  SPECIAL  CONTRIBUTORS: 

A.  J    COOK, 
Prof,  in  the  Michigan  State  Agricultural  College. 

•**ANNY  FIELD," 
The  Popular  Writer  and  Successful  Poultry  Raiser. 

JOHN  GOULD, 
Agricultural  Editor  Cleveland  Herald. 

STEPHEN  POWERS, 

Author  of  "Sheep  Experience  Papers,"  etc, 
EDWIN  W.  BROWN, 
Practical  Cattle  Breeder. 

JOHN  M.  STAHL, 
Editor  Farmers'   Call  and  South  and  ll'est. 


JHttsfrahh  urillj  naarlij  4»00  JJnrjraumjs  anb  JK 


THE  JOTMES   BKOTHKKS    RUtJLISHING   COMPANY 

CINCINNATI,    O. 


COPYRIGHTED,  IKM,  BY  J.  T.  JONES. 


PREFACE. 


WHEN  I  began  the  preparation  of  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK 
CYCLOPEDIA  I  asked  myself  the  question,  Why  add  another  to  the 
?/^  multiplied  list  of  books  already  written  on  farm  topics?  I  was  aware 
that  the  ground  had  been  thoroughly  covered.  We  have  books  on  all  the 
special  departments  of  the  farm ;  agricultural  cyclopedias,  and  books  on 
agricultural  chemistry,  botany,  and  other  sciences  with  which  the  farmer  needs 
more  or  less  to  be  familiar.  Many  of  these  are  of  great  value,  and  should  be 
found  in  the  library  of  every  intelligent  farmer ;  and  it  is  not  my  purpose  or 
expectation  to  produce  a  book  that  will  supersede  them. 

There  is  one  fact  connected  with  our  agricultural  literature  which  has  led 
me  to  undertake  this  work,  and  that  is  that  few  books  have  been  written  by 
practical  farmers.    Farmers  as  a  rule  are  too  busy  to  write  books,  particularly 
in  their  younger  days,  and  after  years  of  labor  have  stiffened  the  muscles  few 
n      of  them  ever  take  up  the  pen  to  record  their  experiences  for  the  instruction 
J*     of  their  fellow-laborers.     This  was  my  own  experience,  for  up  to  the  age  of 
£      forty  I  had  never  written  a  line  for  publication.     Beginning  life  on  the  farm 
with  no  capital,  and  dependent  on  my  hands  for  whatever  of  success  I  might 
attain,  I  had  no  time  to  write  of  what  I  was  doing.     During  these  years  I 
•      was  impressed  with  the  fact  that  the  farmer,  isolated   as  he  is,  often  learns 
2      from  experience,  obtained  at  great  cost  of  time  and  labor,  that  which  perhaps 
qe      a  neighbor  could  have  told  him,  and  a  single  item  in  an  agricultural  paper  has 
2      often  been  worth  to  me  many  dollars;  but  still  oftener  I  have,  after  years  of 
*•      experiment  and  costly  failure,  settled  some  simple  fact  and  been  led  to  exclaim, 
Why  could  not  some  older  and  more  experienced  farmer  have  told  me  this? 
A  little  more  than  ten  years  ago  I  wrote  my  first  article  for  publication. 
^      I  began  writing  of  the  daily  experiences  of  farm  life,  sometimes  telling  that 
which  I  thought  would  be  helpful  to  others,  but  oftener  asking  for  informa- 
g      tion  which  I  stood  in  need  of.     These  articles,  under  the  title  of  "Highland 
Farm  Papers,"  were  continued  for  many  years,  and  were  received  with  such 
favor  by  their  readers  that  the  work  of  writing  for  the  agricultural  press  grew 
on  my  hands,  and  during  the  past  three  years  I  have  been  constnntly  em- 
ployed in  writing  for  the  leading  agricultural  papers  both  East  and  West.     In 
1882  I  published   a  book  of  250  pages,  entitled  Success  in  Farming,  which 
met  with  favor  and  reached  a  third  edition  within  ten  months.     It  will  readily 
be  seen  that  the  present  book  is  a  natural  outgrowth  of  the  labors  and  thought 

£34464  (i) 


n  PREFACE. 

of  the  past  ten  years.  It  is  pleasant  to  me  to  know  that  I  do  not  come  as  a 
stranger  before  the  farmers  of  America,  as  my  writings  have  rendered  my 
name  more  or  less  familiar  to  them  in  all  parts  of  the  Uniou ,  while  in  a  nar- 
rower circle,  including  my  own  State  and  the  border  counties  of  Indiana, 
Kentucky,  and  Penusylvania,  I  have  had  the  pleasure,  at  fairs  and  farmers' 
institutes,  of  meeting  and  addressing  thousands  of  the  more  progressive  farmers. 

It  seems  to  me  to  be  a  propitious  time  to  bring  out  a  book  of  this  char- 
acter, for  there  is  no  question  that  the  old  prejudice  against  "book  farming" 
is  fast  disappearing,  and  that  the  more  intelligent  farmers  fully  recognize  the 
truth  that  a  record  of  experience  given  through  the  medium  of  the  press  to 
tens  of  thousands,  is  none  the  less  true  than  if  spoken  to  a  neighbor,  and  that 
the  good  it  can  do  is  thus  increased  infinitely,  and  that  when  printed  in  a 
book,  so  that  it  can  be  preserved  and  referred  to,  its  value  is  much  greater 
than  if  it  was  only  in  the  paper  which  is  soon  thrown  aside  and  lost.  Our 
agricultural  interests  are  so  varied,  and  the  subject  is  so  vast,  that  no  one 
man  can  be  expected  to  understand  or  excel  in  all  the  branches  of  farm  man- 
agement. Recognizing  this,  I  have  availed  myself  of  the  assistance  of  others, 
whose  contributions  will  be  found  valuable  in  their  various  departments. 

All  my  life  has  been  spent  on  the  farm.  Its  trials  and  hardships  as  well 
as  its  compensations  are  familiar  to  me,  and  there  is  no  work  that  I  feel  to 
be  more  useful  or  honorable  than  to  write  that  which  will  help  the  farmer  in 
his  calling.  It  is  on  the  farm  that  the  habits  of  industry  and  hardy  endur- 
ance are  formed  which  fit  our  young  men  to  enter  the  struggle  of  life  and 
win  its  prizes.  And  just  as  our  cities  must,  at  whatever  cost,  bring  a  supply 
of  pure  country  water  for  the  use  of  their  inhabitants  to  prevent  contamina- 
tion, disease,  and  death,  so  there  must  be  reared  in  our  country  homes  those 
who  are  to  take  the  prominent  places  in  the  world's  history  and  repair  the 
moral  waste  of  the  cities.  In  some  great  emergency  of  a  nation  how  often 
has  God  put  honor  upon  country  life  by  selecting  from  it  a  leader  for  the 
people.  Moses,  though  learned  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians,  must 
spend  forty  years  as  a  keeper  of  sheep  in  the  wilderness  before  he  was  fitted 
for  his  great  work.  David  was  taken  from  following  the  sheep,  Putnam  and 
Washington  from  the  plow,  and  Abraham  Lincoln  from  the  humble  cabin, 
and  all  these  were  called  to  labors  and  honors  which  fall  to  the  lot  of  but  few. 

The  rain  which  falls  on  the  barren  mountain  is  not  wasted,  but  by  it  are 
fed  the  perennial  springs  which  flow  through  the  valleys,  bringing  verdure 
and  life,  and  the  mighty  rivers  which  float  the  commerce  of  a  nation.  So  in 
the  isolated  homes  of  the  farmers  are  being  reared  the  men  and  women  who 
are  to  help  the  world  on  towards  the  fulfillment  of  a  grand  destiny. 

w.  F.  B. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I.— THK  FARM. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL    FARM    MANAGEMENT. 

Selection  of  Farm.— Condition  of  Soil  and  Improvements. — Water  Supply. — 
Roads. — Farm  Products. — Rotation  of  Crops. — Amount  to  Cultivate. — Capital. — 
Hired  Help, Pages  17-33 

CHAPTER  II. 

FARM     FENCING. 

How  to  reduce  the  cost  of  Fencing. — Hedges. — Live  Fence  Posts. — Post 
and  Board  Fence. — Wire  Fence. — Portable  Fences. — Self-supporting  Truss  Fence. — 
Fence  Rows. — Water-gaps  and  Flood-gates. — Farm  Gates, 34-53 

CHAPTER  III. 

FARM      DRA  IN  AGE. 

Advantages  of  Draining. — How  Draining  Helps  the  Soil. — Prevents  Failure  of 
Crops. — When  to  Drain. — What  Lands  need  Draining. — Tiles. — Materials  for 
Drainage. — Open  Ditches. — Depth  and  Distance  apart  of  Drains. — The  Outlet. — 
Laying  out  the  Drains. — Silt  Basins.— Digging  the  Ditch. — Cost  of  Drainage,  .  54-72 

CHAPTER  IV. 

MANURES. 

How  to  get  the  most  Manure. — How  to  Save  it. — Pulverizing  Manures. — Ad- 
vantages of  Manures. — Bommer's  Method.  —  Special  Fertilizers.  —  Commercial 
Manures. — Green  Manuring:  clover,  rye,  buckwheat, 73-92 

CHAPTER  V. 

THE   SOIL   AND   ITS   IMPROVEMENT. 

Origin  of  Soil. — Source  of  Nitrogen  in  Soils. — Purposes  of  Soil. — Varieties  of 
Soil. — Sand. — Clay. — Humus. — Changing  the  Character  of  Soil. — What  constitutes 
a  Fertile  Soil. —  Drainage.  —  Cultivation.  —  Manures:  Barn-yard,  green,  commer- 
cial.—Valuation  of  Fertilizers. — Food  and  Manure, 93-117 

(3) 


4  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

GRASSES    AND    CLOVER. 

Grass  Crop  of  the  Country.— Varieties  of  Grasses. — Growing  Grass. — Hay 
Making. — Shrinkage  of  Hay  in  Barn. — Millet. — Clover. — Time  to  sow  Red  Clover. — 
Clover  for  Pasture. — Fertilizers  for  Clover. — Growing  Clover  Seed.— Hoven,  Clover 
Bloat,  and  Slobbers, Pages  118-139 

CHAPTER  VII. 

CORN. 

Average  yield  of  Corn. — Reports  from  Corn-growers. — Seed  Corn. — Soil  adapted 
to  the  Crop. — Manures  for  Corn. — Preparing  the  Soil. — Corn-fodder  and  Fodder- 
corn. — Experimental  Corn-plots. — Disposing  of  the  Crop. — Corn-cribs,  .  .  140-165 

CHAPTER  VIII. 


Its  Importance. — Soil. — Drainage. — Preparation  of  the  Seed  Bed. — Wheat  on 
Corn  Lands. — Fertilizers. — How  and  when  to  Sow. — Seeding,  thick  or  thin. — 
Depth. — Varieties. — Harvesting. — Cost  of  Wheat-growing, 166-186 

CHAPTER  IX. 

MISCELLANEOUS   CROPS. 

Oats. — Barley. — Rye. — Beans.— Broom-corn. — Harvesting. — Making  Brooms. — 
Buckwheat— Pumpkins. — Flax. — Cotton.— Sorghum. — Tobacco, 187-225 

CHAPTER  X. 

ROOT   CROPS. 

Potatoes. — Planting  and  Tillage. — Harvesting,  Storing,  and  Marketing. — Imple- 
ments.— Sweet  Potatoes. — Cultivation. — Onions. — Turnips. — Beets  and  Mangold- 
Wurzels.— Carrots.— Artichokes, 226-252 

CHAPTER  XI. 

FRUIT   ON    THE   FARM. 

Selection  of  Orchard  Site. — Selection  of  Trees. — Plant  young  Trees. — Selection 
of  Varieties. — Planting  an  Orchard.  —  Cultivation. —  Apples.— Peaches. — Pears. — 
Dwarf  Pears. — Plums.— Quinces. — Cherries. — Grapes. — Small  Fruits:  Strawberries, 
Raspberries,  Blackberries,  Currants,  Gooseberries.  —  Commercial  Fruit-grow- 
ing,   253-281 

CHAPTER  XII. 

GARDENING  AND  TKUCK  FARMING. 

What  can  "be  Grown  on  an  Acre. — Selecting  and  Preparing  the  Garden  Spot. — 
Laying  out  the  Garden. — Implements. — The  Hot-bed. — When  to  Plant. — Insects. — 
Rotation  and  Succession  of  Crops. — Planting.— Disposing  of  Garden  Crops. — Veg- 
etables: Asparagus,  Beans,  Pole  Beans,  Beets,  Cabbage,  Carrots,  Celery,  Sweet 
Corn,  Pop-corn,  Cucumbers,  Lettuce,  Muskmelons,  Watermelons,  Onions  and  Po- 
tatoes, Parsnips,  Peas,  Peppers,  Radishes,  Rhubarb,  Salsify,  Spinach,  Squashes, 
Tomatoes,  Turnips, 282-315 


CONTENTS.  O 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

INSECTS   INJURIOUS   TO   THE   FARM,    GARDEN,    AND   ORCHARD. 

Colorado  Potato  Beetle. — Cutworms. — The  May  Beetle. — Wheat  Midge. — Hes- 
sian Fly. — Wire  Worm. — Pea  Weevil. — Bean  Weevil. — Squash  Bug. — Squash  Vine 
Root-borer. — Tomato  Worm. — Cabbage  Cut-worms. — Cabbage  Leaf-roller. — Striped 
Flea-beetle.— Other  Cabbage  Moths.— Cabbage  Fly.— Radish  Fly.— Blister  Beetle.— 
Striped  Cucumber-beetle. — The  Coddling  Moth. — Old  Apple-tree  Borer. — Flat- 
headed  Borer. — Apple-tree  Bark-louse. — Twig  Borers. — Canker  Worm. — Tent  Cat- 
erpillar.— The  Fall  Web-worm. — Plant  Lice. — Plum  Curculio. — Peach  Borer. — Pear 
or  Cherry-tree  Slugs. — Plant  Lice  (Aphides). — Imported  Currant  Borer. — Imported 
Gooseberry  Saw-fly. — Climbing  Cut-worms. — The  Rose  Chafer. — Army  Worm. — 
Cotton  Worm.— Cotton  Boll  Worm.— Lice  and  Mites, Pages  316-365 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

TIMBER  GROWING    FOR   PROFIT. 

Facts  regarding  timber. — Effects  of  Forests. — What  Trees  to  Plant. — Where 
and  How  to  Plant. — Locust  Growing. — How  to  start  a  Locust  Plantation,  .  366-377 

CHAPTER  XV. 

THE   HOME   AND   ITS   SURROUNDINGS. 

Location  of  the  House. — Size  of  House-lot. — The  House. — Plans. — The  Door- 
yard. — Shade-trees. — The  Lawn. — Shrubs  and  Flowers. — Fences  and  Walks. — Out- 
buildings,    378-394 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

SMALL    FARMS    FOR   POOR   MEN. 

Small  Capital. — Home  Influences.— How  to  get  a  Home. — Building  Associ- 
ations.— How  to  Manage  a  Small  Farm, 395-402 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

HANDY   THINGS   ABOUT   THE   FARM. 

Wagon-jacks. — Hog-jack.— Hanging-rack  for  Hogs.— Post-holder. — Log-holder.  — 
Log-lifter.— Wood-holder. — Platform  for  Fence-building. — Hay-gatherer. — Husking 
Table.— Ladder  for  Loading  Fodder. — Shocking-horse. — Hay  Hook. — Crab  for 
Shocking  Corn.  —  Cheap  Broom-corn  Scraper.  —  Bag-holder.  —  Killing-post  for 
Fowls. — Instruments  for  Preventing  Self-sucking  in  Cattle. — Snow-plow. — Water- 
gap.  —  Stump-puller.  —  Wagon-bed  Attachment.  —  Self-dumping  Sled.  —  Potato 
Screen.— Roller  Cover.— Feed  Cooker.— Evener.— Land  Measurer.— Tether  Pin.— 
Beef  Rack.— Shipping-box  for  Fowls.— Barrel  Well-curb.— Ventilators  for  Stacks.— 
Bushel-box.  -Gates.  -  Ladders. — Scare-crows. — Plant  Protector.— Hogshead  Sheep- 
rack.  —  Feed-boxes.  —  Tagging-table  for  Sheep.  —  Butting  Preventer.  —  Shearing 
Table. — Hog  Loader.— Home-made  Root-cutter. — Kicking-curer.— Hanging  Rat- 
proof  Shelf.— Wheel  Drying-rack.— Clothes-line  Lifter.  —  Foot-scrapers.  —  Barrel 
Chairs.— Chair  Step-ladder.— Chair  Tool-box.— Slat  Shelves.— Revolving  Shelves.— 
Self-sucking  Preventive.— Rack  for  Tomatoes.— Portable  Shelter.— Garden  Reel.— 
Water-gap.— Wire  Stand.— Stacking  Stage.— Rack  and  Manger.— Rain  Gauge.— 
Land  Measurer.— Barrel  Coop.— Mink-trap. —  Ringing  a  Hog.— Rat-trap.— Bag- 
holder. — Home-made  Press. — Barn  Closet. — Harness  Clamp.— Corner  Shelves. — 
Saw-buck  for  Long  Wood.— Water-tight  Box.— Hoof  Hook.— Stable  Barrow.— 
Barrel  Sled, 403-436 


CONTENTS. 


II. 
LIVK    STOCK    DKFARTMKNT. 


INTRODUCTION, Page  439- 

CHAPTER  I. 

THE   HORSE — HISTORY. 

The  Fossil  Horse. — Written  History. — The  Lesson  of  History. — The  Hebrew 
Horse. — The  Greek  Horse. — Improvement  of  Horses  came  from  Egypt. — Horse- 
races Instituted. — Endurance  and  Docility. — Olympian  Races. — Southern  European 
Horses. — Roman. — Arab. — Barb. — Degraded  with  Man.— Influence  of  Barb  on  Arab 
and  English  Horses. — Breeds  of  Arabian  Horses. — The  Thorough-bred. — Ele- 
ments.— The  Horse  in  Agriculture. — English  Horses. — The  Flanders  Element. — 
Pedigree  of  Race-horse. — The  Stud-book. — Climatic  Influence. — Speed. — Draft- 
horses.  —  Norman.  —  French.  —  War  Demands.  — Percheron.  —  In  America. — Can- 
adian.— English  Draft-horses. — Cleveland  Bays. — The  Farmer's  Horse. — The  Sad- 
dle-horse.— The  Trotting  Horse. — Various  Trotters. — Ponies. — Shetland  Ponies. — 
Mustang  and  Indian  Ponies, 449-532 

CHAPTER  II. 

THE   HORSE — BREEDING. 

Jacob  a  Color-specialist. — Bakewell,  of  England. — Heredity  and  Atavism.— 
Value  of  Pedigree. — Earliest  Records. — High  Breeding  more  than  Appearance. — 
Breeding  for  Special  Ends. — American  and  English  Farmers. — Vices  propagated. — 
Docility  and  Endurance  Increased. — In-and-in  Breeding. — General  Principles  of 
Breeding. — Cross  Breeding. — Soundness  of  Parents. — Best  age  to  Breed. — Color  and 
size  of  Brood-mare. — Choosing  the  Stallion. — Farm  Horses. — How  size  may  be  in- 
creased.— Influence  of  Sire  and  Dam.— Soundness,  Quietness,  and  Temperament. — 
Condition  at  Breeding  Time. — Working  the  Mare  and  Stallion.— French  and  Amer- 
ican Methods. — Care  of  Breeding  Mares. — Period  of  Gestation. — How  to  know 
Foaling  Time. — Treatment  of  Mare  at  and  after  Foaling. — Care  of  Colts. — Abor- 
tion.— Sex  :  Can  it  be  Controlled  ? — Importance  of  First  Impregnation. — Valuable 
Hints, 533-593 

CHAPTER  III. 

THE   HORSE — BUYING   AND   SELLING. 

Why  Difficult — What  is  unsoundness  ?— Warranty. — Vices  and  Disabilities. — 
The  Eyes.— The  Feet.— The  Limbs.— The  Back  and  Body.— General  Hints  to  Pur- 
chasers.—Points  of  the  Horse, 594-610 

CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  HORSE — ANATOMY   AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

A  System  of  Organisms. — Frame-work. — Muscular  Development. — Physiology 
of  Muscle. — The  Blood. — Respiration. — Digestion.  —  Secretion  and  Excretion. — 
The  Nervous  System. — The  Foot. — Mouth  and  Teeth. — Appearances  of  Teeth  at 
different  ages. — Diseases  of  Teeth, 611-634 


CONTENTS.  1 

CHAPTER  V. 

HYGIENE   AND   SANITARY    CONDITIONS   OF   THE   FARM. 

The  Air. — Ventilation. — Location  of  Barns  and  Stables.— Bank  Barns. — Light 
and  Pure  Air. — Impure  Air  Poisonous. — Warm  Stables. — Temperature  of  the 
Stable. — Size. — Ventilators. — Predisposing  Causes  of  Disease.— The  Stable  Floor. — 
Care  of  the  Feet.— Grooming. — The  Stalls. — The  Rack  or  Manger. — Disinfectants. — 
Labor  and  Fatigue. — Feeding,  how  and  what. — Economy  in  Feeding.— Value  of 
Bulky  Food. — Corn-meal. — Accumulated  Experience. — Drink.  —  Grooming  for 
Health.— Condition  Powders.— Hospital.— The  Horse-blanket,  ....  Pages  635-672 

CHAPTER  VI. 

THE   ASS   AND   THE   MULE. 

The  Ass. — His  Antiquity. — Value. — Sire. — The  Mule. — In  America. — General 
Washington's  Asses.  —  Breeding  and  Breaking  Mules.  —  Experience  in  Breed- 
ing.— Managing. — Will-power  and  Stubbornness. — Longevity. — Whiter  Care. — The 
Hinny 673-685 

CHAPTER  VII. 

DISEASES  OF  HORSES. 

Catarrhs. — Pneumonia. — Pleurisy. — Influenza. — Pink-eye.  —  Strangles,  or  Dis- 
temper.— Scratches,  or  Cracked  Heels. — Mud  Fever. — Grease-heel. — Eczema. — Sur- 
feit.— Mange,  etc. — Lymphangitis. — Elephantiasis.  —  Conjunctivitis  (sore  eyes). — 
Splints. — Spavin. — Collar-galls. — Saddle-galls. — Poll  Evil. — Fistula  of  the  Withers. — 
Sweeny.  —  Puffs.  —  Bog-spavin.  —  Blood  Spavin.  — Thorough-pin.  —  Curb.  —  Lami- 
nitis. — Navicular  Disease. — Corns. — Punctures. — Bruises  and  Abscesses. — Lampas. — 
Wolf-teeth.  —  Indigestion.  —  Colic. — Worms.  —  Diarrhoea,  or  Scours. — Enteritis. — 
Azoturia.— Blistering.— Bots, 686-737 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

CATTLE — HISTORY   AND  DESCRIPTION   OF  BREEDS. 

Short-horns. — Their  Origin. — Short-horns  in  America. — Characteristics. — The 
Herefords. — The  Aberdeen- Angus,  Galloway,  or  Polled  Cattle. — The  Holstein. — 
Devons. — In  the  United  States. — The  Ayrshires. — In  the  United  States. — Channel 
Island  Cattle :  Jerseys,  Alderneys,  Guernseys. — Spanish,  or  Texan  Cattle,  .  .  738-769 

CHAPTER  IX. 

CATTLE — GENERAL  MANAGEMENT. 

Mistakes  of  Stock-men. — Raising  Calves. — Fall  Calves. — Plan  of  J.  G.  Oxer. — 
Pastures  and  Grazing. — Winter  Care  of  Cattle. — Feeding  for  Beef. — Different  Sys- 
tems of  Feeding. — The  Labor-saving  System. — Stall-feeding.— Feeding  in  general. — 
Grass  and  Grain  combined. — Summer  Feeding, 770-808 

CHAPTER  X. 

CATTLE — SOILING    AND   ENSILAGE. 

What  is  Soiling  ?— Saving  of  Land.— Saving  of  Fences.— Extermination  of 
Weeds. — Saving  of  Food. — Of  Manure. — Greater  Production  of  Milk. — Objections 
to  Soiling. — Who  should  Soil? — Soiling  Crops. — Double-cropping  in  Soiling. — Silos 
and  Ensilage. — How  to  make  a  Silo. — Filling  the  Silo. — Cost  of  Ensilage. — Crops 
for  Ensilage.— Experiments, 809-832 


8  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XI. 

CATTLE — THE     DAIRY. 

The  Butter  Product  of  the  Country. — Selecting  the  Cows  for  a  Dairy. — Test- 
ing.— Breeds. — Gilt-edged  Butter. — Pastures  and  Food. — Full  Feeding  profitable. — 
Milking. — Milking  Tubes. — How  to  manage  the  Milk. — Ice-houses. — Ice-chests. — 
Causes  of  Bad  Flavor  in  Butter. — Skimming. — Churns  and  Churning. — Washing 
and  Working. —  Keeping  Butter.  —  Brining  Butter.  —  Family  Cheese-making. — 
Curing. — The  Factory  System  and  its  Variations. — Milk. — A  good  Cow. — Main- 
tenance.— Handling  Milk. — Modern  Invention. — Lowering  Temperature. — Deep  or 
Shallow  Setting. — The  Centrifugal  Cream-separator. — Its  Superiority. — Results. — 
Associated  Dairying. — The  Stock  Factory. — Private  Factories. — Different  Factory 
Systems. — At  a  Creamery. — A  Full  Stock  Cheese. — The  Curing  Room. — Supply- 
houses. — The  Exclusive  Creamery. — The  general  Plan. — Co-operative  Creameries. — 
A  New  System. — Creamery  Butter. — Sweet  and  Sour  Cream  Butter. — Warnings. — 
Wastes  of  the  Dairy, Pages  833-877 

CHAPTER  XII. 

CATTLE     HERDING. 

Herding  Cattle  in  Kansas. — Personal  Experience. — Hard,  long  Winter. — Dis- 
asters.— Herding. — Selecting  a  Ranch. — Fire-guards.  —  The  Best  Breed.  —  Land 
Titles. — New  Beginners. — Markets. —  Brands.  —  Branding  Chutes  and  Corrals. — 
Castration, 878-897 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

DISEASES     OF     CATTLE. 

Pulsation  and  Temperature.  —  Catarrh.  —  Anaemia.  —  Hollow-horn.  —  Broken 
Horns.  —  Bronchitis.  —  Choking.  —  Hoven.  —  Grain-sick.  —  Diarrhoea.  —  Scours 
(white). — Enteritis. — Parturition. — Abortion. — Inversion  of  the  Uterus. — Parturient 
Apoplexy. — Paralysis. —  Milk  Fever. — Caked  Bag,  or  Garget.  —  Texas  Fever. — 
Mange. — Wounds. — Fractures. — Rheumatism. — Bathing. — Doses  for  Young  Ani- 
mals.— Condition  Powders. — White  Lotion. — Carbolic  Lotion. — Black-leg,  .  .  899-930 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

SWINE  AND  THEIU  MANAGEMENT. 

Hogs  on  the  Range. — Of  no  particular  Breed. — Hogs  in  the  United  States. — 
Who  should  raise  Hogs  ? — Improvement  of  Stock. — Selection  of  Breeding  Stock. — 
Management  of  Swine. — Litters. — Diseases  of  Swine. — Causes  of  Disease. — Prevent- 
ive Measures, 931-947 

CHAPTER  XV. 

SWINE — DESCRIPTION   OF   BREEDS. 

The  Poland-Chinas.— The  Berkshires.— The  Chester  Whites.— The  Essex.— 
Jersey  Reds. — The  Suffolks. — The  Yorkshire.  —  The  Cheshire.  —  Lancashires. — 
Victorias, 948-965 


CONTENTS. 
CHAPTER  XVI. 

SWINE — HOUSING    AND    FATTENING. 

Hog-houses  and  Pens.— Plans  of  Hog-houses.— Portable  Pig-pens.— Swill-bar- 
rels and  Troughs.— Shall  we  cook  Food  for  Hogs?— Green  Food  for  Hogs.— Winter 
care  of  Hogs.— Fattening.— How  much  Pork  from  a  Bushel  of  Corn.— The  Hog  as 
a  Manure-maker, Pages  966-991 

CHAPTER  XVII. 


The  Spanish  Breed,  or  Merino. — Mutton. — On  the  Atlantic  Slope. — The  Sub- 
montane District. — The  Prairie  Section. — The  Far  West. — Australia. — South  Amer- 
ica.— Mexico. — The  Cots  wold  Sheep. — The  Leicester.  —  South-Down.  —  In-and-in 
Breeding. — Lambs.— Time  for. — Feeding. — Tagging.— Lambing.— Lambs  with  the 
Flock. — Winter  care  of  Lambs. — Fattening. — Wool. — Housing  Sheep. — Washing.— 
Shearing. — Wool-press.— Time  for  Shearing. — Drafting  and  Marking. — Ticks. — Mag- 
gots.— Water  for  Sheep. — Salt. — The  Fly. — Paper  Skin. — Scald-foot,  or  Fouls. — 
Scab. — Sheep  Barns. — Plan  of  Sheep-houses  and  Yards. — Mangers. — Sheep-hook,  or 
Shepherd's  Crook. — Sheep  as  Scavengers  of  Foul  Lands. — Dogs, 992-1039 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 


Is  Poultry-keeping  Profitable  ? — Poultry  on  the  Farm. — Poultry -keeping  for 
Women. — Poultry-keeping  for  Boys  and  Girls. — Number  of  Fowls  that  may  be 
kept  profitably. — Capital  required. — Location. — Poultry-houses. — Plans  and  Descrip- 
tions.— Inside  Fixtures. — Yards  and  Fences. — Best  Breeds  for  Special  Purposes. — 
Hamburgs,  Leghorns,  Houdans,  Black  Spanish,  Polish,  Bramahs,  Cochins,  Ply- 
mouth Rocks,  Dominiques,  Wyandottes,  Dorkings. — Improve  the  common  Fowl. — 
Choice  of  a  Cock. — Eggs. — Market  Poultry. — Management  of  Laying  Hens. — Food 
and  Drink. — Best  Market  in  Prices  for  Eggs. — Shipping  Eggs. — Preserving  Eggs. — 
Spring  Chickens. — Eggs  for  Hatching. — Nests  and  Sitting  Hens.  — Egg  Testers. — Ar- 
tificial Incubation. — Care  of  Young  Chicks. — How  to  raise  Incubator  Chicks. — 
Coops  and  Runs  for  Young  Chicks.— Feeding  Pens. — When,  where,  and  how  to 
market  Spring  Chickens. — Fall  and  Winter  Chickens. — Capons. — Turkeys : — Bronze 
Turkeys. — White  Holland. — Setting  the  Eggs. — Feeding  the  Young  Turkeys. — 
Taking  care  of  the  Brood. — Fattening  Turkeys. — Ducks: — Pekins,  Rouens,  and 
Aylesburys. — Cayugas. — Muscovies.  —  Treatment  of  Ducks.  —  Food.  —  Picking. — 
Geese  : — Toulouse,  Embden,  China. — Time  of  Laying. — Hatching. — Feeding  and 
Fattening. — Preparing  Poultry  for  Market. — Laws  of  New  York  and  New  England. — 
Shipping  Poultry  and  Wild  Fowls.— Packing, 1040-1118 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

POULTRY  :    DISEASES    AND   THEIR   REMEDIES. 

Causes. — Prevention. — The  Douglass  Mixture. — Care. — Lice. — Lice  on  Chicks. — 
Chicken  Cholera. — Roup. — Gapes.  —  Chills.  —  Cramps.  —Scaly  Legs. — Leg  Weak- 
ness. —  Rheumatism.  —  Canker.  —  Bumble-foot.  —  Diarrhoea.  —  Frost-bites. —  Crop- 
bound. — Egg-bound. — Eggs  broken  in  Oviduct. — Apoplexy. — Soft-shelled  Eggs. — 
Egg-eating. — Feather-eating. — Moulting. — Obscure  Diseases  of  Chicks,  .  .  1119-1132 


10  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XX. 

BEES   AND   BEE   CULTURE. 

Agricultural  Journals.— Hindrances  to  the  Culture  of  Bees. — Requisites  to  Suc- 
cess.— Natural  History  of  Bees. — The  Queen. — Drones. — Worker  Bee.— Races  of 
Bees. — Products.— Practical  Bee-keeping : — Hives,  Frames,  and  Crates. — Location 
of  Apiary. — Transferring  Bees.  — Feeding. — Queen  Rearing. — Clipping  the  Queen's 
Wings. — Fertile  Workers. — Uniting  Colonies. — Increasing  the  Number  of  Colonies. — - 
Hiving. — To  prevent  Swarming. — How  to  Italianize. — To  Introduce  a  Queen. — 
Shipping  Queens.— The  Good  Candy. — Shipping  Bees. — Extracting  Honey,  and  the 
Extractor. — Handling  Bees.  —  Comb  Foundation. — Save  the  Wax.  —  Marketing 
Honey. — Honey  Plants. — Wintering  Bees. — Spring  Dwindling. — Diseases  of  Bees. — 
Enemies  of  Bees, Pages  1133-1170 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

THE   CHEMISTRY   OF   FOODS   AND   FEEDING 

Composition  of  the  Animal  Body. — Foods. — Use  of  Food. — Use  of  Different 
Food  Constituents.  —  Different  Foods.  —  Digestibility  of  Foods.  —  Albuminoid 
Ratio. — Influence  of  Water  in  Foods. — Feeding. — Reducing  the  Food  of  Support. — 
Increasing  the  Amount  of  Food  Supplied. — Proper  Adjustment  of  Food. — Ratio 
for  Young  Animals. — Ratio  for  Milk.  —Fattening  Animals. — Feeding  as  influenced 
by  Age.— Profitable  Feeding, 1171-1192 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

THE  BARN  AND  BARN- YARD. 

Careful  Thought  and  Planning  necessary. — Plan  for  a  Tasty  and  Convenient 
Barn. — A  Bank  Barn. — Cheap  Barn  and  Barracks. — Lumber  Required. — Cost. — 
Approaches. — Sheds  and  Racks. — Rack  for  Stacking. — The  Barn-yard. — Manure 
Ditch.— Cow-stable.— Slatted  Floor.— Stanchions, 1193-1202 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 
AGRICULTURAL  APHORISMS, 1203-1211 

Appendix. — Principal  Cereals  in  the  U.  S. — Number  of  Live-stock  in  the  United 
States. — Total  Cotton  Production,  and  average  Product  per  acre. — Highest  and 
Lowest  price  of  Cotton  for  42  years. — Tobacco  Production  in  all  the  States. — State- 
ment of  the  Tobacco  Crop  of  the  United  States. — Census  of  the  United  States. — 
Acreage  and  Value  of  Crops  of  Principal  Cereals  in  the  United  States. — Average 
Cash  Value  of  Farm  Crops. — Sugar  Product  of  Louisiana  for  48  years. — Area  of  the 
States  and  Territories  of  the  United  States. — Relative  Number  of  Plants  or  Hills  to 
an  Acre. — Area  occupied  by  the  Principal  Crops  of  the  United  States. — Duration 
of  Animal  Life. — Weight  of  a  Bushel  of  Produce. — Interest  Laws  of  the  United 
States. — Compound  Interest  Table. — Classification  of  Soils. — Comparison  of  Meas- 
ures of  Capacity. — Measures  of  an  Acre  Plot.--  -Square  Feet  and  Feet  Square  in 
Fractions  of  an  Acre. — To  Measure  Cisterns  and  Casks. — To  Measure  Land. — Meas- 
urement of  Hay.— To  Measure  Corn. — Measurement  of  Wood  and  Lumber. — Quan- 
tity of  Seed  or  Plants  required  per  Acre, 1213-1225 

INDEX, 1227-1244 


BY  HON.  NORMAN  J.  COLMAN, 

ST.  LOUIS,  MO. 


The  sceptered  king  who  sits  in  state, 

Or  hero  in  red  battle's  shock, 
Is  not  so  worthy,  not  so  great 

As  he  who  plows  and  keeps  the  flock. 

THE  first  man  was  a  farmer,  or  at  least  a  gardener.  The  Adam 
was  an  earth-man — for  such  is  the  meaning  of  the  word.  If 
we  may  trust  the  legend  of  Genesis  he  began  his  career  in  an 
orchard.  The  first  awakening  of  his  consciousness  and  the  first  pleas- 
urable excitement  of  his  senses  were  under  the  fruit-bearing  trees, 
planted  by  those  ancient  rivers  of  water.  The  first  toil  to  which  his 
bodily  powers  were  given  related  to  the  earth  and  its  natural  products. 
The  hunter,  with  his  bloody  vocation,  came  afterwards ;  and  then  the 
merchant  with  his  ships.  It  must  ever  remain  an  interesting  fact  that 
in  the  ages  most  remote  of  human  history,  in  an  epoch  long  before  the 
Greek  and  Latin  civilizations  were  planted  in  Southern  Europe,  even 
before  the  hymns  of  the  Vedas  had  been  chanted  in  the  valley  of  the 
Indus,  far  back  in  the  old  Aryan  homestead  of  primitive  mankind,  the 
pursuits  of  our  fathers  were  those  of  the  field,  the  orchard,  and  the 
garden.  The  smell  of  the  new-broken  soil,  grateful  and  intoxicating 
as  the  sea  breezes  of  the  Canaries,  filled  the  nostrils  of  that  undiseased 
race  of  men  whose  descendants  have  civilized  the  world.  Agriculture, 
and  not  the  chase  or  war,  was  the  earliest, -as  well  as  the  noblest,  voca- 
tion of  those  ancient  tribes  from  which  the  great  races  have  derived 
their  strength  and  renown.  The  word  plow  is  the  same  in  all  the  pow- 
erful languages  sprung  from  the  ancient  and  venerable  fountain  of 
Aryan  speech ;  and  the  word  art  is  derived  from  the  old  root  ar,  signi- 
fying "to  stir  the  soil." 

Many  other  pleasing  trains  of  thought  arise  in  the  mind  of  him 
who  reflects  on  the  dignity  and  poetry  of  that  great  fundamental  calling 
from  which  all  other  callings  are  but  derivatives.  Agriculture  is  a  pur- 
suit well  calculated  to  cool  and  subdue  the  emotions  and  passions  of 
men  long  heated  in  the  struggling  marts  of  commerce  and  the  red  fur- 
naces of  war. 

11 


12  INTRODUCTION. 

It  seems  that  some  such  pursuit  has  been  necessary  in  the  economy 
of  civilization  to  check  the  ferocity  of  unscrupulous  progress  and  to 
prevent  the  excited  juices  of  development  from  bursting  the  rind  of 
nature.  In  the  quiet  of  the  fields  man  finds  rest.  His  exhausted 
powers  revive  as  he  directs  with  the  hand  of  intelligence  the  beneficent 
forces  of  the  natural  world.  In  such  a  vocation  he  finds  a  safe  refuge 
from  the  clamor  and  jealousy  of  his  fellow-men,  and  a  hiding-place 
from  the  haunting  shadow  of  himself. 

It  can  not  be  denied  that  the  avocations  of  the  agricultural  life  are, 
per  se,  the  most  pleasant  which  men  have  ever  followed.  Such  a  call- 
ing brings  into  healthful  exercise  both  mind  and  body.  It  neither 
racks  the  one  nor  wrecks  the  other.  Even  to  old  age  something  of  the 
freshness  of  youth  survives  in  him  whose  powers  have  been  devoted  to 
the  affectionate  care  of  mother  earth  and  the  protection  and  increase 
of  the  flocks.  To  such  a  man  the  aching  bones,  the  stiffened  joints, 
the  distorted  form,  and  the  hungry  soul  are  still  indefinitely  postponed. 
The  author  of  the  twelfth  chapter  of  Ecclesiastes  did  not  select  his 
famous  type  of  decrepitude  from  a  farm-house.  The  aged  father  is 
likely  to  be  a  philanthropist.  Under  the  influence  and  reactions  of  his 
vocation  he  hides  his  face  in  the  bosom  of  nature  and  learns  to  love 
the  order  of  the  world ;  he  trusts  causation,  and  believes  in  law. 

In  our  age,  overheated,  as  it  is,  with  excitement  and  frenzied  with 
speculation,  it  is  delightful  to  turn  from  the  conscienceless  schemes 
of  trade  and  the  mad  struggle  for  riches  to  the  green  fields  and  pasture 
lands,  and  to  see  once  more  the  country  home  rising  over  the  garden 
croft  and  blossoming  orchard.  In  the  presence  of  such  a  scene  the 
old-time  virtues  revive,  and  the  mind  of  man,  reacting  from  its  passions, 
enters  into  quick  and  generous  communion  with  the  temperate  spirit 
•of  nature. 

It  is  simply  a  truism  that,  in  a  generation  like  ours,  running  into 
every  excess  by  the  cultivation  of  secondary  and  the  neglect  of  pri- 
mary industries,  we  should  hail  with  delight  every  agency  and  circum- 
stance which  is  calculated  to  check  the  evil  tendency  of  the  epoch. 
If  a  great  man  appears — great  by  force  of  original  genius  and  great 
by  his  adherence  to  those  fundamental  callings  upon  which  the  real 
progress  of  the  world  depends — we  should  greet  him  with  hearty 
acclaim  and  cordial  sympathy.  Especially  when  a  valuable  book — one 
well  fitted  by  its  expositions  and  sound  spirit  to  encourage  the  virtues 
of  industrial  life  and  to  discourage  its  vices — is  offered  to  the  public, 
we  should  give  to  such  a  work  a  hearty  greeting  and  cordial  indorse- 
ment before  the  people. 


INTRODUCTION.  1& 

It  has  been  the  misfortune  of  the  agricultural  life  that  its  literature 
has  not,  as  a  rule,  been  worthy  of  the  theme.  For  some  reason,  not 
easy  to  discover,  the  works  on  agriculture  and  the  raising  of  stock 
have  been  pitched  in  so  low  a  key,  and  executed  with  so  little  regard 
to  taste  and  refinement,  that  the  reader  has  been  injured  rather  thau 
improved,  misled  rather  than  taught,  by  the  work  which  he  has 
perused.  For  this  reason  it  is  a  great  relief  to  turn  to  a  really  meri- 
torious and  comprehensive  treatise  on  the  interests  peculiar  to  the 
farming  life.  Without  intending  to  indulge  in  invidious  compari- 
sons it  is  safe  and  proper  to  say  that  the  one  great  work  of  our  day, 
conforming  to  the  high  standard  here  indicated,  is  "The  People's  Farm 
and  Stock  Cyclopedia,"  by  the  distinguished  Waldo  F.  Brown,  of 
Ohio.  Certain  it  is,  that  wherever  there  is  a  discerning  public,  this 
work  is  destined  to  a  hearty  and  universal  appreciation.  The  author 
has  produced,  indeed,  the  only  standard  book  which  has  yet  appeared 
on  those  most  important  topics,  the  management  of  the  farm  and  the 
rearing  of  stock. 

Time  would  fail,  in  this  brief  introduction,  to  summarize  all  or  even 
the  larger  part  of  the  merits  which  may  be  justly  claimed  for  "The 
People's  Farm  and  Stock  Cyclopedia."  The  author  and  the  publishers 
alike  may  well  be  complimented  for  the  successful  accomplishment  of  a 
work  which  can  but  place  the  whole  farming  world  under  lasting  obli- 
gations of  gratitude. 

It  is  the  first  peculiarity  of  the  work  in  question  that  it  is  what  the 
name  implies,  a  true,  universal  dictionary  of  knowledge  as  it  relates  to 
all  subjects  covered  by  the  title.  Though  prepared  under  the  chief 
editorial  direction  of  Waldo  F.  Brown,  it  contains  the  best  efforts 
of  no  fewer  than  ten  additional  contributors,  every  one  of  whom  is  a 
specialist  in  that  department  of  the  work  which  he  has  prepared.  The 
true  plan  has  been  followed,  so  that  the  public  may  now  obtain  in  this 
single  volume  the  very  best  results  of  the  study  and  observation  of  men- 
who  have  been  placed  in  such  relations  as  to  make  their  views  a  finality 
on  nearly  every  topic  referred  to  in  the  volume. 

The  present  work  is  the  perfected  result  of  the  study  and  devotion 
of  one  who  has  been  a  farmer  all  his  life.  It  is  well  known  that 
many  books  on  agriculture  and  stock  raising  have  been  written  and 
foisted  upon  the  public  by  men  who  have  gathered  their  meager  and 
imperfect  information  at  second  hand,  and  whose  views  on  the  practical 
work  of  farming  have  been,  for  this  reason,  utterly  worthless.  Such 
authors  are  the  quacks  and  charlatans  of  agriculture,  and  their  works 
are  to  be  classified  with  pernicious  pamphlets  and  flashy  advertisements 


14  INTRODUCTION. 

of  patent  nostrums.  Waldo  F.  Brown,  the  author  of  "  The  People's 
Farm  and  Stock  Cyclopedia,"  has  been  a  farmer  for  more  than  forty  years, 
and  his  great  work  is  the  matured  fruit  of  observation  and  experience 
extending  to  every  topic  relative  to  the  care  of  the  home,  the  garden, 
the  orchard,  and  the  field.  He  writes  of  what  he  knows,  and  his  coun- 
sels are  those  of  an  old  and  tried  friend  giving  advice  to  the  tyro  of 
the  farm.  He  takes  the  hand  of  the  inexperienced,  and  says  to 
him,  "This  is  the  way  to  success."  The  same  is  true  of  all  those  who 
have  assisted  the  author  in  the  preparation  of  the  work.  Every  one 
of  them  has  added  to  his  theoretical  knowledge  the  higher  wisdom 
ot  experience. 

He  who  peruses  the  following  pages  will  be  strikingly  impressed 
with  the  comprehensiveness  of  the  work.  In  respect  to  its  scope,  the 
variety  of  subjects  treated,  and  the  care  with  which  the  topics  are  dis- 
cussed, the  book  is  without  a  rival.  Many  agricultural  works  have  been 
published  so  partial  and  incomplete  in  character  as  to  be  practically 
valueless.  It  has  remained  for  the  author  of  "  The  People's  Farm  and 
Stock  Cyclopedia"  to  traverse  all  the  fields  of  interest  and  to  elucidate 
every  difficult  question  relative  to  the  successful  management  and 
improvement  of  the  farm.  He  has  not  left  unnoticed  any  single  prac- 
tical point  relating  to  the  success  of  the  farmer.  The  beginner  in  agri- 
culture may  be  sure  of  finding  in  this  one  volume  every  topic  discussed 
to  which  his  attention  will  be  practically  called  in  a  whole  lifetime  on 
the  farm. 

Another  prominent  feature  of  "The  People's  Farm  and  Stock 
Cyclopedia "  is  the  great  prominence  given  in  the  work  to  the  mat- 
ter of  breeding  and  raising  stock.  In  this  respect  the  treatise  is 
exhaustive.  All  kinds  of  domestic  animals,  from  cattle  and  horses  to 
poultry  and  bees,  have  received  a  faithful  consideration  at  the  hands 
of  the  authors.  It  is  well  known  that  many  works  on  farming  have 
stopped  short  with  the  discussion  of  a  few  of  the  more  obvious  and 
easy  topics  of  agriculture  while  the  more  difficult  and  important  mat- 
ter of  the  breeding  and  rearing  of  animals  has  been  neglected.  This 
defect  in  previous  publications  has  been  completely  remedied  in  "  The 
People's  Farm  and  Stock  Cyclopedia."  Every  question  of  informa- 
tion and  management  of  interest  to  the  live  stock  grower  has  been 
handled  in  a  way  so  masterly  and  admirable  as  to  make  the  present 
work  incomparably  superior  to  any  of  its  predecessors. 

It  is,  however,  in  the  treatment  ol  specialties  that  the  following 
pages  will  be  found  of  pre-eminent  value.  This  great  merit  has  been 
secured  in  the  work  by  extending  the  list  of  contributors  so  as  to 


INTRODUCTION.  15 

include  the  very  best  talent  of  the  country.  In  the  preparation  of  this 
Cyclopedia  the  editor-in-chief  has  been  assisted  by  the  following  brill- 
iant corps  of  special  contributors :  L.  N.  Bonham,  agricultural  editor 
of  the  Cincinnati  Commercial;  R.  S.  Thompson,  author  of  "Science  in 
Farming;"  R.  W.  Stewart,  D.  V.  S.,  the  popular  veterinary  surgeon; 
Henry  Talcott,  president  of  the  Ashtabula  County  (Ohio)  Sorghum 
Association ;  John  G.  Oxer,  the  successful  cattle  breeder ;  A.  J.  Cook, 
professor  in  the  Michigan  State  Agricultural  College ;  "  Fanny  Field," 
the  practical  and  successful  poultry  raiser  and  writer;  John  Gould, 
agricultural  editor  of  the  Cleveland  Herald  ;  Edwin  W.  Brown,  practi- 
cal cattle  breeder  and  experienced  herder ;  Stephen  Powers,  author  of 
" Sheep  Experience  Papers;"  John  M.  Stahl,  the  noted  agricultural 
writer  and  author  of  "Agricultural  Aphorisms,"  etc.  These  names  are 
of  themselves  a  sufficient  guarantee  of  the  value  and  originality  of  the 
chapters  which  they  have  respectively  contributed.  It  would  seem  that 
they  have  omitted  no  subject  of  importance.  Of  the  thousand  inter- 
ests which  spring  up  on  the  farm,  and  which  present  themselves  with 
peculiar  attractiveness  to  specialists,  not  one  has  been  neglected.  Take, 
for  instance,  the  poultry  raiser.  To  him  "  The  People's  Farm  and 
Stock  Cyclopedia"  is  what  a  dictionary  is  to  an  author.  "  Fanny  Field" 
is,  perhaps,  the  best  authority  on  the  breeding  and  rearing  of  poultry  in 
America,  and  her  practical  success  has,  for  years,  attested  her  preemi- 
nence in  her  special  work.  So,  also,  in  the  matter  of  raising  bees, 
Professor  Cook  has  long  been  regarded  as  the  pioneer  philosopher  of  the 
apiary.  His  views  are  held  in  the  highest  esteem  by  every  bee  culturist 
in  the  country.  Mr.  L.  N.  Bonham  and  Dr.  Stewart,  to  whose  able 
pens  the  public  is  already  greatly  indebted,  have  given  in  the  chap- 
ters on  the  breeding  and  treatment  of  the  horse  all  that  science  and 
experience  have  contributed  to  the  care  and  improvement  of  that  noble 
animal.  In  the  department  of  agricultural  chemistry — a  science  hith- 
erto but  little  understood — Mr.  R.  S.  Thompson  has  given  the  results 
of  the  latest  research,  and  made  plain  to  every  intelligent  reader  much 
which  has  been  to  him  a  mystery,  but  which  he  needs  to  understand  to 
enable  him  to  farm  intelligently  and  profitably.  So,  in  every  other 
chapter  of  the  work  devoted  to  the  special  interests  of  the  farm,  the 
Cyclopedia  is  infinitely  superior  to  all  rival  publications. 

Still  another  feature  of  the  following  pages  will  be  found  to  merit 
the  highest  praise.  This  is  the  literary  style  of  the  work.  The  gen- 
eral character  of  the  Cyclopedia  is  such  as  to  add  dignity  to  the  sub- 
ject and  improve  the  tastes  of  those  who  read  it.  In  this  respect  the 
work  stands  alone.  Nearly  all  the  books  hitherto  given  to  the  public 


16  INTRODUCTION. 

on  the  subject  of  our  great  farming  industries  have  been  conceived  and 
executed  in  so  slovenly  and  inelegant  style  as  to  offend  true  taste,  and 
to  give  to  farmers'  sons  and  daughters  a  dislike  for  the  pursuits  of 
their  fathers.  It  has  been  the  constant  aim  of  the  authors  and  pub- 
lishers of  "The  People's  Farm  and  Stock  Cyclopedia"  to  rise  from  this 
low  level,  and  to  present  to  the  farming  public  of  America  one  book 
which  does  honor  to  the  most  noble  of  all  the  professions.  It  is  con- 
fidently believed  that  discerning  readers,  everywhere,  will  be  impressed 
with  the  great  literary  superiority  of  "  The  People's  Farm  and  Stock 
Cyclopedia"  to  all  other  works  of  the  kind.  The  book,  as  a  book,  is 
so  elegant  and  tasteful  that  it  will  occupy  a  place  on  the  parlor  table 
of  the  wealthy  farmer  as  well  as  on  the  humble  shelf  of  his  less  pros- 
perous neighbor. 

Any  review  of  "The  People's  Farm  and  Stock  Cyclopedia"  would 
be  inadequate  which  failed  to  note  the  healthy  moral  tone  of  the 
book.  This  is  a  quality  which  has  been  altogether  too  much  neg- 
lected by  the  purchasers  of  matter  for  the  library.  No  one  can  afford, 
in  making  selection  of  a  book,  to  pass  over  that  which  may  be  appro- 
priately called  the  spirit  of  the  work.  "  The  People's  Farm  and  Stock 
Cyclopedia"  will  be  found  as  invigorating  in  its  tone  as  it  is  accurate 
in  statement,  elegant  in  style,  and  superb  in  illustrations.  It  is 
emphatically  an  honest  book.  True  enough  it  teaches  how  to  get  rich, 
but  does  not  teach  dishonesty  and  fraud.  Whoever  would  see  in  his 
children  the  realization  of  the  Scriptural  ideal,  "That  our  sons  may 
be  as  plants  grown  up  in  their  youth ;  that  our  daughters  may  be  as 
corner-stones  polished  after  the  similitude  of  a  palace,"  must  sur- 
round them  with  healthful  books,  so  that  the  principles  which  they 
absorb  may  be  sound  and  virtuous.  Such  a  work  is  here  presented  and 
dedicated  to  the  farmers  of  America. 

N.  J.  C. 
ST.  Louis,  Mo., 

January  1st,  188i. 


THE  PEOPLE'S    • 

FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


PART  I.-THE  FARM. 


I. 

KARNI    MANAGEMENT. 

WE  often  see  two  farmers  living  side  by  side,  whose  land 
is  very  similar,  and  who  began  life  with  equal  chances, 
one  of  whom  is  surrounded  with  comforts  and  evidences  of 
thrift,  and  who  loves  his  calling,  while  the  other  is  surrounded 
with  evidences  of  failure,  and  is  constantly  complaining  of  the 
hardness  of  a  farmer's  lot.  It  is  not  always  the  case  that  the 
successful  farmer  is  the  more  intelligent  man,  for  often  men  of 
good  minds,  industrious  habits,  and  more  than  average  intelli- 
gence fail  as  farmers ;  and  the  difference  between  the  two,  a  dif- 
ference which  often  involves  the  happiness  of  a  life-time,  consists 
not  in  intelligence,  but  management. 

Want  of  success  in  farming  is  often  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
farmer  does  not  appreciate  the  dignity  of  his  calling.  He  looks 
upon  farming  as  a  simple  art,  requiring  but  little  education  or 
thought,  and  dependent  more  upon  muscle  than  brain,  and  there- 
fore fails  to  study  it  and  wisely  plan  for  the  future.  While 
Divine  Providence  has  wisely  ordered  that  the  cultivation  of 
the  soil  shall  be  a  simple  art,  so  that  even  the  uneducated  and 
ignorant  may  gain  thereby  a  living,  it  is  also  true  that  it  is 
a  profound  science,  sufficient  to  call  into  use  the  best  mental 
powers  of  the  wisest  man.  The  young  farmer  who  understands 

2  (17) 


18  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AKD-STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

this  will  stand  a,  better  chance  of-  success  than  he  who  looks 
upon  it  as  an '  occupation  tut-rorie  step  above  that  of  a  day- 
laborer/ 

In  many  instances  the  first  thing  calling  for  the  exercise  of 
thought  and  judgment  is 

The  Selection  of  the  Farm. — One  should  not  be  too 
hasty  in  deciding  a  question  of  so  great  importance  as  this, 
for  it  is  far  better  in  a  majority  of  cases  that  the  young 
farmer  should  make  a  permanent  selection.  It  is  one  of  the 
evils  of  farm  life  in  America  that  so  many  of  our  farmers 
are  ready  to  sell  out  at  the  first  good  offer,  and  that  so  few 
have  lived  on  their  farms  long  enough  to  become  attached  to 
them.  If,  then,  the  farmer  is  locating  for  life,  it  becomes  a 
matter  of  serious  importance  that  he  should  study  carefully 
every  detail,  and  act  understandingly  in  the  matter.  Let  us 
look  at  some  of  the  considerations  which  should  influence  his 
decision  in  this  important  matter.  First  the  farm  must  be  suited 
to  his  means.  Many  farmers,  to-day,  are  tired  of  their  calling, 
discouraged  in  their  efforts  to  improve,  and  failing  to  farm  at 
a  profit,  from  the  fact  that  they  are  in  debt.  It  is  the  bane  of 
farm  life.  I  do  not,  by  any  means,  say  that  the  farmer  should 
never  incur  debt  in  buying  a  farm,  for  the  majority  of  young 
farmers  must  do  this,  but  it  should  be  only  after  the  most  care- 
ful thought  and  study.  It  is  often  wiser  to  buy  a  smaller  farm 
than  to  run  deeply  in  debt  for  a  larger  one.  The  question  of 
the  size  of  the*  farm  should  be  determined  by  the  means  of  the 
farmer,  the  particular  branch  of  farming  he  intends  to  follow, 
and  his  business  capacity.  Both  large  and  small  farms  have 
their  advantages.  On  a  large  farm  it  will  pay  to  invest  in  more 
labor-saving  machinery,  and  this  can  be  kept  more  fully  em- 
ployed. More  help  can  be  kept  permanently,  and  this  will 
enable  the  farmer  to  concentrate  the  labor  on  some  particular 
work  in  an  emergency.  On  a  large  farm  there  is  a  better  op- 
portunity for  rotation  of  crops  and  diversified  farming,  and  more 
stock  can  be  kept,  which  will,  under  good  management,  not  only 
keep  the  farm  more  fertile,  but  also  give  an  equal  income  with 
less  labor  than  where  most  of  the  soil  must  be  cultivated.  On 


GENERAL  FARM  MANAGEMENT.  19 

a  large  farm  the  proportion  of  fencing  to  the  number  of  acres 
may  be  greatly  reduced,  and  thus  one  heavy  item  of  investment 
and  expense  be  materially  lessened.  It  must  be  remembered, 
however,  that  to  conduct  successfully  a  large  farm,  requires 
executive  ability  and  business  habits,  and  that  many  men  can 
successfully  carry  on  a  small  farm  who  would  fail  on  a  large  one. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  many  advantages  connected 
with  small  farms.  They  are  usually  cultivated  by  their  owners, 
and  this  gives  a  more  densely  settled  neighborhood  and  better 
improvements.  The  man  on  the  small  farm  can  largely  dispense 
with  hired  help,  and  save  his  wife  the  extra  labor  which  their 
board  and  lodging  brings  upon  her,  often  when  she  is  already 
overburdened  with  the  care  of  little  children.  The  man  on  the 
small  farm  can  usually  control  his  expenses  so  that  a  failure 
of  crops  will  not  be  so  disastrous  to  him  as  to  the  man  with  a 
large  farm.  As  a  rule,  small  farms  are  more  thoroughly  culti- 
vated, and  produce  more,  in  proportion  to  their  size,  than  larger 
ones,  and  this  means  larger  yields  per  acre  and  less  cost  per 
bushel. 

Adaptation  of  Farm  to  Individual  is  another  important 
consideration.  Tastes  differ  in  farming  as  well  as  in  other  mat- 
ters, and  while  one  man  prefers  to  make  a  specialty  of  sheep, 
another  will  prefer  cattle  or  hogs.  One  man  delights  in  "high 
farming,"  and  will  succeed  best  as  a  "truck  farmer,"  cultivating 
a  few  acres  with  a  large  amount  of  labor  and  manure,  while 
another  has  no  taste  for  this  method,  but  wants  to  follow  the 
regular  order  of  large  breadths  of  staple  crops.  Now,  each  man 
will  succeed  best  in  that  which  he  likes  best,  and  should  consult 
his  taste  in  purchasing  a  farm.  If  he  wishes  to  make  a  specialty 
of  sheep,  a  high,  rolling  farm  will  be  best  for  him.  If  hogs,  he 
will  require  rich  bottom  lands  or  loamy  upland.  If  he  wishes 
to  follow  truck  farming,  he  must  locate  near  a  village  or  .city 
where  labor  is  abundant  and  he  can  obtain  manure  and  find  a 
market  for  his  products,  and  he  must  have  warm,  sheltered  land, 
or  he  can  not  get  his  vegetables  into  market  early  and  realize  the 
best  prices.  Thousands  of  farmers  have  worked  at  a  disadvan- 
tage all  their  lives  simply  because  they  did  not  consider  this 


20  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

matter  of  personal  taste  and  adaptation  of  farm  to  the  particular 
line  of  farming  they  wished  to  follow,  and  therefore  located  un- 
wisely. Still  another  point  which  should  receive  careful  consid- 
eration in  selecting  a  farm  is  the 

Condition  of  Soil  and  Improvements. — Shall  he  pur- 
chase a  run-down  farm  and  improve  it,  or  one  highly  fertile  and 
with  buildings,  fences,  etc.,  in  good  repair?  Here  is  a  matter 
requiring  the  exercise  of  good  judgment  and  thorough  investiga- 
tion. My  own  experience  teaches  that  a  poor,  run-down  farm 
may  often  be  bought  so  low  that  it  will  pay  to  make  the  neces- 
sary improvement  in  soil  and  buildings. 

If  the  farm  offered  has  the  reputation  of  being  unproductive, 
examine  carefully  the  causes.  If  the  land  is  rolling  and  its 
want  of  productiveness  comes  from  the  soil  having  been  washed 
away,  or  if  the  soil  is  thin  and  leachy,  do  not  for  a  moment  think 
of  settling  down  for  life  upon  it.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  you 
find  a  naturally  strong,  retentive  soil,  especially  a  clay  on  lime- 
stone foundation,  which  has  been  exhausted  by  cropping  without 
rotation  or  manuring,  or  if  the  farm  is  cold  and  unproductive 
from  the  want  of  drainage,  and  there  is  sufficient  fall  to  thor- 
oughly drain  it,  the  question  becomes  simply  one  of  price,  and 
a  farm  of  this  kind  can  often  be  bought  so  cheaply  that  it  will 
prove  a  profitable  investment.  The  same  is  true  of  improve- 
ments, and  while,  as  a  rule,  it  will  cost  more  to  put  up  new 
buildings  than  to  buy  them,  it  is  not  always  so,  and  new  build- 
ings will  cost  nothing  for  repairs  for  many  years,  and  may  be 
planned  and  arranged  to  suit  your  taste.  To  take  an  unpro- 
ductive farm  with  buildings  dilapidated  and  make  it  productive 
and  sightly,  is  a  work  which  pays  in  the  pleasure  it  affords,  and 
which  should  entitle  one  to  the  gratitude  of  the  community. 

As  health  of  body  is  essential  to  comfort  in  life  and  to  the 
discharge  of  our  duty,  the  matter  of  the  healthfullness  of  the 
locality  should  be  carefully  looked  into.  Fertility  of  soil  is  de- 
sirable, but  there  are  many  localities  where  the  very  richness  of 
the  soil  gives  proof  of  malaria,  and  to  settle  on  these  lands  is 
to  invite  fever  and  to  endanger  the  life  of  your  loved  ones. 
Even  in  healthy  localities  there  are  often  local  causes  of  dis- 


GENERAL  FARM  MANAGEMENT.  21 

ease,  and  the  situation  of  the  buildings  or  the  location  of  wells, 
drains,  or  barnyard  may  be  such  as  to  cause  contamination  of  the 
air  or  water,  and  bring  disease. 

The  Water  Supply. — On  every  farm  there  should  be  an 
unfailing  supply  of  pure  water,  convenient  to  house  and  barn. 
I  would  not  purchase  a  farm  that  was  deficient  in  this  respect.. 
In  some  of  the  finest  farming  lands  with  which  I  am  acquainted 
there  is  nearly  every  year  a  surplus  and  a  famine  of  water.  In 
the  Winter  and  early  Spring  the  wells  are  flooded,  and  the  water 
stands  at  the  surface,  while  in  the  drought  of  Summer  they  fail 
entirely,  and  the  supply  for  both  man  and  beast  is  precarious  and 
unwholesome.  In  some  localities  this  defect  can  be  remedied 
by  constructing  cisterns,  but  where  the  supply  is  deficient  and 
there  are  serious  natural  obstacles  in  the  way  of  overcoming  this 
difficulty,  it  will  be  well  to  think  twice  before  locating. 

Roads  and  Convenience  to  Market  should  receive  care- 
ful consideration.  The  farmer  who  must  wagon  his  crop  for 
many  miles  over  mud  roads  to  reach  a  market,  and  who  is  often 
mud-bound  for  months  in  an  open  Winter,  is  living  at  a  decided 
disadvantage.  The  cost  of  marketing  grain  from  a  farm  on  a 
good  turnpike  within  two  or  three  miles  of  a  railroad  station  is 
seldom  more  than  one  or  two  cents  a  bushel,  but  if  ten  miles  of 
hilly  and  muddy  roads  intervene  between  the  farm  and  the  mar- 
ket, this  cost  will  be  doubled  or  even  quadrupled.  Convenience 
to  post-office,  store,  blacksmith  shop,  schools,  and  churches  will 
add  largely  to  the  value  of  the  farm  and  the  comfort  of  the  far- 
mer and  his  family. 

In  going  to  a  new  locality,  one  can  not  be  too  careful  in  his 
inquiries  as  to  the  character  of  the  community.  There  are  neigh- 
borhoods entirely  destitute  of  public  spirit.  The  citizens  are  con- 
tent to  drag  through  the  mud  rather  than  to  make  good  roads, 
although  plenty  of  material  lies  near  at  hand.  They  allow  their 
stock  to  roam  at  large  and  trespass  upon  their  neighbors,  and 
would  quarrel  with  any  one  who  would  try  to  enforce  the  law 
against  it.  Again  there  are  neighborhoods  where  there  is  a 
spirit  of  infidelity  or  immorality  prevailing,  where  the  Sabbath 
is  disregarded  and  profanity  openly  indulged  in.  The  wise  par- 


22  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

ent  will  find  out  the  spirit  of  a  community  before  taking  his 
family  to  live  in  it,  as  no  pecuniary  gain  can  compensate  for 
moral  loss.  "  Lot  pitched  his  tent  toward  Sodom,"  attracted  by 
a  rich  soil,  but  the  wickedness  of  the  inhabitants  involved  him 
in  ruin. 

Choice  of  Farm  Products. — The  farm  being  selected,  the 
next  question  to  settle  is  what  particular  line  of  farming  shall 
be  followed,  and  as  it  is  important  to  start  right,  you  should 
give  this  matter  careful  study.  Two  adjoining  farms  often  call 
for  an  entirely  different  system.  For  example,  along  the  water- 
courses there  are  usually  wide  bottoms,  and  here  we  have  one  or 
more  tiers  of  farms  which  are  admirably  adapted  to  hogs.  The 
soil  is  warm  and  rich,  and  will  bear  almost  continuous  cropping 
in  corn,  and  often  it  is  so  situated  that  the  rains,  which  would 
greatly  damage  rolling  lands,  bring  rich  sediment  on  to  these 
fields  and  increase  their  fertility.  On  these  farms  a  rotation 
which  includes  clover  once  in  four  years  will  keep  the  land  at 
a  maximum  fertility.  A  short  distance  further  back  from  the 
stream  will  be  found  a  row  of  farms  located  on  the  hill  side. 
The  land  often  slopes  quite  rapidly,  and  is  broken  by  ravines. 
To  follow  a  system  of  corn  cropping  on  these  farms  is  ruinous, 
as  it  soon  results  in  the  washing  away  of  the  soil,  and  reduces 
the  farms  to  sterility.  The  only  system  on  these  farms  that 
will  pay  in  the  long  run  is  to  make  grass  a  principal  crop. 
These  broken  farms  are  often  the  best  fruit  lands  in  the  vicin- 
ity, and  the  farmers  in  the  bottoms  can  better  afford  to  buy  their 
fruit  from  their  hill-side  neighbors  than  to  grow  it  on  their  richer 
lands. 

It  is  not  at  all  certain,  because  your  neighbor  whose  farm 
joins  your  own  has  found  a  certain  crop  profitable,  that  you 
will  do  so,  for  the  conditions  of  the  soil  or  the  capacity  of  the 
individual  may  vary  so  as  to  make  a  system  that  is  profitable 
on  one  farm  unprofitable  on  an  adjoining  one.  It  would  seem 
as  though  the  above  fact  was  so  obvious  that  it  would  be  unnec- 
essary to  even  allude  to  it,  but  observation  will  soon  show  that 
many  farmers  fail  in  this  particular.  Side-hill  farms  are  cropped 
and  cultivated  until  they  will  not  even  produce  grass;  orchards 


GENERAL  FARM  MANAGEMENT.  23 

are  planted  on  low,  rich  land,  where  they  are  almost  sure  to  be 
winter-killed,  and  formers  are  continually  changing  and  shifting 
their  plans  arid  varying  their  products,  in  hopes  of  increasing 
their  profits,  without  any  definite  plan  or  purpose  in  view. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  farmer  take  into  con- 
sideration all  the  circumstances  connected  with  his  farm  and  its 
surroundings,  soil,  climate,  market,  location,  and  roads,  and  then 
fix  upon  a  settled  plan  and  adhere  to  it.  Do  not  forget  that  the 
farmer  who  has  any  product  to  sell  every  year  is  sure  to  hit 
the  high  prices  as  well  as  the  low,  while  the  one  who  is  contin- 
ually changing  is  usually  tempted  to  do  so  when  some  product 
is  high,  and  oftener  than  otherwise  by  the  time  he  has  a  crop 
ready  for  market  the  reaction  has  come,  and  prices  are  at  the 
bottom.  I  feel  that  this  is  a  matter  of  such  importance  as  to 
justify  my  saying  a  good  deal  about  it,  for  there  is  a  constant 
temptation  to  the  farmer  to  change  his  plans,  and  unless  he  has 
wisely  studied  the  matter  and  determined  what  crops  he  will 
grow  he  is  liable  to  blunder.  I  have  often  seen  farmers  when 
sheep  and  wool  commanded  the  highest  prices  sell  off  their  other 
stock  and  buy  sheep  at  twice  their  real  value,  and  by  the  time 
they  were  able  to  realize  from  them  the  price  was  below  the  cost 
of  production.  Occasionally  there  comes  a  season  when  broom 
corn  brush  brings  from  two  hundred  dollars  to  three  hundred 
dollars  a  ton,  and  it  is  almost  universally  the  case  that  so  many 
farmers  will  plant  it  the  following  year  as  to  bring  the  price 
down  to  a  point  that  will  leave  no  profit.  I  have  known  it  to 
sell  at  forty  dollars  per  ton.  I  do  not  mean  to  teach  that  a 
farmer  should  never  change  his  plans  or  products,  but  he  should 
do  so  cautiously  and  intelligently,  after  mature  deliberation,  and 
should  always  be  able  to  give  a  satisfactory  reason  for  the  change. 
I  think  that  in  a  great  majority  of  cases  the  change  is  made  in 
the  same  spirit  that  a  lottery  ticket  is  bought. 

An  important  consideration  in  determining  what  shall  be  the 
leading  product  of  the  farm  is  the  cost  of  marketing.  If,  as  is 
often  the  case,  a  farmer  living  from  six  to  ten  miles  from  market 
on  bad  roads  depends  on  the  sale  of  corn,  the  cost  of  delivering 
it  will  be  from  five  to  eight  cents  a  bushel,  and  if  he  sells  at 


24 

forty  cents  per  bushel,  this  will  be  from  twelve  to  twenty  per 
cent  of  what  he  receives,  while  wheat  at  one  dollar  per  bushel 
could  be  delivered  at  from  four  to  seven  per  cent,  or  a  drove  of 
cattle  or  hogs  could  be  delivered  at  the  same  market  for  a  very 
small  fraction  of  one  per  cent  of  their  value. 

The  effect  on  the  fertility  of  the  soil  of  the  system  adopted 
must  be  carefully  considered.  Too  much  of  our  farming  is  illus- 
trated by  "killing  the  goose  that  laid  the  golden  egg."  The 
American  system  of  farming  has  been  a  prodigal  one,  for  it  is 
not  long  since  the  day  when  it  cost  less  to  destroy  a  forest  and 
thus  get  a  new  and  fertile  field  than  to  enrich  an  old  one;  but 
in  most  of  the  States  the  limit  has  been  reached  in  this  direc- 
tion, and  now  the  farmer  must  not  only  maintain  but  increase 
the  fertility  of  his  soil.  The  farm  is  his  capital,  and  any  sys- 
tem which  reduces  its  fertility  is  wasteful  and  improvident. 
One  of  the  greatest  aids  in  maintaining  fertility  is 

Rotation  of  Crops. — The  fact  is  well  known  to  all  prac- 
tical farmers  that  the  continual  growing  of  any  particular  crop  on 
a  field  will  gradually  reduce  its  productiveness  until  the  point  is 
reached  at  which  it  can  no  longer  be  profitably  cultivated.  This 
period  may  be  longer  or  shorter,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
soil  or  the  character  of  the  crop,  but  the  result  will  be  inevit- 
able. Another  fact,  equally  familiar  to  the  farmer,  is  that  a 
field  partially  exhausted  by  one  crop  will  produce  some  other. 
Another  fact,  not  so  easily  understood,  is  that  after  the  second 
crop  has  been  grown  for  some  years  the  soil  will  be  found  to 
have  regained  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  the  capacity  of  pro- 
ducing the  first. 

Practically  a  good  system  of  rotation  enables  the  farmer  to 
grow,  at  little  or  no  expense,  his  fertilizers  in  the  soil  where 
they  are  needed.  It  also  more  than  doubles  the  value  of  the 
manure  applied  if  used  intelligently  and  judiciously.  But  as 
these  questions  will  be  more  fully  discussed  in  the  chapter  on 
manures  I  will  pass  them  for  the  present. 

How  Much  to  Cultivate  is  an  important  question  to  settle 
in  your  plan  of  farm  management.  In  large  sections  the  greatest 
evil  is  over-cropping.  I  am  familiar,  and  have  been  for  nearly 


GENERAL  FARM  MANAGEMENT.  25 

forty  years,  with  many  farms  two-thirds  of  which  are  kept  under 
the  plow.  Some  of  these  farms  have  not  during  that  time  pro- 
duced an  average  of  ten  bushels  of  wheat  or  thirty  of  corn  to 
the  acre,  and  yet  the  owners  keep  on  in  the  old  ruts,  producing 
crops  which  five  minutes'  calculation  would  show  them  do  not 
pay  the  expense  of  cultivation,  and  apparently  deluding  them- 
selves with  the  idea  that  they  are  doing  something  because  they 
are  going  over  so  much  land  each  year.  Their  management 
recalls  the  anecdote  of  the  German  clothier  who  solemnly  assured 
his  customer  that  he  was  selling  his  goods  at  less  than  cash  cost, 
and  on  being  asked  how  he  made  a  living,  answered :  "  Pecos  I 
sells  so  many." 

There  are  a  few  facts  connected  with  this  question  of  the 
amount  of  land  to  plow  that  should  be  understood  by  every 
farmer : 

First — All  the  profit  in  farming  comes  from  maximum  crops. 
From  the  statistics,  as  shown  by  the  census  reports  of  the 
United  States,  it  appears  that  the  average  yield  of  the  corn 
crop  is  about  thirty  bushels  per  acre,  and  that  the  average  yield 
of  the  wheat  crop  is  about  fourteen  bushels  per  acre.  That 
these  averages  will  give  no  profit  is  evident  to  every  experi- 
enced farmer,  and  as  these  are  the  averages,  there  must  be  many 
who  grow  less,  for  we  know  there  are  many  who  grow  much  more 
to  the  acre.  We  might,  then,  divide  farmers  into  three  classes— 
those  who  are  growing  crops  above  the  average  and  make  money, 
those  who  grow  average  crops  and  make  a  living,  and  those  who 
grow  crops  below  the  average  and  barely  keep  soul  and  body 
together. 

Second — The  man  who  cultivates  a  smaller  part  of  his  land 
can  do  it  more  thoroughly,  and  can  have  it  richer.  It  is  often  of 
the  greatest  importance  to  a  crop  that  the  cultivation  should  be 
at  a  certain  stage  of  growth  or  condition  of  soil;  for  example, 
on  our  heavy  clay  lands  a  heavy  rain  forms  a  crust,  which  should 
be  broken  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  land  is  dry  enough  to 
work.  The  farmer  who  undertakes  to  cultivate  forty  acres  with 
one  team  is  obliged  to  neglect  this  at  this  critical  time,-  and  his 
crop  is  often  permanently  injured.  If,  as  I  believe,  the  adage 


26  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

"  tillage  is  manure "  is  true,  the  farmer  is  wise  who  so  arranges 
his  crops  that  the  tillage  can  be  most  thorough.  I  say  that  he 
who  tills  less  land  can  have  it  richer.  This  is  plain  for  two 
reasons — with  more  land  in  grass  he  can  keep  more  stock  and 
save  more  manure,  and  he  can  also  grow  sod  to  turn  under,  which 
is  the  best  and  cheapest  manure  in  the  world,  and  produces  the 
best  mechanical  effect  on  the  soil. 

Third — The  cost  of  grain  per  bushel  is  decreased  in  the  exact 
ratio  that  the  yield  per  acre  is  increased.  Suppose  we  take 
twelve  dollars  as  the  average  cost  of  producing  an  acre  of  wheat 
or  corn,  this  sum  to  cover  rent  of  land,  preparation  of  soil,  plant- 
ing, cultivating,  and  harvesting.  A  crop  of  wheat  averaging 
twelve  bushels  per  acre  will  cost  one  dollar  per  bushel.  Twenty 
bushels  will  bring  the  cost  down  to  sixty  cents  per  bushel,  and 
thirty  bushels  per  acre  will  cost  but  forty  cents  per  bushel. 
Thirty,  bushels  of  corn  to  the  acre  will  cost  forty  cents  per 
bushel;  forty  tmshels  per  acre  will  cost  thirty  cents  per  bushel, 
and  sixty  bushels  will  cost  but  twenty  cents  per  bushel.  You 
may  think  my  estimate  of  twelve  dollars  per  acre  incorrect,  but 
take  any  other  amount  you  please,  and  it  will  not  change  the 
principle.  Now,  the  surest  way  on  many  farms  to  double  the 
yield  per  acre,  and  so  reduce  the  cost  per  bushel,  would  be  to 
reduce  the  acres  under  cultivation  one-half.  The  land  not  in 
grain  would  be  producing  grass  or  clover,  and  the  soil  filling 
with  roots  to  decay  and  furnish  humus  to  the  plants  to  follow 
after. 

This  matter  of  decreasing  the  acres  under  cultivation  and 
increasing  the  yield  per  acre,  and  at  the  same  time  keeping 
down  expenses,  is  so  important  that  I  wish  to  present  it  in  still 
another  light.  Let  us  suppose  two  farmers  starting  in  life  on 
adjoining  farms  of  equal  quality,  each  of  which  has  eighty  acres 
of  tillable  land.  One  of  them,  possessed  with  the  prevailing  idea 
that  he  must  cultivate  a  large  breadth,  begins  with  two  teams, 
and  plows  from  fifty  to  sixty  acres  each  year.  Let  us  make  an 
estimate  of  the  additional  expense  that  this  extra  team  will 
involve  during  a  term  of  ten  years.  We  will  call  the  team  and 
harness  three  hundred  dollars  to  start  with,  and  as  the  team 


GENERAL  FARM  MANAGEMENT.  27 

must  have  a  driver  it  will  necessitate  keeping  a  hired  hand  for 
say  eight  months  of  the  year,  and  at  fifteen  dollars  a  month 
this  would  be  one  hundred  and  twenty  dollars  per  annum,  or 
twelve  hundred  dollars  for  the  ten  years.  Then,  both  horses 
and  hand  must  be  fed,  and  counting  that  it  costs  one  dollar  a 
week  to  keep  a  horse,  the  bill  for  the  team  will  be  one  hundred 
and  four  dollars  a  year,  or  one  thousand  and  forty  dollars  more. 
The  board  of  the  hand  at  the  moderate  rate  of  two  dollars  per 
week  would  make  seventy  dollars  a  year  additional,  and  this 
gives  us  seven  hundred  dollars.  We  will  offset  what  the  old 
horses  and  harness  would  be  worth  at  the  end  of  the  ten  years 
against  extra  plows,  horseshoeing,  and  repairs  to  farm  imple- 
ments, and  as  the  teams  would  be  pretty  well  worn  out  this 
seems  to  me  to  be  a  liberal  price  for  them.  Now  we  will  bring 
these  items  together,  and  see  what  they  foot  up. 

First  cost  of  team  and  harness,          ....  $300  00 

Keep  of  team  for  ten  years,   ......  1,040  00 

Hired  man,  eight  months  a  year  for  ten  years,    .         .  1,200  00 

Board  of  hired  man,       .......  700  00 


Total '   .         .         .       $3,240  00 

The  above  sum  can,  I  think,  be  fairly  charged  as  the  expense 
involved  by  keeping  the  extra  team,  and  the  question  to  be  de- 
cided is,  Has  this  expenditure  brought  a  corresponding  increase 
of  income?  I  think  it  safe  to  say  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  it 
has  not.  The  fact  of  having  the  two  teams  and  keeping  the 
extra  hired  man  has  been  a  continual  temptation  to  plow  too 
much  land,  and  the  consequence  has  been  exhaustion  of  the  soil, 
decreased  yield  per  acre,  and  more  frequent  failure  of  crops. 

Now,  let  us  look  at  the  management  of  the  other  farmer,  who 
has  learned  that  bushels,  not  acres,  is  the  thing  to  be  sought. 
He  starts  with  a  single  team,  and  plows  from  thirty  to  forty 
acres  a  year.  This  enables  him  to  practice  a  rotation,  so  that 
he  has  a  breadth  of  clover  sod  to  plow  each  year.  He  can  also 
keep  more  stock  and  save  more  barnyard  manure.  While  his 
neighbor's  farm  is  necessarily  growing  less  productive  his  is 
increasing  its  yield.  His  wheat,  on  a  rich  soil,  resists  frost,  fly, 
and  chinch-bug,  and  makes  a  crop  when  his  neighbor's  fails,  and 


28  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

before  the  ten  years  expires  he  is  producing  more  grain  than 
his  neighbor,  who  is  cultivating  double  the  acres.  He  has  had 
less  labor,  worry,  and  risk,  his  wife  has  had  less  care,  and  his 
farm  is  in  much  the  better  condition.  Even  if  half  the  sum  my 
figures  show  could  be  saved,  it  would  make  a  great  difference 
in  the  financial  condition  of  the  two  farmers,  and  the  succeeding 
ten  years  I  think  would,  if  the  same  systems  were  followed, 
show  a  still  greater  difference  in  favor  of  the  man  who  cultivated 
the  smaller  area. 

There  is  still  one  other  way  in  which  to  look  at  this  matter. 
I  have  already  shown  that  the  cost  per  bushel  of  grain  decreases 
as  the  yield  per  acre  increases.  The  same  fact  can  be  forcibly 
illustrated  in  another  way.  Our  first  farmer,  we  will  suppose, 
plows  and  cultivates  forty  acres  of  land  to  raise  six  hundred 
bushels  of  corn  and  two  hundred  bushels  of  wheat,  the  other 
but  twenty  acres  to  secure  the  same  amount.  Now,  at  first 
glance  one  might  think  that  the  rent,  the  plowing,  planting, 
cultivating,  and  harvesting  of  the  extra  twenty  acres  would 
represent  the  difference  between  the  two  systems,  but  looking 
with  a  little  more  care  into  the  matter,  we  shall  see  that  the 
extra  twenty  acres,  if  in  grass  or  clover,  will  bring  a  good 
income  with  little  or  no  expense.  The  twenty  acres  in  grain 
will  be  more  or  less  impoverished,  while  that  in  grass  or  clover 
will  have  grown  a  second  crop  below  the  soil  to  enrich  the  land 
and  improve  its  mechanical  condition,  so  that,  instead  of  a  dimin- 
ished yield  the  following  year,  we  can  confidently  look  for  an 
increased  one. 

Capital  in  Farming. — Perhaps  there  is  nothing  which  so 
cripples  the  farmers  of  our  country  as  the  want  of  a  cash  work- 
ing capital.  A  very  large  per  cent  of  our  farmers  are  in  debt, 
and  every  spare  dollar  must  go  to  pay  interest  or  reduce  indebt- 
edness. I  know  this  is  an  evil  more  easily  pointed  out  than 
remedied,  but  I  can  at  least  protest  against  the  practice  so  com- 
mon among  farmers  of  running  in  debt  for  more  land  as  soon 
as  they  can  see  their  way  out  of  debt  for  what  they  have. 

The  farmer  with  a  fair  working  cash  capital  has  a  great 
advantage  over  the  one  who  is  always  cramped  for  money. 


GENERAL  FARM  MANAGEMENT.  29 

There  are  numbers  of  farms  whose  capacity  would  be  doubled 
by  drainage,  whose  owners,  instead  of  investing  their  profits  in 
this  way,  will  buy  out  their  neighbor,  whose  farm  is  in  the  same 
condition. 

It  often  happens  that  the  hay  or  corn  crop  is  short,  and  a 
farmer  has  not  enough  to  carry  his  stock  through  the  Winter. 
If  he  has  money  to  spare,  and  has  good  judgment  to  anticipate 
the  coming  rise,  he  can  lay  in  a  supply  of  feed  while  the  price 
is  low,  but  if  he  is  cramped  for  cash,  he  may  be  compelled  to 
sacrifice  his  stock  or  defer  purchasing  feed  until  the  price  has 
advanced  so  that  he  will  lose  money. 

The  season  of  1881  illustrated  this  fully.  Throughout  the 
Mississippi  valley  a  long-continued  drought  cut  short  the  corn 
crop,  so  that  it  was  evident  to  all  that  prices  must  be  very  high. 
There  was  plenty  of  old  corn  still  in  the  country,  which  could 
be  bought  at  from  forty-five  to  fifty  cents  per  bushel.  Some 
farmers  who  had  the  money  to  spare  bought  a  year's  supply, 
and  were  enabled  to  fatten  their  stock  and  sell  at  high  prices, 
but  the  majority  of  farmers  had  no  money  to  spare,  and  bought 
a  few  bushels  of  corn  at  a  time  as  they  were  compelled  to,  and 
before  the  crop  of  1882  was  fit  for  use  they  were  paying  one 
dollar  a  bushel  for  corn  to  feed  their  teams,  or,  what  was  worse, 
working  them  with  no  food  but  grass. 

There  can  be  no  question  as  to  which  is  the  better  off  and 
able  to  farm  best,  and  take  the  most  comfort  in  life,  the  man 
with  two  hundred  acres  of  land  and  in  debt  two  or  three  thou- 
sand dollars,  or  he  with  one  hundred  acres  and  two  thousand 
dollars  cash  working  capital.  I  should  strongly  urge  the  far- 
mer before  buying  more  land  or  making  any  outside  investment 
to  see  if  he  can  not  use  the  money  to  better  advantage  in  his 
business,  either  in  draining,  fertilizing  his  land,  improving  his 
stock,  or  in  some  other  way  that  will  increase  his  comforts  or 
profits. 

Hired  Help  on  the  Farm. — The  young  farmer  may  for 
a  while  do  without  hired  help,  but  if  this  is  long  continued  he 
is  likely  to  overwork  so  as  to  injure  his  health,  and  at  the  same 
time  neglect  many  things  that  ought  to  be  done.  The  team 


30  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

must  be  kept  at  work,  and  at  the  same  time  there  are  daily  calls 
for  odd  jobs,  such  as  making  garden,  repairing  fences,  looking 
after  the  stock,  going  on  errands  to  town,  etc.,  and  the  farmer 
soon  finds  that  both  profit  and  comfort  demand  help.  There 
often  comes  a  time  when,  from  previous  bad  weather  or  other 
causes,  there  is  a  large  amount  of  work  on  hand  which  must  be 
done  at  once  or  loss  will  ensue.  At  such  times  it  is  usually 
particularly  difficult  to  obtain  day  labor,  and  the  farmer  who  has 
a  regular  hand  has  a  great  advantage.  The  man  who  in  addition 
to  a  full  day's  work  in  the  field  must  attend  to  all  the  etceteras 
will  soon  become  a  mere  clodhopper.  He  will  be  too  tired  to 
read,  and  will  have  no  time  to  visit,  and  life  will  mean  little 
more  to  him  than  drudgery. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  he  hires  a  single  man  and  boards  him, 
he  often  imposes  a  burden  upon  his  wife  that  she  is  scarcely 
able  to  bear.  The  duties  of  a  mother  who  has  the  care  of  a 
family  of  little  children  are  heavy  enough  at  the  best.  If  the 
boarding  of  a  man  in  the  family  must  involve  the  hiring  of  a 
girl  in  the  house,  it  will  often  be  cheaper  to  hire  a  married  man 
who  will  board  himself.  If  the  man  must  be  boarded  and  the 
wife  is  likely  to  be  overworked,  her  husband  should  furnish  her 
the  assistance  she  needs.  If  he  does  not  furnish  a  hired  woman, 
he  can  at  least  see  that  she  has  wood  and  water  in  the  kitchen, 
relieve  her  of  the  milking,  churn,  and  carry  the  milk  into  and 
out  of  the  cellar.  This  work  he  will  have  leisure  for  if  he  has 
a  man  to  help  him.  I  have  usually  found  it  as  cheap,  all  things 
considered,  to  hire  a  man  who  boarded  himself  as  one  who 
boarded  in  the  family.  If  you  will  give  him  a  garden  spot  and 
pasture  a  cow  for  him,  or,  if  he  does  not  keep  a  cow,  furnish  him 
a  few  quarts  of  skim  milk  each  day,  and  allow  him  the  use  of 
a  house  rent  free,  a  married  man  can  often  be  hired  at  the  same 
wages  that  a  single  man  will  ask.  A  cheap,  comfortable  cottage 
on  the  farm  for  a  laborer  will  often  prove  a  good  investment. 

I  believe  that  it  is  best  for  both  parties  to  pay  good  wages. 
Cheap  help  is  generally  dearest  in  the  long  run,  and  the  man 
who  is  jewed  down  to  the  lowest  possible  price  in  making  a 
bargain  will  not  be  likely  to  serve  you  with  the  interest  and 


GENERAL  FARM  MANAGEMENT.  31 

enthusiasm  he  would  if  he  felt  that  you  were  liberal  in  your 
dealings  with  him. 

Of  late  years  I  am  very  cautious  about  making  a  contract 
with  a  work  hand  for  a  specified  time  unless  I  know  him  thor- 
oughly, for  I  do  not  wish  to  be  obliged  to  keep  a  man  who  proves 
to  be  ill-tempered,  immoral,  or  disobliging;  so  I  hire  a  hand  for 
a  specified  time,  but  insert  in  the  contract  that  either  may  ter- 
minate the  engagement  on  a  week's  notice.  I  state  to  the  man 
frankly  when  I  hire  him  what  I  shall  expect  of  him,  and  tell 
him  that  I  do  not  wish  him  to  stay  with  me  a  day  longer  than 
he  is  well  treated,  and  that  I  shall  dispense  with  his  services 
whenever  our  relations  cease  to  be  agreeable.  There  should  be 
a  form  of  contract  or  memorandum  of  agreement  drawn  up,  to 
be  signed  by  both  parties,  and  in  this  every  thing  should  be 
plainly  stated,  nothing  left  to  memory.  If  your  hand  is  a  mar- 
ried man,  and  is  to  have  garden,  cow  pasture,  house  rent,  and 
other  privileges,  specify  exactly  what  they  are  to  be. 

Some  young  men  think  that  if  they  work  through  the  day 
it  is  no  business  of  their  employer  if  they  spend  every  evening 
at  the  village,  and  come  into  the  house  at  midnight  or  remain 
away  over  night  and  get  back  after  the  feeding  is  done  in  the 
morning.  A  fair  understanding  on  all  these  points,  written  out 
at  the  beginning,  will  go  far  toward  preventing  misunderstanding 
and  trouble  in  the  future.  There  are  some  kinds  of  work  needed 
occasionally  on  the  farm  which  can  hardly  be  called  farm  work — 
for  example,  quarrying  stone,  ditching,  and  well-digging — and  if 
you  have  not  specified  these  in  your  memorandum,  I  think  it 
fair  that  they  should  be  done  by  help  hired  expressly  for  the 
purpose  or  extra  pay  allowed  your  hand  if  he  does  the  work. 
There  is  no  better  rule  in  the  treatment  of  employes  than  "  do 
unto  others  as  ye  would  they  should  do  unto  you ;"  if  there  is 
first  a  fair  understanding  between  the  parties  and  an  approxi- 
mate observance  of  this  rule,  there  will  be  little  trouble. 

Some  farmers  have  adopted  the  plan  of  giving  a  bonus  for 
good  behavior  and  faithful  work,  and  have  found  it  satisfactory. 
The  plan  is  this :  After  the  bargain  is  made,  say  for  eight  months 
at  fifteen  dollars  per  month,  with  a  memorandum  that  the  engage- 


32  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

ment  may  be  terminated  by  either  party  at  a  week's  notice,  you 
say  to  your  hand,  "  If  I  find  you  faithful  and  obliging,  at  the 
end  of  your  term  I  will  give  you  ten  cents  a  day  extra  for  all 
the  time  you  work,  and  as  I  shall  not  keep  you  unless  you  are 
so,  the  fact  that  you  remain  with  me  eight  months  will  insure 
you  this  amount."  You  will  thus  give  him  a  motive  to  do  his 
best. 

There  often  comes  a  time  in  the  life  of  a  farmer  when  he 
feels  the  care  and  burden  of  the  farm  to  be  too  heavy  for  him. 
He  has  reached  perhaps  the  age  of  fifty,  is  in  comfortable  cir- 
cumstances, and  feels  that  he  has  fairly  earned  something  of  rest. 
In  many  cases  he  rents  his  farm  and  moves  to  town.  I  think, 
generally  speaking,  he  makes  a  mistake  in  so  doing.  A  man 
who  has  been  active  and  industrious  up  to  this  time  of  life  will 
not  be  happy  in  idleness;  the  change  in  his  life  is  too  radical. 
Besides,  he  will  soon  find  that  his  farm  is  running  down.  The 
tenant  can  not  be  expected  to  take  the  same  interest  in  it  as 
the  owner.  Stock  will  be  allowed  to  tramp  the  fields  when  soft, 
fences  will  run  down,  a  proper  rotation  will  not  be  followed,  and 
before  long  the  farm  will  be  reduced  in  fertility.  In  my  judg- 
ment the  best  plan  is  for  the  farmer  to  remain  on  his  farm,  but 
he  should  be  relieved  from  heavy  labor  and  care  much  earlier 
than  he  usually  is.  The  fact  is  that  a  majority  of  farmers  work 
more  hours  in  a  day  and  harder  than  a  day  laborer,  and  keep 
it  up  till  feeble  old  age,  even  though  their  financial  condition  is 
such  that  there  is  no  necessity  for  it.  Now,  the  remedy  for 
this  is  renting,  not  the  whole  farm,  but  fields,  to  be  cultivated 
on  shares.  I  have  never  seen  a  neighborhood  in  which  there 
were  not  men  ready  to  take  fields  in  this  way.  This  leaves  the 
farmer  in  possession  of  his  house,  garden,  orchard,  and  pasture, 
and  with  full  control  of  the  farm  as  to  what  part  shall  be  in 
clover  or  grass,  and  what  in  grain,  and  at  the  same  time  relieves 
him  of  the  heavy  work. 

The  terms  of  grain  rent  vary  in  different  localities,  but 
where  I  live  there  are  two  systems.  One  is  for  the  landlord  to 
furnish  teams,  tools,  and  seed,  and  feed  the  teams,  and  get  two- 
thirds  of  the  crop,  and  the  other  for  the  tenant  to  furnish  these 


GENERAL  FARM  MANAGEMENT.  33 

and  get  half  the  crop.  There  is  no  settled  rule  as  to  whether 
the  landlord  is  to  take  his  wheat  in  the  shock  or  bushel,  or  his 
corn  in  field  or  crib,  but  this  is  a  matter  of  agreement.  If  the 
tenant  has  no  privileges,  he  is  usually  paid  for  this  part  of  the 
work,  but  where  the  landlord  can  furnish  him  a  house,  garden , 
and  cow  pasture,  the  tenant  usually  will  deliver  in  crib  or 
bushel  the  landlord's  share  of  the  crop.  It  is  often  best  for  the 
farmer  to  first  try  renting  out  his  farm  on  the  thirds  till  he  sees 
how  the  plan  suits  him,  for  then,  if  he  wishes  to  farm  it  again 
himself,  he  has  his  stock  and  tools.  If  he  is  pleased  with  the 
plan,  he  can  in  a  year  or  two  sell  these  and  rent  on  the  halves. 
The  plan  of  renting  on  the  thirds  often  gives  some  industrious, 
enterprising  young  man  a  chance  to  get  a  start  in  life  and  rise 
above  the  condition  of  a  laborer,  and  I  have  been  surprised  to 
find  so  large  a  number  of  our  best  farmers  who  began  life  in 
this  way.  The  first  five  hundred  dollars  I  ever  possessed  I 
made  by  cropping  on  the  thirds  on  my  father's  farm.  I  would 
urge  this  plan  upon  the  prosperous  farmer  who  has  passed 
middle  life,  for  to  me  there  is  no  more  pitiable  sight  than  that 
of  a  man  broken  down  with  hard  work  when  but  little  past  his 
prime,  painfully  dragging  through  the  heavy  labors  of  the  farm 
long  after  his  financial  condition  is  such  that  he  can  afford  rest 
and  recreation.  To  all  such  I  would  say,  God  gives  a  man  but 
one  journey  through  life,  and  if  we  make  this  life  similar  to  that 
of  a  galley  slave,  we  shall  have  no  opportunity  to  go  back  and 
correct  mistakes. 

A  careful  study  of  this  subject  of  farm  management  shows 
that  brains  on  the  farm  count  for  more  than  muscle,  and  that 
success  depends  more  an  a  systematic  plan,  wisely  chosen  and 
faithfully  executed,  than  on  physical  labor. 

3 


34  THE  PEOPLE 'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


II. 

FENCING, 

THE  history  of  farm  fencing  in  our  country  is  a  good  illustra- 
tion of  the  force  of  habit.     In  all  the  timbered  regions  the 
question  was,  until  recently,  "  How  shall  we  get  rid  of  the 
timber?"    and  as  straight  thrifty  rail  timber  abounded  and   it 
seemed  a  pity  to  burn  it,  the  farms  were  fenced  into  small  fields, 
often  from  six  to  ten  acres  each;  and  now  with  the  rail  timber 
gone,  and  a  good  fence  costing  one  dollar  or  more  a  rod,  there 
are  multitudes  of  farmers  who  still  retain  the  small  fields,  and 
think  they  must  replace  every  fence  that  was  built  in  the  early 
pioneer  days. 

I  assert  that  half  the  fences  in  most  of  our  States  might  be 
dispensed  with  and  the  farmers  would  be  actual  gainers.  A  few 
figures  will  show  what  a  saving  this  would  be.  We  will  estimate 
that  a  fence  will  cost  one  dollar  a  rod — which  is  much  less  than 
a  good  post  and  board  fence  can  be  built  for — and  we  find  that 
to  fence  a  farm  of  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres  will  cost  as  follows : 

To  inclose   it, $640  00 

To  divide  it  into  forty-acre  fields, 320  00 

To  again  divide  so  as  to  make  twenty-acre  fields,     .         .         .  320  00 

And  to  make  ten-acre  fields,  320  00 


Total, $1,600  00 

Even  if  we  count  that  these  fences  would  last  twenty  years, 
which  is  much  longer  than  they  will  in  most  cases — all  this  heavy 
expense,  as  well  as  some  additional  for  repairs,  must  be  met  again 
at  the  end  of  this  time ;  and  it  becomes  a  problem  of  great  inter- 
est and  worthy  of  careful  study, 

How  to  Reduce  the  Cost  of  Fencing. — Three  methods 
occur  to  me  by  which  this  expense  can  be  greatly  lessened. 


FARM  FENCING.  35 

First,  by  reducing  the  amount  of  division  fences.  Second,  by 
good  stock  laws  well  enforced.  Third,  by  adopting  the  cheaper 
styles  of  fence. 

Under  the  first  head  we  can  make  a  great  saving.  I  have  on 
Eastview  Farm  for  twenty  years  abolished  division  fence  on  all 
my  best  plow  land.  Here  I  have  sixty-five  acres  in  one  field,  and 
by  agreement  with  my  neighbor  we  have  had  no  division  fence 
between  us,  he  having  forty  acres  of  his  best  land  in  the  same 
inclosure.  Neither  of  us  ever  turn  stock  on  this  land,  but  always 
cultivate  or  mow  it,  and  I  think  it  has  been  just  as  profitable  to 
us  as  it  would  have  been  if  divided  into  small  fields.  Moreover, 
the  land  has  been  mellow  and  in  good  condition  to  plow  when 
the  fields  in  my  neighborhood  that  have  been  tramped  over  have 
been  rough  and  cloddy.  After  this  long  experience  I  am  pre- 
pared to  recommend  this  plan  of  never  pasturing  the  best  plow 
lands  of  the  farm. 

Another  way  in  which  a  great  saving  can  be  made  is  by 
fencing  against  cattle  and  horses  only.  There  are  farms  by  the 
thousand  not  adapted  to  corn,  and  on  which  but  few  hogs  are  kept, 
and  yet  every  fence  is  pig  tight  and  the  extra  cost  of  fences  is 
more  than  all  the  profit  on  the  hogs.  I  have  found  a  two-board 
fence  a  perfect  protection  against  cattle,  while  four  or  five  boards 
are  always  used  where  a  fence  is  made  to  turn  hogs.  To  be  sure, 
hogs  need  some  green  food,  but  it  will  be  found  much  cheaper  to 
confine  them  to  a  lot  or  single  field  and  carry  green  food  to  them 
than  to  fence  the  entire  farm.  There  are  farms  adapted  to  hogs 
or  sheep,  which  must  be  fenced  with  reference  to  keeping  this 
stock,  but  the  farmer  before  deciding  to  fence  against  hogs  should 
count  the  cost  and  see  whether  the  extra  expense  of  fences  will 
not  swallow  the  profits. 

We  already  have  in  many  of  the  States  all  the  legislation 
needed  on  the  question  of  stock  running  at  large.  In  Ohio  the 
law  makes  the  owner  of  stock  responsible  for  all  depredations, 
and  all  stock  can  be  prohibited  from  running  at  large  whenever 
the  law  is  enforced.  It  is  a  singular  fact  that  the  opposition  to 
the  law  has  come  mainly  from  the  farmers  themselves,  and  there 
are  still  many  localities  where  it  is  impossible  to  enforce  it. 


36  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

When  we  remember  that  ordinarily  there  is  not  more 
than  three  or  four  acres  of  grass-bearing  land  to  the  mile  of 
highway,  it  will  be  seen  how  penny-wise  the  farmers  are  who 
insist  on  pasturing  it.  Even  where  it  is  desirable  to  keep  all 
the  land  fenced,  our  stock  is  much  more  likely  to  break  out  if 
stock  is  feeding  along  the  highway.  In  my  own  neighborhood 
the  law  is  so  perfectly  enforced  that  for  three  years  I  have  had 
no  front  gate,  and  stock  coming  in  would  have  free  access  to  over 
one  hundred  acres  of  land,  several  of  which  is  cultivated  in  gar- 
den and  nursery  stock. 

The  June  flood  of  1882  in  this  neighborhood  did  more  to  se- 
cure the  enforcement  of  the  stock  law  than  years  of  agitation 
would  have  done.  Coming  as  it  did  within  a  week  or  two  of 
harvest,  and  sweeping  away  more  fence  than  was  ever  known  to 
go  in  a  single  flood,  it  was  actually  impossible  to  replace  it  at 
that  time,  and  all  stock  was  shut  up,  and  many  of  the  farmers, 
finding  that  they  could  grow  crops  without  fences — even  along 
the  streams  where  the  extra  amount  of  waste  land  made  the 
temptation  to  turn  stock  on  the  highways  greatest — have  never 
replaced  their  fences  and  never  will.  This  has  relieved  the  own- 
ers of  bottom  lands  from  a  heavy  tax,  for  their  fences  are  often 
swept  away. 

I  would  advise  farmers  everywhere  to  agitate  this  question 
of  prohibiting  stock  from  running  at  large.  If  your  State  has  no 
law  on  the  subject,  petition  for  one.  If  you  have  a  law,  enforce 
it.  One  man  can  not  do  this  alone,  but  whenever  you  can  get  a 
number  of  farmers  to  unite  and  post  a  notice  that  all  stock  run- 
ning at  large  will  be  impounded,  you  will  have  no  further 
difficulty. 

The  third  method  of  reducing  the  expense  of  fencing  by 
adopting  cheaper  methods,  you  will  find  illustrated  and  described 
under  the  appropriate  heads  of  this  chapter.  It  seems  hardly 
worth  while  to  devote  space  to  the  rail  fence,  for  it  is  fast  disap- 
pearing, and  with  the  ever  increasing  scarcity  of  timber  and  the 
facilities  for  transportation  afforded  by  our  railroads,  there  are 
few  localities  where  rail  fences  will  be  replaced. 


FARM  FENCING.  37 

Hedge  Fences  have  been  on  trial  for  thirty  or  forty 
years,  but  are  least  in  favor  with  the  farmers  who  are  best  ac- 
quainted with  them.  When  I  meet  a  man  who  is  enthusiastic 
in  advocating  the  planting  of  hedge,  I  feel  quite  sure  that  he  is 
a  novice  in  the  business,  and  that  should  I  meet  him  ten  years 
later  I  should  find  that  his  ardor  had  cooled  considerably.  I  do 
not  speak  from  theory  on  this  matter,  for  I  have  had  the  constant 
care  of  from  half  a  mile  to  a  mile  of  hedge  for  over  thirty  years, 
and  there  is  scarcely  a  farm  in  my  neighborhood  but  has  more  or 
less  of  it. 

There  are  locations  where  hedge  is  the  cheapest  fence  that 
the  farmer  can  have,  and  where  it  will  give  excellent  satisfac- 
tion. For  example,  along  the  border  of  a  permanent  pasture, 
where  the  shade  will  do  no  harm,  and  you  do  not  care  if  the 
view  is  interrupted,  you  can  start  a  hedge,  and  need  give  it  no 
care  after  it  is  large  enough  to  turn  cattle  for  a  long  term  of 
years.  In  such  a  location  I  have  known  hedges  to  make  a  per- 
fect cattle  fence  without  any  expense  beyond  planting  and  a  lit- 
tle care  for  the  first  two  years,  and  in  twenty  years  they  had 
grown  large  enough  so  that  from  six  to  twelve  posts  could  be  cut 
to  the  rod,  and  these  posts  are  not  excelled  in  durability  by  any 
timber  in  the  world. 

There  is  no  trouble  whatever  in  making  a  hedge  that  will 
turn  cattle,  and  the  cost  is  small.  For  a  cattle  fence  I  would  set 
the  plants  eighteen  inches  apart.  This  will  require  eleven  plants 
to  the  rod,  costing  about  three  cents.  The  cost  of  preparing 
the  hedge  row  and  setting  out  the  plants  will  vary  somewhat, 
but  should  not  exceed  five  cents  a  rod,  and  the  entire  cost  of  a 
hedge  four  years  old  should  not  exceed  thirty  cents  a  rod,  unless 
you  must  build  a  fence  to  protect  it  from  the  stock  while  grow- 
ing it.  The  best  way  to  prepare  a  hedge  row  is  to  plant  it  in 
potatoes  the  previous  year.  If  the  row  crosses  a  poor  spot,  it  is 
well  to  manure  it.  The  hedge  should  be  thoroughly  cultivated 
for  two  years  after  planting,  and  should  not  be  cut  back  till 
two  or  three  years  old ;  then  cut  to  the  ground,  and  let  it  make 
a  new  start,  and  it  will  grow  dense  enough  to  make  a  good  cattle 
fence.  Instead  of  cutting  back,  the  hedge  is  often  plashed,  by 

434464 


38  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

which  we  mean  that  the  plants  are  bent  down  and  twisted  to- 
gether so  as  to  thicken  the  hedge  at  the  bottom.  I  have  rarely, 
if  ever,  however,  seen  a  hedge  made  hog  proof  by  this  means. 
An  English  neighbor  of  mine  has  a  hedge  of  which  he  has  taken 
admirable  care,  having  plashed  it  twice,  but  the  hogs  go  through 
it,  and  as  it  grows  older  it  will  get  worse.  If  you  only  want  a 
hedge  to  turn  cattle,  no  plashing  will  be  necessary,  as  it  will 
grow  up  thick  enough  for  this  purpose.  If  you  want  a  hog 
fence  I  would  advise  that  two  six  inch  boards,  or  two  barbed 
wires  be  used  at  the  bottom. 

The  great  objection  to  a  hedge  fence,  except  where  it  can  be 
neglected  as  I  suggest,  is  that  it  must  be  trimmed  regularly  and 
at  the  right  time,  or  it  is  soon  too  large  and  out  of  shape,  arid 
becomes  a  nuisance;  and  as  this  work  comes  at  a  season  when 
the  crops  demand  all  the  time  and  attention  of  the  farmer,  it  be- 
comes a  heavy  tax.  The  only  way  to  keep  a  hedge  in  good 
shape  is  to  trim  frequently  when  the  new  growth  is  soft,  and 
this  requires  three  trimmings  a  Summer.  If  neglected  ten  days 
after  it  should  be  cut,  till  the  wood  hardens,  you  can  not  keep  a 
good  shape  to  your  hedge.  Where  you  wish  an  ornamental 
hedge  you  should  always  trim  with  sloping  sides,  as  a  hedge 
with  perpendicular  sides  is  always  more  or  less  open.  The  best 
form  is  pyramidal,  with  a  regular  slope  from  the  ground  to  the 
top.  The  best  implement  to  trim  with  is  the  Dutch  sickle,  or 
grass  hook.  With  a  little  practice  one  can  trim  as  true  with  it 
as  with  shears,  and  very  much  more  easily  and  rapidly.  If 
trimmed  at  the  proper  time  there  will  be  no  thorns  scattered,  for 
it  will  be  done  before  they  harden.  When  barbed  wires  or 
boards  are  to  be  used  to  make  the  hedge  hog  proof,  they  should 
be  put  in  place  when  the  hedge  is  cut  back  to  the  ground,  so 
that  in  making  the  new  growth  a  part  of  the  shoots  will  grow 
up  on  either  side,  thus  holding  the  boards  or  wires  in  place. 
The  boards  or  wires  should  be  secured  to  stakes  driven  along 
the  hedge  row.  My  advice  to  the  farmer  is,  plant  but  little 
hedge,  except  in  such  places  as  you  are  willing  to  allow  it 
to  grow  without  the  labor  of  trimming.  Another  way  to  re- 
duce the  cost  of  fencing  is  to  plant  a  row  of  trees,  and  thus 


FARM  FENCING.  39 

Grow  Live  Fence  Posts.  These  would  not  be  suitable 
for  all  localities,  as  in  places  the  shade  would  be  objectionable, 
but  some  such  lines  of  trees  might  be  grown  on  every  farm,  and 
even  though  they  occupy  some  land,  they  will  grow  into  valu- 
able timber,  and  will  also  make  wind-breaks  which  will  protect 
the  crops  and  stock.  I  find  on  my  limestone  soil  that  the  com- 
mon black  locust  (called  also  yellow)  is  the  best  tree  for  this 
purpose.  I  planted  a  row  fifty  rods  long  in  1879,  and  as  the 
Spring  was  very  dry  and  unfavorable,  and  they  made  a  poor 
growth,  I  cut  them  back  to  the  ground  in  1880.  In  the  Spring 
of  1883  they  were  large  enough  to  support  panels  of  fence, 
but  as  we  had  one  of  the  neglected  hedges  which  I  recommend, 
we  cut  it  back  and  made  a  fence  of  the  brush  by  laying  one  row 
along  the  row  of  locust  trees,  and  another  row  on  top  of  this 
with  the  brush  locked  between  the  trees,  which  were  four  feet 
apart.  The  labor  of  cutting  and  placing  the  brush  cost  us  just 
four  dollars,  or  eight  cents  a  rod,  for  our  line  of  fifty  rods.  I 
know  this  is  not  a  handsome  fence,  but  it  is  effective  and  will 
last  for  years  by  the  addition  of  a  few  more  brush. 

When  you  use  the  row  of  trees  to  support  panels  of  board 
fence,  you  do  not  nail  them  to  the  trees,  as  this  would  injure 
them,  and  the  swaying  of  the  trees  in  the  wind  would  break  the 
nails.  Nail  your  boards  to  oak  or  some  other  good  timber  to 
hold  nails,  and  then  set  the  panels  up  along  the  row  of  trees, 
drive  a  stake  to  keep  the  bottom  in  place,  and  secure  the  top  by 
a  piece  of  cheap  rope,  tarred  twine,  or  wire.  These  ties  will 
need  inspecting  annually,  so  as  to  see  that  they  do  not  get  tight 
and  girdle  the  trees.  If  I  was  planting  a  row  of  locust  trees 
again  for  this  purpose,  I  would  start  them  only  two  feet  apart, 
and  then  would  cut  out  for  bean  poles  and  fence  stakes  such  as 
I  did  not  wish  to  leave.  In  making  these  movable  panels  of 
fence,  I  nail  the  boards  to  oak  two  inches  square,  and  find  it 
strong  enough.  I  do  not  call  this  a  handsome  fence,  but  every 
good  locust  post,  well  set,  costs  me  thirty  cents,  and  in  twenty- 
five  years  will  probably  be  past  its  usefulness.  The  tree  and 
oak  upright  will  not  both  cost  above  eight  cents,  and  in  twenty- 
five  years  the  trees  will  sell  for  enough  to  build  several  new 


40  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

fences  of  the  same  length.  A  neighbor  of  mine  cut  a  row  twenty 
rods  long,  and  sold  from  it  one  hundred  and  ten  dollars  worth  of 
posts.  I  think  there  are  few  farms  on  which  there  might  not 
be  grown  profitably  one  or  more  of  these  lines  of  live  fence  posts. 

Post  and  Board  Fence  is  considered  by  many  the  cheap- 
est and  best  in  the  long  run,  and  if  well  built  and  of  good  ma- 
terial, it  will  last  many  years,  with  little  or  no  expense  for  re- 
pairs. The  cost  of  building  a  board  fence  is  so  great  that  one 
can  not  afford  to  use  poor  material.  A  sappy  oak  post  that 
will  rot  off  in  from  six  to  ten  years  will  cost  as  much  to  set 
as  a  good  locust  or  cedar,  which  will  last  from  twenty-five  to 
forty  years.  All  posts  should  be  well  seasoned,  set  not  less 
than  thirty  inches  deep,  and  thoroughly  tamped.  There  is  some 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  best  time  to  cut  posts,  but  the 
weight  of  testimony  is  in  favor  of  August,  cutting  when  the  wood 
is  freest  from  sap  and  will  dry  out  rapidly.  There  is  a  popu- 
lar idea  that  a  post  set  top  end  down  will  outlast  one  set  as  it 
grew,  but  experiment  has,  I  think,  failed  to  verify  it.  With 
good,  thoroughly  seasoned  posts  of  our  best  timbers,  I  do  not 
think  any  preparation  for  preserving  them  necessary,  but  with 
posts  of  inferior  timber  immersing  in  coal  tar  would  probably  be 
profitable. 

There  are  two  ways  by  which  we  may  decrease  the  cost  of 
post  and  board  fence,  one  of  which  is  by  reducing  the  number 
of  boards,  and  the  other  by  increasing  the  distance  between  the 
posts.  Not  many  years  ago  most  farmers  used  five  boards  and 
sometimes  a  cap  in  addition,  thus  making  a  top-heavy  fence, 
likely  to  be  leaned  and  twisted  by  the  wind  when  the  ground 
was  soft.  Of  late  years  it  is  seldom  that  more  than  four  boards 
are  used,  however.  I  have  for  several  years  advocated,  on  all 
level  land,  a  three-board  fence,  and  some  of  our  best  farmers 
have  adopted  it,  and  find  that  it  turns  all  stock  perfectly.  The 
plan  is  simply  to  nail  the  first  board  so  that  the  bottom  of  it  will 
be  fifteen  inches  from  the  ground,  and  then  plow  a  furrow  or  two 
each  side  and  bank  up  under  the  fence.  This  leaves  a  shallow 
ditch  each  side,  so  that  an  animal  coming  up  to  it  is  in  an  unnat- 
ural position.  They  can  not  jump  with  the  front  feet  in  the 


FARM  FENCING. 


41 


ditch,  for  they  are  too  far  from  the  fence,  and  if  they  come  close 
enough  to  get  their  front  feet  on  the  bank,  the  hind  feet  will  be 
in  the  ditch.  Even  if  the  bottom  board  of  the  fence  is  only 

raised  twelve  inches,  if  the  ditch 
is  six  inches  lower  than  the  level 
of  the  field  it  makes  a  fence  very 
hard  to  jump.  The  fill  under 
the  fence  should  be  made  broad, 
and  both  it  and  the 
ditch  heavily  seeded 
with  grass.  The  dis- 
tance apart  of  the 
posts  may  be  increased,  and  much  time  cutting  and  fitting  the 
boards  to  the  posts  saved  by  nailing  the  boards  to  both  sides 
of  the  posts. 

The  illustration  gives  a  good  idea  of  how  this  is  done.  The 
posts  should  be  set  about  six  inches  closer  together  than  the 
length  of  the  boards,  so 
that  you  will  not  need  to 
nail  close  to  the  end  of  the 
board,  there  is  then  less 
danger  of  splitting  out  and 


A  THREE-BOARD  FENCE  WITH  FILL. 


BOARDS  NAILED  TO  BOTH  SIDES  OF  POSTS. 


the  boards  hold  to  the  post 
better.  With  a  twelve-foot  board,  a  cheap  stake  of  lasting  tim- 
ber, or  even  a  three-inch  strip  of  oak  board  in  the  center  of  the 
panel  to  stay  it,  makes  a  very  good  fence. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to   have  a  movable   panel  in   every  line 
of  board  fence,  even  in  those  between  neighbors,  as  it  is  often 

very  convenient  to  be  able  to 
get  through  with  the  wagon, 
plow,  or  mowing  machine. 
How  these  movable  panels 
can  be  made  is  shown  in  the 


illustration.  You  will  notice 
that  the  top  board  of  this 
panel  projects  a  few  inches  and  drops  into  the  slot  made  by  saw- 
ing into  the  top  of  the  posts.  The  slot  is  shown  in  the  post 


\3 


r^Jv" 

E 

-  '\ 

3 

3  I 

9 

an 

L 

.  ..-  _=  -      —  —  —~-:_~:.  —  -i^w=s 

*»*W    -«r»-.           ~>>^p»~X-»-^ 

A   MOVABLE   PANEL. 


42 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


A  NEAT  BOARD  FENCE. 


at  the  left.  The  slot  to  receive  an  inch  board  should  be  one 
and  a  fourth  inches  wide,  so  that  the  panel  can  be  lifted  out 
without  binding.  A  pair  of  good  stakes  should  be  driven  in  the 
ground  at  each  end,  to  prevent  the  panel  swinging  back  and 
forth  when  the  wind  blows. 

Where  a  board  fence  is  built  along  the  front  of   the  farm, 

and  it  is  desirable  to  make 
a  neat,  tasty  fence,  it  will 


add  to  its  appearance  to 
put  two  three-inch  strips, 
i|  crossing  each  other  as  shown 
in  the  cut.  A  fence  made 
in  this  way,  of  dressed 
lumber,  and  well  painted,  will  by  many  be  preferred  to  a  paling 
fence,  which  will  cost  much  more  money. 

"Wire  Fences  are  now  fast  superseding  all  other  kinds  in 
many  parts  of  the  country,  particularly  in  the  prairie  States. 
The  barbed  wire  fence  has  its  advocates  and  also  many  who 
oppose  it  as  dangerous  to  stock.  There  is  no  denying  the  fact 
that  valuable  animals  have  been  ruined  by  it,  and  I  would  ad- 
vise that  there  should  always  be  one  board  used  with  the  wire, 
as  this  will  enable  the  stock  to  see  the  fence  and  they  will  be 
much  less  likely  to  run  into  it  than  if  wire  alone  was  used.  As 
an  additional  precaution,  introduce  your  horses  to  the  fence  be- 
fore you  turn  them  out.  Lead  them  up  to  it  and  let  them  feel 
the  barbs,  and  their  natural  instinct  will  cause  them  to  avoid 
it.  I  think  one  runs  a  great  risk  in  turning  a  playful  horse 
out  where  there  is  a  barbed  wire  fence  without  taking  this 
precaution. 

There  are  two  facts  connected  with  wire  fence  which  make 
it  very  much  cheaper  than  post  and  board  fence ;  these  are  that 
the  posts  may  be  much  farther  apart,  and  that  a  cheaper  quality 
of  posts  can  be  used.  It  is  very  difficult  to  use  'crooked  posts 
in  making  post  and  board  fence,  as  the  boards  will  need  to 
be  cut  to  different  lengths  to  fit  them,  but  for  wire  fence  a 
crooked  post  is  as  good  as  a  straight  one,  and  it  can  usually  be 
bought  for  half  price.  I  am  hardly  prepared  to  state  what  is 


FARM  FENCING. 


43 


the  best  distance  apart  for  posts  for  a  wire  fence,  as  I  have  seen 
them  all  the  way  from  eight  up  to  fifty  feet  or  more.  I  believe, 
however,  that  a  good  post  every  two  rods,  with  two  or  more 
stays  of  some  kind  between,  will  be  found  sufficient.  I  think 
that  if  a  strip  of  board,  of  hard  wood,  three  inches  wide  and 
one  inch  thick,  is  used  every  six  feet  and  the  wire  stapled,  to  it 
it  will  support  the  wires  sufficiently. 

I  think  a  combined  wire  and  board  fence  will  be  found  cheap 
and  satisfactory,  and  where  only  a  cattle  fence  is  needed,  two- 
wires  and  a  strip  of  board  three  inches  wide  between  them  is 
all  that  will  be  required.  The  two  wires  alone  will  turn  cattle, 
but  the  strip  of  board  renders  the  fence  safer.  There  is  prob- 
ably no  stock  worse  to  fence  against  than  town  cows,  and  the 
college  campus  in  niy  village  has  been  fenced  with  two  barbed 
wires  for  several  years,  and  I  have  never  known  the  cattle 
to  trespass. 

My  plan  of  making  this  fence  with  the  three-inch  strip  of  board 
is  this :  Set  the  posts  a  little  less  than  thirty -two  feet  apart,  so 
that  when  one  end  of  a  three-inch  board  sixteen  feet  long  is 
nailed  to  each  post  the  other  ends  will  lap  a  few  inches.  Be- 


WIRE  AND  BOARD  CATTLE  FENCE. 


tween  the  ends  of  the  boards,  set  up  a  three-inch  strip  and  put 
a  carriage  bolt  with  washers  through  both  boards  and  the  up- 
right. Then  use  one  more  of  these  uprights  for  each  board. 
These  uprights  should  rest  on  a  flat  stone  or  block.  The  cost 
of  this  fence  would  be  about  as  follows  for  each  panel  of  nearly 
two  rods : 


One  post  set,         ........ 

Four  pounds  of  barbed  wire,     ..... 

Five  upright  strips  four  feet  long  and  three  inches  wide, 
Two  boards  three  inches  wide  and  sixteen  feet  long,    . 
Bolt,  staples,  and  putting  up,         . 

Total, 


30  cts. 
28    " 
12£  " 

16    " 
12£  " 

99    " 


44 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


or  about  fifty  cents  per  rod.  This  cost  could  be  materially  re- 
duced in  many  cases,  as  I  have  figured  every  thing  at  retail 
prices.  I  recently  bought  a  lot  of  large  split  locust  posts  for 
this  purpose  at  half  price  because  they  were  crooked. 

I  have  recently  examined  a  combined  fence  which  is  giving 
excellent  satisfaction,  in  which  the  posts  are  sixty-six  feet 
apart.  Sawed  oak  stakes  two  inches  square  are  driven  a  foot 


FENCE  WITH  POSTS  SIXTY-SIX  FEET  APART. 


into  the  ground  every  six  feet  and  the  wires  are  stapled  to  these 
stakes,  and  between  the  two  upper  wires  a  strip  of  board  three 
inches  wide  is  nailed  to  the  stakes.  These  are  not  continuous, 
but  each  board  is  nailed  to  two  stakes  and  is  independent  of 
the  others.  This  fence  looks  well  and  turns  stock  perfectly. 
In  making  wire  fence  of  any  kind  the  end  posts  must  be 

thoroughly  braced.  Set  large 
posts  deep  and  firm  for  the 
ends,  and  at  the  distance  of 
eight  or  ten  feet  from  them  set 
others.  Then  cut  a  notch 
near  the  top  of  your  end 
post,  and  cut  your  brace  so 
that  the  bottom  will  set 
against  the  second  post,  just  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
This  brace  should  be  of  lasting  timber  and  well  fitted. 

There  is  another  form  of  combined  wire  and  board  fence  be- 
ing built  which 
turns  all  stock 
even  pigs.  In 
this  fence  two 
boards  are  used 

at  the  bottom  and  two  barbed  wires  above.  With  this  fence 
only  one  long  post  is  needed  to  each  two  panels  of  fourteen 
or  sixteen  feet  each.  A  short  post,  projecting  two  feet  above 


HOW  TO  BRACE  A  POST. 


"*  1       *y                           j- 

*     «T 

l\'l 

•—  i                     «    ' 

K       J', 

.'/I                         II 

in      I         it 

i" 

"IT    "Mlt™^-""1"-'! 

-A^^^^ta 

COMBINED  WIRE  AND  BOARD  FENCE. 


FARM  FENCING. 


45 


the  ground  will  be  needed  to  splice  the  boards  on,  while  a 
good  stake  in  the  center  of  each  panel  will  be  all  that  is 
required. 

I  estimate  the  cost  of  this  fence  to  be  about  forty  cents  a  rod 
less  than  that  of  a  four  board  fence  with  a  post  every  eight  feet. 
I  would  nail  the  bottom  board  eight  inches  above  the  ground, 
and  bank  up;  then  a  four-inch  crack  between  the  two  boards 
and  this  would  bring  the  top  of  the  second  board  two  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  ground.  Put  the  first  wire  eight  inches 
above  the  board  and  the  second  sixteen  inches  above 
the  first. 

As  plain  wire  costs  but  half  as  much  as  barbed,  and  is  per- 
fectly safe,  it  is  preferred  by  many  for  fences.  I  have  seen  a 
fence  of  this  kind  made  with  seven  wires,  and  posts  thirty-six 
feet  apart  with  an  upright  of  inch  board  stapled  on  every  four 
feet,  and  the  owner  assured  me  that  it  turned  all  stock.  The 
saving  in  the  cost  of  wire  over  boards  would  be  about  twenty- 
five  cents  per  rod,  and  the  saving  in  posts  would  be  considerably 
more  than  this. 

Next  we  have  the  wire  and  slat  fence,  which  is  economical 
from  the  fact  that  refuse  lumber  can  be  used  in  making  it.  Old 


WOVEN-WIRE  SLAT  FENCE. 


boards  which  have  been  used  until  rotten  at  the  post  so  that 
they  will  no  longer  hold  nails,  are  often  sound  between  the 
posts,  and  can  be  cut  up  and  used  in  this  fence  and  will  last  for 
many  years,  or  the  farmer  with  timber  that  will  split  freely — 
oak  or  hickory  is  excellent — can  rive  out  slats.  It  is  sometimes 
made  with  boards  but  three  feet  long  and  a  barbed  wire 
stretched  above  it.  In  making  this  fence,  slats  of  any  width 
from  two  inches  up  to  six  or  eight  may  be  used.  Two  plain 
wires  are  stretched  eight  inches  above  the  ground  and  two 


46 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


LOOM  FOB    WEAV- 
ING IN  SLATS. 


others  about  thirty-two  inches  higher  up.  These  are  not 
stapled  to  the  posts  but  are  stretched  tight  enough  to  keep  them 
to  their  place.  As  the  tension  will  need  to  be  changed  as  the 
work  progresses,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  attach  the 
wires  to  a  sled  loaded  with  stone,  and  by  moving 
the  sled  either  way  the  tension  can  be  increased 
or  lessened.  It  is  advisable  that  the  wires  run  on 
the  side  of  the  posts  next  the  prevailing  winds. 
After  the  wires  are  in  place  the  slats  are  woven 
in  by  means  of  a  simple  implement  called  a 
loom,  and  shown  in  the  cut.  It  will  be 
seen  that  by  taking  hold  of  the  lever  at  the 
top  and  giving  a  half  turn  the  wires  will  be 
made  to  cross  each  other,  and  then  by  reversing 
the  motion  you  cross  them  back  again. 

The  secret  of  making  a  good  fence  of  this 
kind  is  to  have  every  slat  driven  tight  and 
snug,  so  that  the  cracks  are  of  uniform  width 
-and  there  shall  be  no  chance  for  a  slat  to  work  loose, 
for  if  one  slat  gets  out  it  allows  the  rest  to  slip,  and  the  fence  soon 
becomes  shaky.  A  friend  of  mine  who  was  inexperienced  in 
making  this  fence,  thought  he  could  save  a  slat  at  each  post,  and 
so  left  wide  cracks  where  the  fence  passed  the  posts,  and  soon 
found  it  coming  to  pieces.  For  the  same  reason  the  slats  should 
be  seasoned  and  dry.  If  you  make  the  fence  of  green  lumber 
the  seasoning  process  will  be  likely  to  shrink  them  so  that  the 
fence  will  become  loose,  and  the  slats  work  out.  After  the 
slats  are  woven  in  you  attach  the  fence  to  the  posts  by  passing 
a  loop  of  wire  around  each  post  at  the  top,  letting  it  cross 
the  two  wires  through  which  the  slats  pass,  including  one  slat, 
and  securing  it  by  a  staple.  Where  a  crack  comes  opposite  a 
post,  so  you  can  staple  the  wires  to  it,  do  so ;  and  whenever  a 
slat  comes  fairly  against  the  post  put  in  one  or  two  good  fence 
nails.  It  is  a  good  plan  in  building  this  fence  to  have  a  piece 
of  board  on  the  ground  to  set  the  slats  on,  so  as  to  keep 
the  fence  level.  It  seems  to  me  that  with  these  instructions  a 
novice  can  successfully  build  this  fence. 


FARM  FENCING.  47 

Portable  Fences. — One  great  need  for  the  farm  is  a  really 
good  portable  fence,  which  can  be  taken  down  and  set  up  easily 
and  rapidly,  without  injury  to  the  panels.  The  man  who  will 
give  us  such  a  fence  will  deserve  the  gratitude  of  farmers.  I 
have  never  yet  seen  a  portable  fence  that  was  free  from  serious 
objections.  Either  it  would  blow  over  in  a  gale,  or  it  was  made 
zigzag,  and  occupied  as  much  space  as  a  rail  fence,  or  it  must 
have  ground  sills,  keys,  and  braces  which  were  in  the  way  or 
liable  to  get  out  of  order,  or  worse  still,  as  is  often  the  case, 
had  no  merit  or  value  except  that  it  paid  the  patent-right  man 
a  fee.  I  think  that  during  the  last  thirty  years  half  the  farmers 
of  my  acquaintance  have  bought  the  right  to  use  some  kind  of 
portable  fence,  and  a  search  through  a  township  would  not  ordi- 
narily result  in  finding  a  quarter  of  a  mile  of  it  in  use.  In 
1878  I  invented  what  I  call  a 

Self-supporting  Truss  Fence. — I  have  had  this  fence  in 
use  ever  since  on  my  farm,  and  for  certain  purposes  I  like  it 
well,  and  it  has  grown  in  favor  with  me  each  year  I  have  used  it. 
The  principle  of  this  fence, 
as  you  will  see  from  the  cut, 
is  that  one  panel  supports 
the  other.  I  first  tried  making 
it  with  oak  pieces  three  inches 
square  for  the  uprights,  and 
with  panels  fourteen  feet 
long.  I  found  it  was  heavy  to  handle,  and  that  the  boards 
would  sag  in  the  middle.  I  now  make  it  with  oak  uprights,  two 
inches  square,  and  panels  eight  feet  long.  These  panels  are 
light  and  easy  to  handle,  and  stand  much  firmer  than  if  made 
longer.  In  exposed  situations,  when  I  used  the  longer  panels, 
this  fence  was  sometimes  blown  down  in  a  gale,  but  I  have  never 
had  the  eight-foot  panels  blown  over,  although  I  have  for  two 
years  used  it  for  a  barnyard  fence,  where  it  is  five  feet  high. 
In  all  exposed  situations,  I  would  recommend  an  occasional 
stake,  as  the  cost  would  be  very  small  and  the  advantage  great. 
All  that  would  be  necessary  would  be  to  drive  a  stake  in  the 
notch  once  in  two  rods,  or  every  fourth  panel,  and  drive  a  fence 


SELF-SUPPORTING  TRUSS  FENCE. 


48  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

nail  through  the  board  into  it.  The  cost  of  this  would  not  ex- 
ceed a  dollar  and  a  half  for  forty  rods  of  fence,  as  it  would 
require  but  twenty  stakes,  worth  not  more  than  five  cents  each, 
and  they  could  be  driven  down  in  two  hours.  A  still  cheaper 
way  to  guard  against  wind,  is  to  drive  short  stakes  against  the 
brace  boards,  near  the  outer  part  of  the  upright.  Let  the  stake 
come  up  a  foot  above  the  ground,  and  drive  a  nail  through  it 
into  the  upright.  When  this  fence  is  to  be  put  up  to  stand  some 

years,  I  would  recom- 
mend that  it  be  made  but 
three  boards  high,  and 
that  a  barbed  wire  be 
TRUSS  FENCE  WITH  STAKES  AND  WIRE.  stretched  over  it,  and 

fastened  to  the  stakes.  There  would  only  need  to  be  posts  used 
at  the  ends,  as  the  stakes  set  in  the  notches  would  be  held  firmly 
by  the  fence  which  would  be  nailed  to  them.  If  before  setting 
up  this  fence  a  few  furrows  were  thrown  together  so  as  to  raise 
the  land  six  inches  above  the  level  of  the  field,  and  leave  a  shal- 
low ditch  each  side,*  I  think  that  three  boards  and  a  wire  would 
turn  a  breachy  mule. 

This  fence  is  not  strictly  portable,  but  it  can  be  taken  apart 
and  moved  without  disturbing  the  panels,  and  quite  rapidly.  We 
do  not  fasten  the  tops  of  the  uprights  together  at  all,  as  we 
find  that  the  short  brace-boards  nailed  to  the  uprights  hold  it 
perfectly.  If  you  are  putting  up  the  fence  for  temporary  use, 
I  would  not  nail  it  to  the  stakes  at  all,  but  would  drive  them 
on  alternate  sides,  and  one  to  every  sixteen  feet.  In  this  case 
cheap  stakes  would  be  sufficient,  as  there  would  be  no  danger 
of  their  rotting  off. 

One  great  advantage  of  a  fence  of  this  kind  is  that  it  can 
be  made  in  the  barn  or  shop  during  the  leisure  of  winter  or  on 
stormy  days  when  outside  work  can  not  be  done,  and  it  can  be 
set  up  when  the  ground  is  frozen,  or  when  so  wet  that  it  would 
be  impossible  to  dig  post  holes  and  set  posts.  Even  if  you 
make  the  fence  full  height  without  the  wire,  it  will  take  but 
three  feet  of  lumber  for  the  uprights  for  each  panel,  and  this 
costs  you  but  one-third  as  much  as  a  good  post.  We  also  save 


FARM  FENCING.  49 

the  expense  of  digging  holes  and  setting  posts,  and,  besides, 
gain  the  advantage  mentioned  above,  of  doing  most  of  the  work 
in  bad  weather.  I  have  never  put  up  a  long  string  of  this  fence 
at  one  time,  but  I  know  that  two  men  can  set  up  a  quarter  of 
a  mile  of  it  in  a  day.  The  cost  of  the  brace-boards  will  be 
very  little,  as  they  can  be  cut  from  waste  lumber.  In  making 
this  fence  you  will  want  a  mitre-box  for  sawing  your  uprights. 
The  tops  of  the  uprights  should  fit  exactly  when  the  panels 
are  set  up,  so  as  to  give  the  proper  spread  at  the  bottom. 

For  a  three-board  fence  that  is  to  have  wire  and  stakes  to 
complete  it,  two  feet  will  be  ample  spread  for  the  bottom.  My 
barn-yard  fence,  which  is  five  boards  high,  has  a  spread  of  three 
feet.  You  will  measure  carefully,  and  get  your  first  panel  squared 
and  spaced  exactly  right,  and  then  use  it  for  a  pattern,  laying 
the  cross-pieces  and  boards  exactly  above  the  ones  on  your 
pattern. 

When  you  wish  to  move  a  line  of  this  fence,  loosen  one  end, 
and  take  it  apart  by  lifting  the  panel  and  twisting  it  around  at 
right  angles  with  the  fence,  as  in  this  way  you  will  break  the 
nails  without  splitting  so  many  of  the  brace-boards.  I  should 
not  consider  it  expensive  to  move  the  fence,  however,  if  you 
split  half  of  the  short  boards,  as  new  ones  would  cost  but  little, 
and  the  split  pieces  would  be  worth  nearly  cost  for  kindling. 
In  sawing  the  brace-boards  you  will  save  lumber  and  work  to 
reverse  the  board  each  cut.  I  think  the  cost  of  moving  a  fence 
of  this  kind,  even  if  new  brace-boards  must  be  furnished,  would 
be  less  than  to  move  a  rail-fence  of  the  same  length.  The  bot- 
toms of  the  uprights  can  be  placed  on  a  flat  stone,  or  piece  of 
board,  to  keep  them  from  decay.  I  feel  quite  sure  that,  if 
farmers  will  give  this  fence  a  trial,  they  will  find  it  cheap,  and, 
in  many  places,  the  best  fence  they  can  get  for  the  money. 

Fence  Rows. — There  are  many  farms  marred  by  the  neg- 
lected fence-rows,  where  sprouts  and  briers  hold  undisputed 
sway.  These  should  be  cleaned  out,  and  kept  cleaned,  and  in 
doing  this,  "a  stitch  in  time  will  save  nine."  Do  not  wait  till 
a  wilderness  has  grown  up,  but  go  over  the  row,  spring  and  fall, 
and  cut  or  grub  whatever  has  made  its  appearance.  Line-fences 

4 


50 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


are  most  often  neglected  in  this  manner.  If  you  have  any 
such,  make  an  arrangement  with  your  neighbor  by  which  the 
fence  shall  be  set  over  a  few  feet,  one  way  or  the  other,  till  the 
row  is  cleaned  out  and  the  briers  and  weeds  thoroughly  sub- 
dued, when  it  can  be  put  back.  Whatever  other  fences  you 
neglect,  be  sure  and  keep  good  line-fences,  for  this  goes  a  great 
ways  towards  making  good  neighbors.  If,  by  accident,  your 
neighbor's  stock  trespasses  on  you,  try  and  keep  your  temper, 
for  to  lose  this  often  involves  the  loss  of  a  friend,  and  causes 
years  of  unhappiness.  If  your  stock  trespass  upon  your  neigh- 
bor, offer  to  pay  him  the  full  damage,  and  do  your  best  to  pre- 
vent a  repetition  of  the  offense. 

Water-gaps  and  Flood-gates  are  on  many  farms  a 
great  vexation  to  the  fence-builder.  Where  the  banks  are  high 
and  firm  enough  to  support  a  pole,  and  not  so  far  apart  but  that 
one  can  be  found  to  reach,  it  is  not  a  difficult  matter  to  put  up 

a  swing-gate;  but, 
when  abutments 
must  be  built,  the 
difficulty  is  greatly 
increased.  I  have 
hit  upon  a  plan  for 
an  abutment  which 
is  cheap  and  dura- 
ble, and  in  many  cases  will  answer  the  purpose  admirably : 
Get  an  oak  hogshead,  such  as  is  used  for  shipping  crockery; 
take  it  to  the  blacksmith's,  and  have  it  hooped  with  old  wagon- 
tire,  and  place  it  where  you  need  the  support  for  your  pole.  In 
some  cases  you  will  need  to  dig  a  little  to  settle  it,  or,  if  the 
bottom  is  sandy  or  mucky,  to  drive  a  row  of  stakes  around  it, 
at  a  little  distance,  to  protect  it.  After  it  is  in  place  fill  it  with 
stone.  If  your  abutment  needs  to  be  higher  than  the  hogshead, 
you  can  build  flat  stone  up  two  or  three  feet  above  it.  If  you 
wish  to  make  it  extra  strong  and  permanent,  mix  thin  mortar — 
one  part  lime  to  four  of  sharp  sand — and  pour  it  in  to  fill  the 
interstices  and  bind  the  stone  together.  Such  an  abutment  is 
cheap,  and  the  rounded  surface  of  the  hogshead  presents  but 


A  GOOD  WATER-GAP. 


FARM  FENCING.  51 

little  resistance  to  the  water,  and,  unless  undermined,  it  is  not 
liable  to  be  washed  away. 

The  best  way  I  have  found  to  attach  the  gate  to  the  pole 
is  shown  in  the  cut.  Use  oak  pieces,  two  by  four  inches,  for 
the  uprights ;  bore  an  inch-hole  near  the  top  to  pass  the  chain 
through,  and  suspend  them  with  chains.  The  pieces  need  not 
be  more  than  four  feet  long,  and  the  chains  must  suit  in  length 
the  distance  from  the  pole  to  the  bed  of  the  stream.  After 
passing  them  through  the  uprights  the  chains  should  be  attached 
to  the  pole  by  driving  large  spikes  through  a  link  into  it  on  the 
lower,  or  down-stream,  side.  The  chains  must  then  pass  over 
the  pole,  and  hang  down  on  the  upper  side.  This  will  make 
them  draw  across  the  pole,  and  relieve  the  strain  on  the  spikes. 
Before  putting  up  the  uprights  they  should  be  bored,  with  a 
three-eighth  bit,  where  the  boards  are  to  go  on.  Place  the 
boards  on  the  upper  side,  and  bolt  them  with  strong  carriage- 
bolts  and  good  washers.  If  the  gap  is  one  where  there  is  a 
swift  current,  and  likely  to  be  much  water,  it  is  best  to  use  oak 
boards.  It  is  cheaper,  in  the  long  run,  to  pay  two  or  three 
dollars  for  a  good  locust  pole  than  to  take  a  sappy  elm,  or  some 
other  timber  that  will  soon  rot.  Where  only  cattle  are  to  be 
fenced  against,  barbed  wires  may  often  be  stretched  across  a 
stream,  and  will  make  the  cheapest  and  best  fence  in  such  a 
location. 

Farm-gates. — It  is  not  as  common  as  it  was  a  few  years 
ago  to  see  rickety  bars  in  use  on  the  farm,  or,  what  is  worse,  a 
panel  of  rail-fence  opened  to  get  into  a  field;  but  gates  are  not 
yet  as  plenty  as  they  should  be.  There  should  be  a  gate  of 
some  kind  in  every  line  of  fence,  so  that  you  can  always  get 
from  one  field  to  another  without  going  too  far  out  of  the  way, 
or  having  to  open  a  fence. 

Our  illustration  shows  what  is  called  the  lift-gate.  These 
have  come  into  general  use,  and  have  almost  entirely  superseded 
bars,  and  are  a  good  substitute  for  other  gates  in  all  places  where 
a  gate  will  only  be  used  one  or  two  days  in  a  week.  It  should 
always  be  made  of  the  lightest  material  consistent  with  strength. 
There  should  be  a  piece  of  board,  one  or  two  feet  long,  under 


52 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


A  LIFT-GATE. 


the  end  of  the  gate,  which  you  swing  around,  and  the  other  end 
should  rest  on  a  round  stick,  as  there  will  be  less  friction  as  it 
pivots  around.  Two  of  the  boards  should  project  four  inches  at 
the  end  of  the  gate  you  open,  so  as  to  pass  between  the  stakes 

and  hold  the  gate  to  its 
place.  In  opening  this  gate 
you  slide  it  back  till  clear 
of  the  post  or  stakes,  and 
then  carry  the  end  around 
while  the  other  pivots  be- 
tween the  stakes.  You  will 
notice  that,  at  the  hinge 
end,  the  stakes  are  not  set  opposite  each  other,  but  angling. 
This  is  to  enable  the  gate  to  be  swung  open  without  binding. 

There  are  some  places  on  every  farm  where  good,  permanent 
gates  will  be  needed,  and  these  should  be  well  made,  of  good 
material,  and  well  hung  to  a  good  post,  firmly  set.  It  were 
better  to  make  a  lift-gate  than  to  hang  a  gate  to  spindling-posts, 
so  set  as  to  lean  out  of  perpendicular  as  soon  as  the  ground 
becomes  soft,  or  to  put  up  a  gate  made  of  soft  lumber,  badly 
braced,  and  so  put  together  as  to  become  loose  and  rickety  in  a 
few  months.  I  would  recommend  that  the  lumber  for  a  gate  be 
thoroughly  seasoned  and  planed.  The  cheapest  and  best  way  to 
make  it  is  to  bolt  it  together,  using  washers  with  the  bolts.  Use 
long  strap-hinges,  and  put  an  extra  strip  on  the  gate  where  each 
hinge  goes  to  bolt  the  hinges  to.  Before  hanging  give  the  gate 
two  good  coats  of  paint.  To  make  a  gate  in  this  way  no  mortises 
Will  be  needed,  but  I  would  recommend  hard  wood  for  the  slats, 
which  take  the  place  of  the  uprights  in  the  framed  gate.  When 
the  gate  is  hung,  put  up  a  post,  or  strong  stake,  for  it  to  swing 
against  when  open,  and  have  a  strap  or  hook  to  fasten  it,  so  that 
it  will  not  blow  against  your  team  or  wagon-wheels  as  you  pass 
through  on  a  windy  day.  Always  arrange  a  rest  for  the  gate,  so 
that,  when  open  or  closed,  the  weight  will  not  hang  on  the 
hinges,  but  rest  on  the  bottom.  This  rest  may  be  a  smooth  stone 
or  a  piece  of  scantling,  and  should  be  placed  so  as  to  slope  a  little 
towards  the  gate,  so  that  it  will  gradually  receive  its  weight. 


FARM  FENCING.  53 

This  plan,  which  will  not  take  five  minutes  to  arrange,  will 
relieve  the  gate  and  post  of  much  strain. 

Wherever  a  permanent  gate  is  needed  it  will  pay  to  have  a 
good  post  well  set.  It  is  of  more  importance  to  have  it  of  good 
size  below  ground  than  above.  A  locust  tree  that  will  square 
six  or  eight  inches,  dug  up  by  the  roots,  will  have  a  base  large 
enough  to  set  firmly.  It  should  be  put  in  the  ground  not  less 
than  forty  inches  and  well  tamped.  Always  hang  the  gate 
high,  not  less  than  eight  inches  above  the  level,  and  then  with 
broken  stone  and  fine  gravel  make  an  easy  grade  on  both  sides 
to  the  gate.  This  will  prevent  it  from  dragging  or  being  im- 
peded by  snow  and  will  insure  a  solid  road-bed  through  the 
gateway,  and  drainage  which  will  lead  the  water  away.  I  think 
that  nine  gates  out  of  ten  are  hung  too  near  the  ground.  The 
best  fastening  for  a  gate  is  a  wooden  latch  made  of  hard  wood 
and  so  hung  that,  whenever  the  gate  is  swung  to,  it  will  spring 
into  the  mortise  in  the  post  made  to  receive  it. 

A  gate  properly  made,  well  hung  to  a  good  post,  with  a 
well  graded  roadway,  will  cost  quite  a  sum,  but  will  last  for 
years  and  be  a  comfort  every  time  you  must  pass  through  it; 
and  counting  time  lost  and  repairs,  the  gate  illy  made  and  badly 
hung,  which  must  be  dragged  around  through  a  mud  hole,  will 
cost  more  in  the  long  run.  I  find  it  a  decided  advantage 
to  have  small  gates  at  the  barn-yard  to  pass  through  to  milk 
and  feed,  and  to  turn  the  cattle  in  and  out.  For  this  purpose  a 
gate  three  and  a  half  feet  wide  is  as  good  as  a  wide  one  and  is 
much  easier  to  handle  and  not  likely  to  get  out  of  repair.  By 
having  gates  of  this  kind  at  the  barn-yard,  lift-gates  can  be  used 
for  the  wagon- way. 


54  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


III. 

RARNl    DRAINAGES. 

IT  is  a  fact  well  known  to  the  farmer  that  uniformly  good 
crops  can  only  be  grown  on  a  well  drained  soil.  While 
a  good  start  has  been  made  in  the  drainage  of  our  farm 
lands  during  the  present  generation,  it  is  only  a  start,  and  there 
yet  remains  in  all  parts  of  the  country  much  land  which  would 
be  improved  by  drainage.  Probably,  under  a  better  system 
of  farming,  we  shall  see  much  of  our  upland  drained  which 
is  not  at  present  thought  to  need  it.  A  large  per  cent  of  our 
uplands  are  retentive  of  water,  and  slow  to  dry  out  in  the 
spring,  so  as  to  be  in  fit  condition  to  work,  and  the  farmer  must 
often  wait  till  the  cool,  favorable  weather  of  April  has  passed, 
and  hot  weather  has  come,  before  he  can  plow  these  lands. 
Under  these  conditions  his  team  suffers  with  the  heat  and  heavy 
work  of  breaking  the  land,  and,  without  great  care  and  labor,  it 
is  likely  to  dry  and  bake  in  bad  condition,  so  as  to  render  it  im- 
possible to  grow  a  heavy  crop. 

Advantages  of  Drainage. — Farmers  who  have  drained 
extensively  have  found  many  benefits  from  it  which  would  not 
be  thought  of  by  those  who  have  no  practical  experience  in  the 
matter.  Dr.  Townshend,  who  was  one  of  the  first  farmers  in 
the  West  to  drain  with  tile,  gave  in  a  lecture  on  this  subject  the 
following  points  of  advantage  gained  by  thorough  drainage. 

1st.  It  deepens  the  soil. 

2d.  It  prevents  the  killing  out  of  the  best  grasses  and  the 
bringing  in  of  sedges  in  their  place. 

3d.  It  makes  the  land  warmer. 

4th.  It  improves  the  texture  of  soils. 


FARM  DRAINAGE. 


55 


5th.  It  enables  us  to  work  our  lands  much  earlier  in  the 
spring. 

6th.  It  prevents  washing  and  waste  of  manure. 

7th.  It  prevents  wheat  and  other  winter  grain  from  freez- 
ing out. 

To  these  I  would  add  that  it  prevents  failure  of  crops  in 
excessively  wet  seasons,  and  enables  them  to  endure  drought 
better. 

It  also  saves  time,  as  the  farmer  whose  lands  are  drained 
can  not  only  work  them  earlier  in  the  spring,  but  also  gain  a 
day  or  more  after  each  heavy  rain. 

How  Drainage  Helps  the  Soil. — To  understand  how 
drainage  can  accomplish  all  the  points  claimed  above,  some  of 
which  seem  to  be  incompatible  with  each  other,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary for  us  to  consider  some  of  the  characteristics  of  the  soil 
and  the  conditions  of  successful  plant  growth. 

No  soil  can  produce  useful  crops  when  it  is  permanently  sat- 
urated with  water.  Even  the  cultivated  grasses  will  perish,  and 
nothing  but  reeds,  rushes,  and  sedges  grow. 

The  best  condition  of  soil  for  plant  growth  is  that  in  which 
the  particles  of  soil  are  moist  but  with  no  standing  water 
between  them. 

Our  figures  show  the  difference  between  dry,  wet,  and 
drained  soils  as  seen  under  a  magni- 
fying glass.  A  soil  is  made  up  of 
small  particles  thrown  together  mis- 
cellaneously, having  small  spaces  be- 
tween them,  like  a  sponge.  There  are 
also  small  pores  and  cells  in  the  par- 
ticles themselves.  Fig.  1  shows  a  dry 
soil,  there  being  no  moisture  either 
between  the  particles  or  in  them,  but 
all  the  cavities  filled  with  air  alone. 


FIG.  1.  — DRY  SOIL. 


As  moisture  is  a  prime  essential  for  the  growth  of  plants,  it  is 
evident  that  the  seed  a  can  not  germinate  nor  plants  grow  in  a 
soil  in  this  condition.  Fig.  2  shows  a  block  of  soil  saturated  with 
water,  and  here  both  pores  and  cells  are  filled  with  water.  In  a 


56 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


soil  in  this  condition  no  cultivated  plant  can  long  grow.     Fig.  3 

shows  the  condition  of  a  drained  soil ; 
you  will  notice  that  while  the  pores 
in  the  particles  are  filled  with  moist- 
ure, the  spaces  between  them  are 
filled  with  air,  and  this  is  the  best 
condition  for  plant  growth,  for  the 
roots  have  access  to  both  air  and 
moisture, 
and  these 


FIG.  2.— WET  SOIL. 


are     neces- 


sary to  produce  the  chemical  changes 
in  the  soil  which  prepare  the  food 
for  the  plant.  Soils  vary  greatly  in 
the  amount  of  water  they  will  hold 
by  absorption,  and  a  well  drained  soil 
is  not  necessarily  a  dry  one.  Careful 
experiment  has  shown  that  one  hun- 
dred pounds  of  soil  would  retain  the  following  weight  of  water 
which  would  not  flow  off  by  drainage. 


FIG.  3.— DRAINED  SOIL. 


Sand,    . 
Loamy  soil, 
Clay  loam,     . 
Pure  clay, 
Garden  mould, 


251bs. 
40  " 
50  " 
70  " 
89  " 


Having  seen  why  a  drained  soil  furnishes  the  most  favor- 
able conditions  of  plant  growth,  let  us  look  in  detail  at  the 
points  of  advantage  claimed  for  it. 

Drainage  deepens  the  soil  by  allowing  sun  and  air  to  pene- 
trate it,  and  thus  chemical  action  is  induced.  Every  intelligent 
farmer  knows  that  a  crude  and  unproductive  subsoil,  when 
brought  to  the  surface,  is  soon  changed  in  color  and  texture  by 
atmospheric  action,  and,  although  at  first  nearly  barren,  will 
finally  become  fertile.  An  excellent  illustration  is  furnished  by 
the  brick-yards  of  my  locality,  where  the  subsoil  is  a  stiff,  red- 
dish clay.  I  have  known  all  the  soil  removed,  and  a  field  to  lie 
barren  for  a  few  years,  but  finally  to  become  productive  from 


FARM  DRAINAGE.  57 

the  chemical  changes  wrought  upon  it.  Precisely  this  is  accom- 
plished in  the  soil  by  drainage;  for,  as  we  lower  the  water-line 
and  admit  the  air  and  warmth,  this  chemical  action  is  induced. 

Still  another  way  in  which  drainage  deepens  the  soil  is  by 
enabling  the  roots  to  penetrate  the  subsoil,  and  by  their  decay 
they  form  humus,  which  is  one  of  the  most  important  ingredi- 
ents of  a  fertile  soil.  The  character  and  value  of  humus  will 
be*  explained  in  another  chapter. 

The  fact  is  well  known  to  every  observant  farmer  that  only 
the  sedges  and  coarser  plants  will  flourish  on  a  soil  saturated 
with  water.  The  growth  of  flags,  sedges,  skunk  cabbage,  etc., 
is  one  of  the  signs  nature  hangs  out,  like  a  flag  of  distress,  to 
show  that  the  land  needs  to  be  drained.  When  such  soils  are 
drained,  these  worthless  plants  die  out,  and  are  replaced  by 
those  of  value  to  the  farmer. 

Underdraining  makes  the  land  warmer,  by  admitting  the 
warm  air  to  the  soil,  for,  as  nature  never  allows  a  vacuum,  as 
fast  as  the  water  is  drawn  off,  the  air  penetrates  and  warms  the 
soil.  A  dry  soil  is  warmer  than  a  wet  one,  because  evaporation 
is  avoided.  Science  teaches  us  that  the  evaporation  of  one 
pound  of  water  requires  more  than  five  times  as  much  heat 
as  would  be  needed  to  raise  the  same  amount  from  the  freezing 
to  the  boiling  point.  We  have  many  illustrations  of  the  truth 
of  this,  as,  for  example,  the  water  in  a  jug  will  remain  cool  as 
long  as  it  is  kept  wrapped  in  wet  flannel.  Perspiration  on  the 
body,  by  its  evaporation,  keeps  us  cool,  and  enables  us  to 
endure  heat  that  would  soon  be  fatal  if  it  were  not  for  this 
wise  arrangement  of  Providence. 

If  the  water  which  falls  upon  a  field  must  be  removed  by 
evaporation,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  heat  which  otherwise 
would  warm  the  soil,  and  fit  it  for  pushing  the  growth  of 
plants,  must  be  expended  in  evaporating  the  water. 

Many  tests  have  been  made  with  the  thermometer,  and  the 
temperature  of  the  drained  field  has  been  shown,  during  the 
spring,  to  be  several  degrees  higher  than  that  of  the  undrained. 
A  drained  soil  can  be  plowed  much  earlier  in  the  Spring  than 
an  undrained  one,  and,  as  a  loose  soil  admits  sun  and  air,  and 


58  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

warms  up  much  sooner  than  a  compact  one,  we  see  another 
reason  why  the  drained  soil  is  warmer. 

Drainage  improves  the  texture  of  the  soil,  as  already  indi- 
cated, by  allowing  greater  chemical  action,  and  by  producing  a 
better  mechanical  condition,  and  also  because,  by  lengthening 
the  season,  it  enables  the  farmer  to  prepare  his  land  more 
thoroughly.  In  other  words,  a  well-drained  soil  will  not  only 
be  found  in  such  a  condition  that  the  work  of  preparation  will 
be  more  effectual,  but,  as  the  work  can  be  begun  earlier,  the 
farmer  will  not  only  have  more  time  in  which  to  do  it,  but 
more  favorable  conditions. 

If  the  plows  can  be  started  in  March,  and  the  breaking 
finished  early  in-  April,  the  weather  will  usually  be  cool,  and 
the  work  much  easier  for  the  teams.  Land  plowed  at  this  sea- 
son does  not  dry  and  bake  quickly,  as  when  it  is  done  later, 
after  the  hot  weather  comes.  It  also  undergoes  some  changes, 
which  make  it  crumble  more  readily,  and  the  farmer  whose 
land  has  been  plowed  early  has  abundant  time  to  pulverize  his 
soil  and  get  it  in  good  condition.  All  these  causes  combine  to 
give  a  better  condition  of  soil  on  the  well-drained  farm. 

It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  importance  of  the  lengthened 
season  which  drainage  gives.  For  several  years  business  led 
me  to  travel  the  length  of  Ohio,  from  north  to  south,  in  early 
spring,  and  the  contrast  was  striking.  Several  counties  through 
which  I  passed  in  the  south-western  part  of  the  State  are  nat- 
urally and  artificially  well  drained,  and  here  the  spring  work 
would  be  well  advanced,  gardens  made,  oats  coming  up,  and 
most  of  the  corn  land  plowed.  When  I  reached  the  flat  coun- 
ties, where  little,  if  any,  attention  had  been  paid  to  drainage, 
often  as  late  as  the  first  of  May  not  a  furrow  had  been  plowed, 
and  water  would  be  seen  standing  on  the  fields,  and  the  outlook 
was  most  discouraging. 

The  effect  of  frost  is  disastrous  on  undrained  lands,  both  in 
spring  and  fall,  as  the  land  cools  so  rapidly  by  evaporation 
that  the  fruit  and  gardens  are  often  killed  on  such  lands  when 
they  do  not  suffer  at  all  on  drained  lands.  Thus  the  season 
is  shortened  at  both  ends.  My  garden,  which  is  thoroughly 


FARM  DRAINAGE.  59 

underdrained,  is  an  excellent  illustration  of  the  effect  of  drainage 
in  lengthening  the  season  and  enabling  plants  to  withstand  cold. 
I  usually  find  it  dry  enough  to  work  the  last  week  in  February 
or  first  in  March,  and  though  mercury  often  goes  down  to  within 
ten  degrees  of  zero  after  it  is  planted,  I  have  never  lost  hardy 
vegetables,  such  as  peas,  cabbage,  beets,  etc.  In  the  fall,  also, 
corn,  tomatoes,  and  lima  beans  usually  remain  green  for  weeks 
after  they  are  killed  on  flat,  wet  lands  of  the  neighborhood. 

On  soils  well  underdrained,  there  will  be  less  damage  from 
washing  and  less  waste  of  the  manure  dropped  by  the  stock, 
for  the  earth  will  take  more  water  and  less  will  run  off  at  the 
surface,  and  water  that  percolates  through  the  soil,  leaves 
much  fertilizing  material  which  would  be  lost  if  it  flowed  off 
in  the  runs. 

Drainage  prevents  winter  grain  and  clover  from  freezing  out, 
for  this  is  not  ordinarily  caused  by  simple  cold,  but  by  the  ex- 
pansion of  the  soil,  which  freezes  when  full  of  water  and  breaks 
the  roots,  thus  destroying  the  plants. 

The  claim  that  drainage  prevents  failure  of  crops  in  both 
wet  and  dry  seasons  may  seem  paradoxical,  but  a  little  study 
will,  I  think,  make  the  matter  plain.  It  is  easy  to  understand 
how  it  helps  land  in  a  wet  season,  but  to  many  it  is  not  so 
clear  how  it  will  help  in  a  dry  season.  It  enables  the  farmer 
to  thoroughly  pulverize  the  soil.  A  fine  surface  acts  as  a  mulch 
which  retains  the  moisture ;  also,  by  capillary  attraction  it  draws 
moisture  from  below.  This  principle  of  capillary  attraction  is 
illustrated  by  the  lamp-wick  which  draws  up  the  oil.  Our  most 
severe  droughts  often  follow  exceedingly  wet  weather,  and  the 
land  saturated  with  water  cannot  be  mellowed  in  time,  but 
bakes  and  dries  and  ruins  the  crop.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
drained  soil  discharges  its  surplus  water  through  the  drain  much 
quicker,  and  leaves  the  land  in  better  condition,  and  it  can  be 
planted  or  cultivated  enough  sooner,  so  as  often  to  make. all  the 
difference  between  a  good  and  poor  crop.  On  the  drained  soil 
the  roots  will  extend  to  a  much  greater  depth,  thus  enabling 
the  plants  to  endure  drought  much  better  than  if  they  were  near 
the  surface. 


60  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

When  to  Drain. — On  most  soils  the  best  time  to  drain 
will  be  in  the  early  spring,  when  the  land  is  wet  enough  to 
spade  easily,  and  the  water  will  follow  in  the  drain,  but  the 
work  may  be  done  in  autumn,  or  at  any  time  during  an  open 
winter.  When  draining  is  done  in  the  winter  care  must  be 
taken  to  lay  the  tile  and  cover  it  as  soon  as  possible,  or  the  freez- 
ing and  thawing  of  the  banks  will  cause  them  to  cave  and  ob- 
struct the  drain. 

What  Lands  need  Draining. — The  first  land  the  far- 
mer should  drain,  if  he  can  not  be  at  the  expense  of  a  general 
system  of  drainage  for  his  farm,  is  the  swales  or  low  places 
through  his  cultivated  fields.  On  many  of  our  best  upland 
farms  these  are  quite  common,  and  they  usually  angle  through 
the  fields,  making  them  a  bad  shape  and  causing  quite  a  loss  of 
time  in  cultivating,  and  become  nurseries  of  foul  seeds.  These 
swales  are  often  found  on  farms  which  are  otherwise  comparatively 
dry.  There  is  usually  sufficient  fall,  and  they  can  be  cheaply 
and  easily  drained,  and  I  have  often  known  the  entire  expense 
paid  in  a  single  crop.  There  was  on  Eastview  Farm  when  I 
bought  it  one  hundred  and  fifty  rods  of  these  swales,  too  wet 
to  be  cultivated,  and  in  the  spring  of  the  year  often  too  soft  to 
cross  with  a  wagon.  They  grew  only  flags  and  sedges,  and  as 
they  angled  through  my  best  fields  with  a  width  varying  from 
two  to  six  rods,  it  is  easy  to  see  how  great  a  disadvantage  they 
were  to  the  farm.  By  draining  these,  from  three  to  four  acres 
of  the  best  land  on  the  farm  was  rendered  productive,  and  as, 
in  favorable  years,  it  has  produced  thirty  bushels  of  wheat,  or 
eighty  of  corn,  to  the  acre,  and  the  entire  cost  of  draining  was 
less  than  one  hundred  dollars,  it  can  be  seen  that  it  has  been 
largely  profitable.  Before  laying  tile  in  these  swales,  a  careful 
examination  of  the  adjoining  lands  should  be  made  to  decide 
whether,  at  some  future  time,  it  will  be  profitable  to  drain  them 
and  use  these  drains  as  mains,  and  if  it  is  probable  that  this  will 
be  the  case,  tile  large  enough  to  receive  all  the  water  that  is 
to  be  brought  to  them  should  be  laid. 

Most  flat  lands  under  cultivation,  which  are  not  underlaid 
with  gravel,  will  pay  for  draining,  as  the  natural  drainage  is  too 


FARM  DRAINAGE.  61 

slow  in  the  spring  to  fit  them  for  the  growth  of  plants  as  early 
as  they  ought  to  be  planted.  Without  drainage  there  is  often  a 
temptation  to  plow  and  cultivate  them  too  wet,  and  this  results 
in  poor  crops  and  permanent  injury  to  the  soil.  I  have  little 
doubt  that  it  would  be  found  profitable  to  drain  all  lands  having 
a  stiff  subsoil  in  which,  during  the  spring,  or  after  a  rain,  the 
water  collects  if  a  hole  two  or  three  feet  deep  is  dug.  It 
will  often  be  found  profitable  to  underdrain  even  rolling  lands. 
It  is,  of  course,  wise  for  the  farmer  to  drain  first  his  wet- 
test lands,  such  as  without  drainage  will  not  produce  grain  at 
all;  but  after  this  is  done  he  should  experiment  with  his  drier 
lands,  and  see  if  he  can  not  invest  his  money  better  in  draining 
them  than  in  something  outside  of  his  business. 

The  size  of  tile  to  use  is  a  matter  which  will  require  good 
judgment,  and  I  do  not  think  any  general  rule  can  be  laid  down, 
for  where  there  is  a  heavy  fall  a  tile  will  carry  considerably 
more  water  than  where  the  fall  is  slight.  If  the  tile  is  laid 
deep  it  will  not  need  to  be  so  large  as  if  shallow,  for  the  land 
will  hold  a  large  amount  of  water,  which  will  not,  for  a  time, 
interfere  with  the  growing  crops,  and  we  can,  therefore,  take  a 
longer  time  to  remove  it. 

From  Mr.  Billingsly's  work  on  drainage  I  copy  the  following : 
"For  drains  not  more  than  five  hundred  feet  long  a  two-inch  tile 
will  drain  two  acres ;  a  three-inch  tile  will  drain  five  acres,  and 
should  not  be  of  greater  length  than  one  thousand  feet ;  a  four- 
inch  tile  will  drain  twelve  acres ;  a  five-inch  tile  will  drain 
twenty  acres;  a  six-inch  tile  will  drain  forty  acres;  a  seven- 
inch  tile  will  drain  sixty  acres."  This  calculation  is  made  for  a 
drain  three  feet  deep,  and  for  flat  lands,  with  three  inches'  fall 
to  the  hundred  feet.  Where  a  fall  of  from  eight  inches,  to  a 
foot  could  be  had  in  this  distance,  the  carrying  capacity  of  the 
drain  would  be  increased  one-third  or  more.  The  longer  the 
drain  the  Larger  tile  will  be  needed,  the  grade  being  the  same. 
The  size  of  the  tile  may  diminish  toward  the  upper  end  of  the 
main  drain,  as  the  amount  of  water  will  be  much  less.  In  deter- 
mining the  size  of  tile  needed  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  capacities  of  tiles  laid  upon  the  same  grade  are  to  each  other 


62  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

as  the  squares  of  their  diameters.  Thus  the  capacity  of  a  two- 
inch  tile  is  to  that  of  a  four-inch  as  four  to  sixteen.  I  would 
not  advise  the  use  of  smaller  tile  than  three-inch,  except  for 
short  laterals.  It  is  better  to  err  by  laying  larger  tile  than  are 
needed  than  smaller,  for  in  this  case  the  only  loss  is  the  extra 
cost  of  the  tile,  while  if  those  too  small  are  used  it  may  involve 
the  taking  up  of  the  entire  drain." 

While  general  directions  can  be  given,  the  intelligent  farmer 
will  understand  that  they  must  be  varied  to  suit  the  circum- 
stances by  which  he  is  surrounded. 

The  work  of  drainage  should  not  be  entered  upon  without 
careful  planning  and  forethought,  as  it  is  costly,  and,  unless 
properly  done,  will  not  prove  a  profitable  investment. 

There  are  many  farms  where  the  fall  is  so  good  that  the 
farmer  will  need  no  assistance  from  an  engineer,  as  the  lay  of 
the  land  will  show  where  the  mains  and  laterals  are  needed,  and 
it  will  be  an  easy  matter  to  lay  out  a  system  of  drains. 

On  other  farms  there  may  be  but  little  fall,  and  difficulties  to 
overcome  which  will  require  skill  and  experience.  Under  these 
circumstances  it  would  be  folly  for  the  inexperienced  farmer  to 
trust  to  his  own  judgment,  but  he  should  employ  an  engineer, 
arid  have  the  work  all  mapped  out  for  him,  and  the  grades  estab- 
lished. A  map  of  the  drains,  which  will  enable  the  farmer  to 
locate  every  line  of  drain  on  his  farm,  should  be  carefully  pre- 
served, as  it  may  be  of  great  benefit  in  case  of  any  obstruc- 
tion which  will  render  it  necessary  to  take  up  a  section  of  the 
drain. 

Material  for  Drains. — All  sorts  of  make-shifts  have  been 
resorted  to  in  underdraining.  Stone,  gravel,  boards,  rails,  brush, 
etc.,  have  been  used  and  recommended,  but  nothing  has  stood  the 
test  of  time  but  tile.  These  should  be  well  burned,  so  as  to  ring 
when  struck  with  a  piece  of  metal,  and  should  be  made  from 
good  clay,  and  be  smooth  inside,  so  as  to  offer  the  least  resist- 
ance to  the  flow  of  water.  Reject  all  that  are  soft  or  much 
curved,  or  twisted  out  of  shape  by  excessive  heat  in  burning. 
The  best  shape  for  tile  is  round  inside,  and  either  round  or 
hexagonal  outside,  so  that  they  can  be  turned  any  side  up  in 


FARM  DRAINAGE.  63 

laying,  as  this  will  enable  you  to  lay  them  more  easily,  and 
gives  greater  capacity  for  the  material  used.  Some  tile-makers 
make  tile  with  a  flat  bottom.  These  are  not  only  more  difficult 
to  lay  than  the  round,  but  are  more  likely  to  become  obstructed, 
as  the  broad,  flat  channel  offers  better  facilities  for  the  deposit 
of  sediment. 

There  has  recently  been  introduced  a  concrete  tile  which  is 
made  in  the  ditch  by  a  simple  machine.  This  method  of  drain- 
ing promises  well,  but  has  not  yet  been  introduced  or  tested 
sufficiently  to  enable  me  to  pronounce  upon  it.  The  tile  is  made 
of  the  best  quality  of  hydraulic  cement,  lime,  and  coarse  sand. 
These  are  mixed  so  as  to  make  a  stiff  mortar,  which  is  fed  into 
the  machine  through  a  hopper,  and  comes  out  at  the  rear  of  the 
machine  a  continuous  pipe,  smooth  inside  and  out.  By  means  of 
a  trowel  made  for  the  purpose,  this  is  cut  into  sections  of  any 
desired  length,  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  the  bottom  continuous, 
and  give  sufficient  crevices  to  admit  the  water.  The  pipe  will 
harden  in  a  day  so  as  to  bear  the  weight  of  the  earth  used  in 
filling.  When  hardened  this  tile  appears  as  durable  as  stone. 
Neither  the  machine  or  material  is  expensive,  and  should  further 
trial  show  it  to  be  as  good  as  it  appears,  it  will  doubtless  be 
largely  introduced. 

Open  Ditches. — While  there  are  many  disadvantages  con- 
nected with  open  ditches,  and  the  farmer  is  fortunate  whose 
land  is  in  such  shape  that  he  can  do  without  them,  it  is  often 
necessary  that  they  should  be  made  to  give  an  outlet  for  tile 
drains.  The  large  seed  farms  of  D.  M.  Ferry  &  Co.,  near  De- 
troit, Michigan,  are  all  drained  into  an  open  ditch  which  is  lo- 
cated along  the  avenue.  This  gave  a  sufficient  fall  to  thoroughly 
drain  several  hundred  acres  of  land  which  could  not  have  been 
drained  otherwise. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  have  an  open  ditch  it  should  be 
properly  made  or  it  will  fail  to  answer  the  purpose  for  which  it 
it  is  intended  and  will  become  a  nursery  of  weeds  and  briers, 
seeding  the  farm  and  greatly  disfiguring  it.  A  ditch  three  feet 
deep  should  be  not  less  than  twelve  feet  wide  at  the  top  with  the 
sides  properly  graded,  and  the  earth  taken  out  should  not  be  left 


64 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


A>'  OPEN   DITCH. 


in  a  ridge  along  the  side  of  the  ditch,  but  should  be  spread 
evenly  over  the  adjoining  land.  The  sloping  sides  should  be 
sown  in  grass  and  mowed ;  and  if  weeds  or  sprouts  grow  in  the 

bottom    of    the 


ditch  they 
should  be  cut 
and  burned. 
An  open  ditch 
can  be  con- 
structed and  managed  in  this  way  so  as  to  give  an  outlet  for 
the  water  from  the  tile  and  with  comparatively  little  waste  of 
land.  Much  of  the  work  can  be  done  with  the  plow  and 
scraper.  Where  an  open  ditch  is  badly  constructed,  made  too 
narrow,  with  steep  sides,  and  the  earth  thrown  out  left  in  piles, 
it  can  not  give  good  satisfaction,  or  be  kept  clean  with  any 
reasonable  amount  of  labor.  Open  drains  will  not  prove  satis- 
factory as  a  substitute  for  tile  drains,  but  only  in  connection 
with  them,  and  should  never  be  resorted  to  where  they  can 
be  avoided.  They  are  expensive  to  construct ;  wasteful  of  land ; 
and  will  require  considerable  labor  each  year  to  keep  in  good 
condition.  They  will  also  be  impassable  for  the  teams  unless 
bridged,  and  must  often  angle  through  the  fields. 

Wherever  a  tile  drain  can  be  put  in  without  having  an  open 
ditch  through  the  farm,  it  should  always  be  done. 
The  requisites  of  a  good  tile  drain  are  : 

1st.  Good  durable  tile  of  sufficient  size. 

2d.  A  free  outlet. 

3d.  The  grade  must  be  regular. 

Depth  and  Distance  Apart  of  Drains. — No  general 
rule  can  be  given  as  to  the  depth  at  which  tile  should  be  laid,  as 
this  must  to  some  extent  be  governed  by  the  character  of  the 
Boil  and  lay  of  the  land.  On  Eastview  Farm  we  strike  lime- 
stone in  many  places  at  a  depth  of  two  feet  or  less,  and  have 
never  been  able  to  lay  tile  deeper  than  two  feet,  and  these 
drains  have  given  good  satisfaction.  Where  there  is  fall  enough 
and  a  good  outlet,  and  the  soil  is  such  as  to  admit  of  spading,  I 
would  recommend  three  feet,  as  the  extra  cost  of  the  deeper 


FARM  DRAINAGE.  65 

digging  would  be  more  than  balanced  by  the  fact  that  the 
drains  could  be  put  farther  apart.  I  should  not  be  deterred 
from  draining,  however,  even  though  the  stone  came  so  near  the 
surface  that  I  could  only  lay  the  tile  twenty  inches  deep.  I 
have  tiles  laid  at  this  depth  that  have  done  good  service  for 
twenty  years  and  have  never  given  me  any  trouble. 

As  to  the  distance  apart,  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  the 
usual  directions  call  for  more  drains  than  are  necessary.  War- 
ing in  his  book  on  drainage  recommends  "that  drains  four  feet 
deep  be  laid  from  forty  to  fifty  feet  apart  and  on  retentive  clays 
even  as  close  as  eighteen  feet,  and  that  there  are  few  soils 
which  need  draining  at  all  on  which  it  will  be  safe  to  place  four 
foot  drains  at  much  wider  intervals  than  forty  feet."  Professor 
Mapes  says  "  three-foot  drains  should  be  placed  twenty  feet 
apart,  and  for  each  foot  added  to  the  depth  the  distance  may  be 
doubled." 

Mr.  Billingsly  in  his  recent  work  on  drainage  says  :  "  In 
our  experience,  drains  placed  one  hundred  feet  apart  on  loamy 
soils  and  three  and  a  half  feet  deep,  will  thoroughly  drain  the 
soil.  If,  however,  the  soil  is  very  retentive,  especially  near  the 
surface,  a  distance  of  fifty  to  seventy-five  feet  may  be  required 
to  give  thorough  drainage."  So  far  as  my  own  experience 
goes  I  should  agree  with  Mr.  Billingsly  rather  than  the  other 
authors  quoted.  I  have  on  my  own  farm  had  the  fact  demon- 
strated that  a  drain  but  two  feet  deep  will  affect  the  land  to  a 
greater  distance  than  is  commonly  supposed.  The  subsoil  on  my 
farm  is  a  stiff,  yellow  clay,  and  in  my  earlier  draining  I  laid  my 
laterals  two  rods  apart,  as  I  could  only  place  them  two  feet 
deep.  Near  the  head  of  my  drains  which  flow  south-east,  we 
reach  a  level,  and  in  a  few  rods  the  land  falls  to  the  north-west, 
and  here  I  have  another  line  of  tile  running  to  the  north-west, 
the  head  of  it  being  twenty  rods  from  the  head  of  the  drain 
flowing  in  the  opposite  direction.  Immediately  north  of  the  line 
of  drain  which  flows  south-east,  and  east  of  the  head  of  the  drain 
which  flows  to  the  north-west,  is  an  acre  of  land  belonging  to  a 
neighbor  and  which  is  about  eight  inches  lower  than  my  land 
south  and  west  of  it.  Before  I  put  in  these  drains  this  land 


66 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


was  flooded  every  winter  and  often  till  late  in  the  spring,  but 
these  drains  have  relieved  it  of  water  so  that  now  it  grows 
good  crops  and  can  be  plowed  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the  re- 
mainder of  the  field,  which  is  rolling,  with  good  natural  sur- 
face drainage.  My  nearest  line  of  tile  is  about  forty  feet  from 
the  edge  of  it,  and  considerably  more  than  one  hundred  from 
the  center  of  it.  There  are  two  more  laterals  parallel  with  the 
one  mentioned  and  thirty-three  and  sixty-six  feet  farther  away 
from  the  line  between  me  and  my  neighbor,  as  I  put  in  three 
parallel  lines  running  to  the  main  ditch.  These  drains,  although 
laid  much  shallower  than  is  usually  recommended,  have  removed 
the  surplus  water  from  a  strip  fully  double  the  distance  that 
most  of  our  writers  recommend.  In  my  own  judgment  the 
cases  are  rare  where  it  would  be  necessary  to  lay  the  laterals 
nearer  than  one  hundred  feet. 

The  Outlet. — The  first  consideration  in  drainage  is  the 
outlet.  The  English  call  it  the  "  outfall,"  which  name  is  very 
appropriate  as  there  must  be  a  fall  to  carry  away  the  water  and 
keep  the  mouth  clear  or  the  drain  will  not  long  continue  to  do 
good  work.  More  drains  are  ruined  from  lack  of  a  good  outlet 
at  the  start  or  from  neglect  to  properly  finish  the  mouth  of 
the  ditch  than  from  all  other  causes  combined.  Whatever 
the  expense,  necessary  drains  must  be  opened  and  a  way  pro- 
vided for  the  water  to  flow 
from  the  mouth  of  the  tile 
with  perfect  freedom,  or  the 
drain  will  fail  to  give  satisfac- 
tion and  will  be  in  danger  of 
becoming  worthless.  I  have 
often  seen  drains  so  located 
that  an  outlay  of  from  three  to 
five  dollars  would  have  opened  a  clear  way  for  the  water  to  es- 
cape, but  instead  of  doing  this,  a  barrel  or  box  had  been  sunk, 
and  so  arranged  that  the  water  had  to  rise  a  foot  or  more  above 
the  tile  and  then  flow  off.  Now  if  the  fall  were  six  inches  to 
the  hundred  feet,  this  would  back  the  water  two  hundred  feet 
up  the  tile,  not  only  raising  the  water  line  to  a  level  with  the 


A  FAULTY  OUTLET. 


FARM  DRAINAGE. 


67 


A  GOOD  OUTLET. 


top  of  the  barrel  but  also  making  it  certain  that  sediment  would 
be  deposited.  Our  cut  on  page  66  shows  a  faulty  outlet  with  the 
line  of  saturation  in  the  soil  extending  back  up  the  line  of  drain. 
The  outlet  of 
every  drain 
should  be  pro- 
tected from 
stock  and  al- 
so from  ver- 
m  i  n.  The 
best  way  is 
to  build  a 
good  wall  of 
stone,  which 
should  extend 

down  so  as  to  have  a  firm  foundation,  and  an  iron  grate  should 
be  built  in  so  as  to  protect  the  mouth  of  the  tile  from  the  en- 
trance of  rabbits,  muskrats,  etc. 

Laying  Out  the  Drains. — Having  selected  the  outlet, 
which  will  usually  be  indicated  by  the  natural  course  of  the  sur- 
face water,  you  should  lay  out  your  drains  before  beginning  the 
work  of  digging.  Each  field  will  need  a  different  arrangement 
of  drains,  suited  to  the  lay  of  the  land.  In  one  field  a  single 
main  will  answer,  with  laterals  extending  on  either  side  and  the 
size  of  the  tile  in  the  main  may  decrease  as  you  approach  the 
head.  In  another  field  two  or  more  mains  may  be  necessary 
which  can  all  be  brought  to  the  same  outlet,  or  such  mains  may 
enter  the  principal  main  some  distance  above  its  mouth.  The 
straighter  we  can  lay  off  our  drains,  the  better,  because  there 
will  be  less  friction  when  the  water  flows  straight,  and  a  straight 
line  being  the  shortest  distance  between  two  points,  it  will  take 
less  tile;  and  if  in  mapping  the  drain  the  points  of  angles  are 
established,  by  stretching  a  line  the  exact  line  of  the  drain 
can  at  once  be  determined,  if  it  is  necessary  to  open  it  for 
examination. 

Most  works  on  drainage  give  elaborate  directions  for  level- 
ing, and  cuts  of  various  instruments  to  be  used  for  the  purpose. 


68 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


I  agree  with  Mr.  W.  I.  Chamberlain,  one  of  our  best  modern 
writers  on  drainage,  when  he  says :  "  The  soil  water  is  the  poor 
man's  theodolite  and  level."  As  previously  stated,  if  the  fall  is 
slight,  or  there  are  unusual  difficulties  to  overcome,  I  would 
secure  the  services  of  a  competent  engineer;  but  otherwise  I 
would  lay  out  the  drains  according  to  the  slope  of  the  land,  and 
dig  them  when  the  water  would  follow,  and  level  by  it.  If  the 
water  will  flow  after  the  first  spade  of  earth  is  removed,  it  will 
be  easier  to  establish  the  grade  at  this  point  than  at  the  bottom 
of  the  ditch.  It  is  wise  to  begin  the  work  at  a  time  when  there 
is  enough  water  in  the  soil  to  flow  through  the  drain,  as  this  will 
not  only  enable  you  to  get  the  grade  right,  but  the  ground  will 
spade  much  easier  than  when  dry  and  hard. 

Silt-Basins. — Where  the  lay  of  the  land  is  such  that  sub- 
mains  must  join  the  main  drain,  a  silt-basin  should  be  located  to 
receive  them.  It  may  be  described  as  a  small  well,  and  may  be 

made  of  stone,  brick,  or  wood.  It  may 
be  of  such  size  as  suits,  but  should 
always  be  at  least  one  foot  deeper  than 
the  bottom  of  the  drain;  and  the  top 
of  the  tile  at  the  outlet  should  not 
be  higher  than  the  bottom  of  those 
through  which  the  water  flows  into  it. 
This  will  enable  us  to  unite  several 
drains  entering  at  different  angles 
without  the  objectionable  feature  of 
short  turns.  It  also  permits  the  set- 
tling of  any  sediment  that  may  find  its 
way  into  the  tile,  where  it  can  be  easily 
removed.  The  basin  should  be  thor- 
oughly made,  and  have  a  tight-fitting 
cover.  This  silt-basin,  if  properly  made 


A  SIJ/T-BASIN. 


and  protected,  can  be  used  as  a  well,  and  will  furnish  good 
drinking  water  for  men  and  horses  whenever  the  drains  are 
flowing.  It  is  best  to  construct  these  basins  at  points  where 
the  grade  suddenly  changes  from  a  steep  to  a  less  one.  Whether 
silt-basins  will  be  needed  at  all,  or  how  many  of  them,  will  be 


FARM  DRAINAGE. 


69 


determined  by  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  number  of  branches  to 

the  drain.     In  a  firm  clay  soil  there  may  be  little  or  no  deposits 

of  silt  after  the  drain  has  been  in 

operation  for  a  short  time ;  but  in 

sandy  soils,  or  those  streaked  with 

sand,  quite  an  amount  of  silt  will     N^ 

find  its  way  into  the  tile  for  some 

time.    I  would  always  advise  their 

use  where,  as  shown  in  the  cut, 

several    drains   must   be   brought 

together. 

Digging    the    Ditch. — The 

tools    necessary    to    do    good    WOrk   SEVERAL  DRAINS  UNITED  AT  A  SILT-BASTW. 

are  :  First — A  ditching-spade  for  the  first  spading ;  this  has  a 
blade  eighteen  inches  long,  a  little  narrower  than  the  common 
spade,  and  slightly  curved,  so  as  to  enable  it  to  hold  the  earth 
and  lift  it  out.  Second — A  tile-spade,  which  is  narrower  than 
the  ditching-spade,  and  tapers  towards  the  point.  Third — A 
pull-scoop,  or  tile-hoe,  for  cleaning  the  bottom  of  the  ditch. 
These  spades  are  familiar  to  our  readers,  and  are  kept  on  sale 
by  most  hardware  dealers ;  but,  as  the  tile-hoe  is  not  so  com- 
mon, we  give  a  cut  of  it  below. 

The  narrower  the  ditch  can  be  dug  the  less  weight  of  earth 
must  be  handled.  The  sides  should  be  cut  smooth,  and  slanting 
to  the  bottom,  which  should  only  be  dug  wide  enough  to  receive 
the  tile.  In  good  soil,  which  can  be  spaded,  a  ditch  need  not  be 
over  ten  or  twelve  inches  wide  at  the  top.  If  the  land  is  so 
hard  that  a  pick  must  be  used,  it  may  be  necessary  to  have  the 

ditch  much  wider  at  the  top, 
but  it  should  always  slant  to 
the  width  of  the  tile  at  the 
bottom. 

It  is  best  to  lay  the  tile  by 
hand,  although,  if  the  bottom  is 
soft,  it  can  be  done  from  the 
surface  with  a  tile-hook;  but, 
if  the  bottom  is  firm  and  hard,  the  workman  may  stand  on  the  tile 


A  TILE-HOE  OR   PULL-SCOOP. 


70  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

already  laid,  first  covering  them  with  moist  clay  to  the  depth  of 
six  inches,  and  pressing  it  firmly  about  them.  This  clay  can  be 
sliced  from  the  sides  of  the  ditch  with  a  spade.  Great  pains 
should  be  taken  in  laying  the  tile  to  see  that  they  fit  exactly, 
as  the  current  will  be  greatly  impeded  and  the  danger  of  obstruc- 
tion increased  if  there  are  inequalities  in  the  line.  There  is  no 
danger  whatever  of  laying  them  so  close  that  the  water  can 
not  enter. 

With  a  good  team  and  plow  the  first  ten  inches  of  the  drain 
can  be  dug  more  expeditiously  and  with  less  labor  by  plowing; 
and  in  filling  the  ditch  after  the  first  six  inches  of  earth  is  put 
on,  the  horse  can  often  be  used  to  advantage,  either  to  turn  the 
soil  in  with  the  bar  plow  or  to  loosen  it  with  the  cultivator,  so 
that  it  will  shovel  easily.  All  the  earth  should  be  piled  on  the 
drain,  as  it  will  be  needed  when  it  settles.  If  the  drain  is  in 
low  land  where  the  water  is  likely  to  gather  during  a  heavy 
rain,  a  channel  must  be  cut  for  it  at  one  side,  if  possible,  until 
the  earth  has  settled,  or  there  will  be  danger  of  the  tile  being 
washed  out.  All  these  necessary  precautions  should  be  attended 
to  at  once,  as  if  neglected  then,  they  are  often  never  done  and 
the  entire  work  may  be  endangered.  The  upper  end  of  the  last 
tile  should  always  be  closed  with  a  flat  stone  or  brick  before 
filling.  In  a  clay  soil  no  covering  of  the  joints  will  be  neces- 
sary, but  in  sandy,  as  other  loose  land,  it  may  be  needed,  and 
nothing  better  can  be  had  for  the  purpose  than  pieces  of  sod 
cut  from  a  stiff  clay  soil,  but  fine  hay  will  answer. 

Spouty  places  are  sometimes  encountered  where  the  bottom 
of  the  drain  is  so  yielding  that  the  tile  can  not  be  laid  evenly. 
In  such  places  a  fence  board  can  be  placed  in  the  bottom,  or  if 
good  gravel  can  be  had,  enough  of  it  can  be  placed  in  the  drain 
to  give  a  solid  foundation.  It  is  best  to  deaden  or  remove  all 
trees  from  the  line  of  the  drain,  and  willows  are  especially  dan- 
gerous. Experience  has  shown  that  it  is  not  safe  to  have  a 
willow  tree  within  seventy-five  feet.  If  these  trees  are  left 
near  the  drain  they  will  often  in  two  years  entirely  fill  it  with 
fibrous  roots.  The  elm  is  nearly  as  bad  as  the  willow.  If  the 
drain  has  been  properly  constructed  and  all  trees  removed,  the 


FARM  DRAINAGE.  71 

only  care  it  will  need  will  be  to  keep  the  outlet  free  and  attend 
to  emptying  the  silt  basins. 

Cost  of  Drainage. — The  cost  of  drainage  prevents  many 
farmers  from  undertaking  it  at  all,  but  as  it  will  often  add  to  the 
permanent  profits  from  the  land,  and  greatly  increase  its  value, 
the  farmer  should  look  upon  it  as  an  investment  of  capital,  and 
often  it  will  prove  the  best  investment  he  can  make.  Doubtless 
there  are  many  farms  whose  productive  capacity  might  be  in- 
creased fifty  per  cent  by  one-fourth  the  outlay  that  the  pur- 
chase of  one-half  more  land  would  cost,  and  no  extra  fences  or 
taxes  would  be  called  for,  or  extra  teams  to  work  it  required, 
as  in  the  other  case. 

The  entire  cost  of  drainage  is  often  repaid  by  one  or  two 
crops.  Professor  Townshend,  in  a  lecture  on  drainage,  at  the 
State  University  of  Ohio,  made  the  following  statement :  "  I  once 
underdrained  a  part  of  a  field  at  a  cost  of  $22.50  per  acre,  and 
seeded  it  to  wheat,  and  at  harvest  it  yielded  twenty  bushels  to 
the  acre  more  than  the  part  of  the  field  not  drained.  I  sold 
the  wheat  for  $1.25  per  bushel,  and  the  extra  yield  paid  all  the 
expense  of  draining,  and  left  me  a  little  in  pocket."  A  friend, 
T.  B.  Barkley,  living  a  few  miles  from  me,  in  the  flat  lands  of 
Franklin  County,  Indiana,  in  response  to  my  request  that  he 
should  give  me  his  experience  in  draining,  writes  me  as  follows : 
"  When  I  took  possession  of  my  farm  I  found  a  twelve-acre  field 
which  my  neighbors  pronounced  barren.  They  told  me  that  ten 
bushels  of  wheat  to  the  acre  was  the  largest  crop  it  had  ever 
grown,  and  it  required  a  good  season  to  give  that,  and  they  ad- 
vised me  to  use  it  for  pasture.  I  determined  to  drain  it,  and 
laid  two  mains,  with  five  and  six  inch  tile,  and  five  laterals 
with  four  inch.  My  first  wheat  crop  after  draining  gave  me  an 
average  of  thirty-five  bushels  to  the  acre,  and  at  one  dollar  per 
bushel,  the  extra  yield  of  wheat  paid  double  what  the  draining 
cost." 

The  cost  of  draining  will  vary  somewhat  in  different  local- 
ities, but  less  than  three  feet  deep,  in  ordinary  soil  the  digging 
and  laying  of  the  tile  should  not  cost  above  twenty-five  cents 
per  rod ;  the  filling  can  be  done  for  five  cents  per  rod,  and  when 


72  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

you  add  the  cost  of  tile,  you  will  know  the  cost  per  rod  of  the 
work.  Mr.  Billingsley  estimates  the  cost  per  acre,  with  the  lat- 
erals, from  sixty  to  one  hundred  feet  apart,  at  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  dollars,  and  a  field  may  often  be  sufficiently  drained  at 
a  much  less  expense. 

There  are  localities  where  there  is,  at  a  depth  which  can  be 
reached,  a  strata  of  gravel,  and  by  digging  till  this  is  reached 
the  surface  water  will  sink.  This  is  called  perpendicular  drainage. 

Surface  drainage  should  receive  attention  on  all  farms, 
whether  underdrained  or  not.  Heavy  crops  of  wheat  are  often 
grown  on  flat  land  by  plowing  in  narrow  lands  and  opening  the 
dead  furrows  so  that  the  water  can  escape.  More  or  less  wheat 
is  winter-killed  annually  because  the  water  is  allowed  to  stand 
on  it.  Hilly  pastures  are  gullied  and  ruined  also  for  the  want 
of  a  little  care  in  dividing  the  water  so  that  it  will  pass  off  in 
several  small  streams,  instead  of  allowing  it  to  gather  in  the  low 
places  and  form  a  torrent.  Every  thing  connected  with  the  re- 
moval of  the  surplus  water  from  the  farm  calls  for  prompt  and 
intelligent  action. 


MANURES.  73 


IV. 

MANURES. 

THAT  the  majority  of  farmers  need  to  be  educated  on  the 
subject  of  making,  saving,  and  applying  manure  requires 
no  argument.  Look  about  you  in  almost  any  locality,  see 
how  small  an  amount  of  the  land  is  manured  at  all,  how  little 
intelligence  is  shown  in  handling  and  applying  the  manure  used, 
how  universal  the  waste  of  manure,  and  how  large  an  area  is 
cultivated  which  does  not  pay  the  farmer  even  fair  wages  for 
his  labor,  and  you  will  agree  with  me  that  the  work  of  fertili- 
zing the  farm  must  begin  with  the  education  of  the  farmer. 

In  writing  on  this  subject  I  shall  not  attempt  to  be  scientific, 
but  treat  it  from  the  stand-point  of  the  practical  farmer.  In 
another  chapter  you  will  find  the  chemical  constituents  of  plants 
and  manures  given,  and  I  recommend  a  careful  study  of  that 
chapter,  for  the  intelligent  farmer  should  not  be  willing  to  live  in 
entire  ignorance  of  a  science  in  which  he  is  so  deeply  interested. 

To  farm  profitably  we  must  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soil, 
and  in  many  cases  restore  fertility  to  soils  that  have  been  im- 
poverished by  bad  management.  This  necessitates  care,  econ- 
omy, and  intelligence  in  saving  and  applying  all  the  manurial 
substances  at  our  command.  The  practical  fact  meets  us  that 
without  manure  and  rotation,  our  fields  produce  less  from  year 
to  year,  until  they  reach  a  point — and  many  of  them  have  al- 
ready reached  it — when  they  will  yield  no  profit.  It  is  our 
custom  to  speak  of  such  soils  as  exhausted ;  it  would  be  nearer 
the  truth  to  say  that  their  available  plant  food  was  exhausted. 
When  we  apply  manure  to  the  soil,  we  do  more  than  furnish  it 
with  the  amount  of  potash,  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  etc.,  con- 


74  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

tained  in  the  manure  we  apply,  for  we  start  a  chemical  action 
by  which  compounds  are  formed  in  the  soil,  and  fertilizing  sub- 
stances which  are  inert  and  unavailable,  are  unlocked  and  brought 
within  reach  of  plants.  In  enriching  the  farm  we  should  ex- 
haust home  resources  before  attempting  to  buy  manures.  There 
are  thousands  of  farmers  buying  manures  from  the  village  and 
drawing  it  to  their  farms  at  heavy  expense,  or  buying  commer- 
cial manures,  who  have  never  yet  half  utilized  the  sources  of 
plant  food  on  their  own  farms. 

How  shall  we  get  the  most  manure  on  the  farm?  Not  by 
the  system  generally  practiced,  for  I  think  that,  on  a  majority 
of  the  farms  I  have  seen,  the  amount  lost  is  much  greater  than 
that  which  is  saved.  On  many  farms  the  wheat  is  thrashed  in 
the  fields  or  wood  lot,  where  the  straw  is  left — often  for  years — 
to  slowly  decay.  The  corn  is  husked  in  the  fields  from  the 
standing  stalk,  and  through  the  winter  the  cattle  roam  over  th( 
farm  and  get  a  precarious  living  from  the  stalk  pastures.  The 
manure  from  the  horse  stables  is  thrown  out  of  a  window  and 
accumulates  in  a  pile,  where  it  heats  and  burns  out  its  nitrogen, 
and  is  then  leached  of  its  more  valuable  soluble  constituents,  until 
it  possesses  but  little  value.  The  hogs  are  penned  for  fattening, 
on  some  stony  knoll  or  ravine,  for  the  very  reason  that  the  rains 
will  wash  away  their  dung  and  leave  them  a  clean  place  to  feed. 
This  picture  of  mismanagement  is  not  overdrawn,  and  that 
must  be  a  rare  neighborhood  where  one  could  ride  even  an  hour 
or  two  without  seeing  it  verified  in  a  greater  or  less  degree. 

One  reason  why  farmers  are  not  more  careful  to  save  manure 
is,  I  think,  that  they  apply  what  they  do  save  in  such  a  condi- 
tion, and  on  such  soil  and  in  such  a  way,  as  to  get  but  little  good 
from  it.  It  would  probably  astonish  a  farmer  who  is  drawing 
out  a  dripping  load  of  half-rotted  straw  —  called,  by  courtesy, 
manure  —  if  he  could  see  how  much,  or,  rather,  how  little,  actual 
plant  food  his  load  contained.  A  ton  of  average  farm-yard 
manure  contains  nearly  three-fourths  of  its  weight  of  water,  and 
but  twenty-three  pounds  of  valuable  plant  food,  the  remainder 
being  made  up  of  sand,  lime,  carbonaceous  matter,  etc. ;  and,  if 
this  is  true  of  average  manure,  we  can  largely  discount  the  value 


MANURES.  75 

of  half-rotted  straw  or  manure  that  has  been  injured  by  heating 
or  leaching.  Then  the  farmer,  instead  of  applying  this  manure 
to  a  crop  which  will  of  itself  produce  something  to  enrich  the 
soil,  draws  it  out  to  some  poor  spot  in  the  field,  where  he 
intends  to  plant  corn,  hoping  in  this  way  to  bring  that  spot  up 
to  average  fertility  with  the  rest  of  the  field.  Instead  of  put- 
ting it  near  the  surface  to  warm  the  soil  and  be  acted  upon  by 
the  atmosphere,  he  plows  it  under  as  deeply  as  possible.  He 
sees  but  little  effect  from  it,  and  is  glad  that  he  has  no  more  of 
it  to  handle.  Coming  back  to  the  question : 

How  Shall  We  Save  the  Most  Manure? — First — We 
must  have  a  good  barn-yard,  but  this  I  shall  describe  in  another 
chapter.  The  cattle  should,  when  not  in  the  stable,  be  confined 
in  the  barn-yard  from  the  time  they  leave  the  pasture  in  the  fall 
till  turned  out  in  the  spring.  To  this  barn-yard  should  be 
brought  all  the  waste  of  the  farm.  Stack  the  straw  here ;  bring 
the  corn-fodder  from  the  fields;  carry  the  waste  from  the 
mangers,  and  wheel  the  manure  from  the  stables,  and  spread  it 
so  that  it  will  be  mixed  and  incorporated  with  the  waste  material. 
Every  thing  in  the  way  of  vegetable  refuse  that  will  absorb 
liquids  should  be  brought  here  —  potato-tops,  cornstalks,  straw, 
sorgo  bagasse  or  sawdust  from  the  mill.  The  farmer  who  has 
followed  the  old  plan  of  stacking  straw  in  the  fields  and  pastur- 
ing his  cornstalks,  will  be  astonished  at  the  bulk  of  material  he 
can  get  together  in  a  winter  in  this  way.  If  the  hogs  can  be 
kept  in  pens  adjoining  the  barn-yard,  so  as  to  be  bedded  with 
some  of  the  waste,  and  let  out  a  part  of  each  day,  they  will  add 
to  the  value  of  the  manure.  In  the  stable  there  should  be  tight 
floors,  and  enough  sawdust  or  other  absorbents  used  to  save  all 
the  liquid  manure,  for  this  from  horses,  cattle,  or  sheep  is  of 
much  greater  value  than  the  solid.  To  save  the  liquid  manure 
in  the  cow-stable  there  should  be  a  water-tight  manure  ditch,  and 
this  will  be  illustrated  and  described  in  another  chapter. 

The  farmer  should  guard  against  the  sources  of  waste  in 
manure,  and  the  greatest  causes  of  waste  I  conceive  to  be,  first, 
from  leaching;  second,  loss  of  ammonia  from  excessive  heating; 
third,  unwisely  applying  the  manure  to  the  soil.  To  guard 


76  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

against  the  first  it  is  necessary  to  see  that  nothing  leaches  from 
the  manure-pile,  or,  at  least,  if  it  does,  that  it  is  put  back.  A 
manure-heap  may  be  arranged  so  that  there  will  be  drainage 
from  it  into  a  tank,  or,  if  on  a  clay  soil,  to  an  excavation,  so 
puddled  that  it  will  not  leak,  and  this  liquid  dipped  or  pumped 
back  upon  the  heap.  The  leaching  which  causes  loss  is  where 
the  barn-yard  is  so  located  that  the  water  from  the  eaves  of  the 
barn,  or  from  adjoining  land,  flows  through  it,  carrying  away 
the  soluble  portions  of  the  manure.  If  the  compost  heap  is  kept 
in  proper  shape,  and  is  of  sufficient  depth,  the  rainfall  will  not 
be  likely  to  leach  it,  and  will  be  an  advantage. 

The  shape  of  a  manure-heap  has  much  to  do  with  its  condi- 
tion. If  thrown  up  loose,  in  a  conical  heap,  fermentation  will 
be  so  excessive  as  to  cause  a  large  loss  of  ammonia.  The  rem- 
edy for  this  is  to  make  the  heap  flat ;  and,  whenever  you  wish 
to  check  fermentation,  tramp  it  down  solid.  By  this  means  you 
can  regulate  the  degree  of  fermentation  perfectly. 

If  any  one  doubts  this,  let  him  try  the  following  experiment : 
Draw  out  a  cord  of  good  horse-manure,  and  fork  it  out  of  the 
wagon  into  a  pile  six  feet  high,  built  up,  with  a  regular  slope, 
to  a  point  at  the  top.  In  about  twenty-four  hours  you  will  find 
a  violent  fermentation,  the  heap  will  smoke  like  a  chimney,  and 
there  will  be  a  pungent  smell  of  ammonia,  which  will  extend, 
perhaps,  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  and  last  for  several  days.  After 
the  fermentation  has  subsided,  if  you  examine  the  pile  you  will 
find  all  the  upper  part  of  it  dry  and  fire-fanged.  If  you  attempt 
to  fork  it,  you  will  find  it  in  dry.  flakes,  which  will  adhere  to 
the  fork-tines,  and  it  will  be  in  such  a  condition  that  it  will  be 
impossible  to  spread  it  evenly.  If,  at  the  same  time,  you  put  a 
cord  of  the  same  manure  beside  this,  but  build  it  in  a  flat  pile, 
three  or  four  feet  high,  with  perpendicular  sides,  and  tramped 
down  as  solid  as  you  can,  there  will  be  very  little  escape  of 
ammonia,  but  a  mild  fermentation  will  go  on,  and  when  you  open 
the  pile  you  will  find  it  fine  and  moist,  and  in  the  best  possible 
condition  for  application  to  the  soil. 

With  a  little  care  and  intelligence  the  farmer  can  guard 
against  loss  from  either  leaching  or  evaporation,  but  carelessness 


MANURES.  77 

in  these  matters  may  result  in  the  loss  of  more  than  half  the 
value  of  his  manure. 

The  third  cause  of  loss  which  I  mentioned  —  want  of  intelli- 
gence in  its  use — is,  perhaps,  greater  than  is  generally  sus- 
pected. Manure  is  so  valuable  that  we  must  apply  it,  first,  to- 
such  crops  as  will  give  an  immediate  profit;  and,  second,  as  far 
as  possible  with  reference  to  its  growing  at  the  same  time  a  crop 
which  shall  furnish  plant  food  in  the  soil.  Many  farmers  use 
the  bulk  of  their  manure  on  corn  land.  While  this  is  undoubt- 
edly profitable  in  the  East,  where  corn  brings  a  high  price,  and 
the  fodder  will  go  far  towards  paying  the  expense  of  growing  the 
crop,  I  think  that,  west  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  where  we 
must  come  in  competition  with  the  great  prairie  corn-fields,  we 
can  not  afford  to  use  manure,  direct,  for  corn-growing.  I  have 
long  since  settled  this  question  in  my  own  practice,  and  have  not 
for  years  applied  a  load  of  manure,  directly,  to  the  corn  crop, 
and  should  feel  that  I  was  not  getting  half  its  value  if  I  did. 

I  use  all  the  manure  I  can  spare  from  the  garden  and  potato- 
patch  on  my  wheat.  By  so  doing  I  rarely  fail  to  get  well  paid 
for  my  manure  from  the  wheat  crop,  and  at  the  same  time  it 
grows  a  clover  crop,  which  is  worth  more  to  fertilize  the  corn 
crop  which  will  follow  than  the  manure  would  be  if  applied 
directly  to  the  corn.  By  this  plan  we  can  make  our  manure  do 
double  duty,  grow  a  paying  crop  of  grain,  and  at  the  same  time 
a  clover  crop,  which,  even  if  all  utilized  for  hay  or  pasture,  will 
fill  the  soil  with  roots,  change  its  chemical  and  mechanical  condi- 
tion, and,  by  its  dense  shade,  keep  the  surface  cool  and  moist,  so 
as  to  cause  the  weeds  to  come  up,  and  then  smother  them;  so 
that  we  have  a  field  for  corn  cleaner,  richer,  and  mellower  than 
if  we  had  made  a  direct  application  of  manure. 

There  are  some  other  incidental  advantages  in  using  manure 
on  the  wheat  crop.  It  gives  us  more  time  to  get  it  in  good  con- 
dition. We  keep — or  at  least  ought  to — our  stock  in  the  barn- 
yard till  after  our  corn  land  is  plowed,  and  are  adding  straw,  corn- 
stalks and  other  litter  each  day.  I  do  not  want  to  begin  fork- 
ing up  the  manure  till  after  the  stock  goes  to  pasture,  for  it  will 
make  the  yard  dirty  and  uncomfortable  for  them.  Again,  in 


78  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

early  spring  the  manure  usually  contains  a  much  larger  amount 
of  water,  making  it  more  laborious  to  handle  and  heavy  to  draw, 
and  the  fields  are  soft,  so  that  the  wagon  draws  heavily  and  at 
the  same  time  the  land  is  damaged.  I  think  that  I  can  reduce 
the  labor  of  drawing  out  the  manure  one-half  by  proper  handling 
and  leaving  it  to  be  taken  out  in  August,  and  this  saving  will 
pay  for  all  the  work  of  handling. 

My  plan  of  management  is  this :  If  we  find  in  April  that  the 
cattle  are  not  likely  to  reduce  the  straw  stack,  we  help  them  by 
cutting  down  or  pitching  off  from  the  top,  or  if  we  need  it,  we 
draw  the  remainder  of  the  stack  to  the  barn.  Our  barn-yard  is 
now  covered  with  a  coating  from  one  to  three  feet  deep,  com- 
posed of  the  droppings  of  the  cattle  and  the  manure  from  the 
stable,  mixed  with  the  straw  and  corn  stalks,  and  all  tramped 
down  solid.  The  first  heavy  rain  that  comes  after  corn-planting 
which  makes  the  land  too  wet  to  work  and  thoroughly  soaks  the 
contents  of  the  barn-yard,  we  put  all  hands  at  work  turning 
it  over.  We  take  pains  to  shake  it  up  well  and  to  see  that  there 
are  no  dry  spots,  and  throw  it  up  in  ridges  four  or  five  feet  high, 
drawing  them  in  at  the  top  so  as  to  favor  fermentation.  We 
make  these  ridges  parallel,  so  that  at  a  second  turning  we  can  get 
two  of  them  together  into  a  bed.  If  we  find  fermentation  be- 
coming too  rapid  at  any  time,  we  level  the  tops  of  the  piles  and 
tramp  them,  or  what  is  easier  done,  let  our  hogs  into  the  barn- 
yard and  feed  them  on  the  tops  of  the  piles  a  few  times.  Any 
time  within  a  month  when  we  have  another  rain  to  stop  field 
work,  we  turn  the  manure  again,  taking  great  pains  to  fine  it  as 
much  as  we  can  and  to  get  it  into  as  large  beds  as  possible. 
This  time  we  leave  it  flat  on  top  and  think  it  a  great  advantage 
to  dip  some  strong  manure  water  over  it.  If  we  expect  to  thrash 
early,  we  at  this  time  try  and  make  room  for  stacking  the  straw 
from  the  new  crop,  and  sometimes  to  do  this  we  must  draw  out 
a  part  of  our  manure  and  pile  it  convenient  to  where  it  will  be 
needed.  We  have  generally  turned  our  manure  but  twice,  but  I 
am  so  thoroughly  convinced  of  the  value  of  fine  manure  that  I 
intend  giving  it  an  extra  handling  in  the  future.  "What!  handle 
your  manure  three  times  before  hauling  out?"  Yes,  and  at  a 


MANURES.  79 

profit,  for  I  shall  not  only  save  much  labor  when  I  do  draw  it  to 
the  fields,  but  I  shall  have  the  manure  in  a  condition  to  go  fur- 
ther, and  to  be  at  once  available  to  the  crop.  My  experience 
teaches  that  a  small  amount  of  manure  in  good  condition,  applied 
at  the  right  time  and  place,  is  worth  more  than  three  times 
as  much  in  bad  condition  and  unwisely  applied. 

Every  experiment  which  I  have  ever  made  in  this  line  has 
confirmed  me  more  and  more  in  the  belief  that  to  get  the  best 
results  from  manure  it  must  be  pulverized.  In  the  fall  of  1882 
I  sowed  a  number  of  experimental  plots  of  wheat.  Each  plot 
contained  exactly  four  square  rods  or  one-fortieth  of  an  acre,  and 
as  I  could  not  well  drill  so  small  an  amount,  I  sowed  broadcast. 
Adjoining  plots  were  sown  at  the  same  time  and  with  the  same 
amount  of  seed  per  acre.  One  had  no  manure  and  on  the  other 
I  scattered  just  four  bushels  of  fine  manure — one  bushel  to  the 
square  rod  or  at  the  rate  of  four  moderate  loads  per  acre.  The 
unmanured  plot  was  entirely  killed  by  the  severe  winter  that 
followed,  while  the  manured  plot  came  through  in  fair  condition. 

The  value  of  pulverization  in  making  fertilizers  promptly 
available  may  be  illustrated  thus  :  Two  hundred  pounds  of  finely 
ground  bones,  applied  to  an  acre,  will  often  make  an  increase  that 
year  of  a  ton  of  hay  or  ten  bushels  of  wheat,  while  a  ton  of 
whole  bones  would  have  no  visible  effect,  though  containing  ten 
times  the  amount  of  plant  food.  Our  State  Boards  of  Agricul- 
ture appreciate  so  highly  the  influence  of  pulverization  in  ren- 
dering plant  food  in  manures  available,  that  they  have  adopted  a 
higher  rate  of  valuation  for  phosphate  contained  in  finely  ground 
bones  than  for  that  in  bones  ground  coarsely.  I  think  this  par- 
ticularly true  when  we  use  manure  on  the  wheat  crop. 

The  period  of  growth  in  autumn  being  short,  it  is  important 
that  the  plant  shall  make  sufficient  growth  to  cover  the  ground, 
furnish  protection  to  the  roots  for  the  winter,  get  well  rooted  so 
as  to  be  ready  to  make  a  vigorous  start  in  the  spring  and  also 
be  able  to  resist  the  enemies  that  seek  to  destroy  it.  A  little 
manure,  finely  pulverized  and  thoroughly  incorporated  with  the 
soil  at  the  surface,  will  do  this,  and  for  many  years  I  have  there- 
fore used  the  manure  for  a  wheat  crop  as  a  top  dressing.  An- 


80  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

other  reason  why  I  prefer  to  keep  the  manure  at  the  surface  is 
that  we  wish  it  to  help  the  grass  or  clover,  and  if  plowed  under 
deeply  it  will  not  be  immediately  available  for  them. 

There  are  two  other  points  in  the  influence  which  manure  has 
upon  plants  worthy  of  notice  ;  one  that  it  causes  early  maturity, 
the  other  that  it  enables  the  plant  to  resist  enemies.  The  first 
of  these  is  of  especial  importance  to  the  market  gardener,  as  a 
difference  of  two  or  three  days  in  getting  a  crop  into  market 
will  often  change  the  profits  materially.  I  remember  planting 
an  acre  in  sweet  potatoes  in  1862  and  had  only  manure  sufficient 
for  half  the  plot.  The  manured  part  was  marketed  in  August 
and  early  September,  and  yielded  one  bushel  to  the  square  rod, 
and  sold  for  one  dollar  and  sixty  cents  per  bushel.  The  unmanured 
part  came  into  market  later,  when  the  price  was  but  one  dollar 
per  bushel,  and  yielded  but  one  bushel  of  merchantable  tubers  to 
four  square  rods.  The  first  half  acre  was  very  profitable,  the  last 
paid  but  little  more  than  the  expense  of  growing  and  marketing. 

Every  farmer  has  noticed  how  a  little  manure  enables  a 
wheat  crop  to  resist  enemies.  The  manured  land  in  the  wheat 
field  makes  a  good  crop,  though  the  remainder  may  be  eaten  up 
by  the  fly  or  chinch-bug,  frozen  out  by  the  winter,  or  shrunken 
by  rust. 

Still  another  advantage  from  the  use  of  manure  is  that  it  im- 
proves the  quality  of  the  product.  This  is  more  noticeable  with 
some  crops  than  with  others.  I  have,  in  experimenting  with 
potatoes,  manured  alternate  rows  and  found  the  manured  rows 
to  be  nearly  all  merchantable,  while  the  unmanured  rows  would 
have  from  twenty-five  to  forty  per  cent  of  small,  unsalable  tubers. 

Next  to  applying  manure  to  the  wheat  crop,  I  think  the  best 
use  we  can  make  of  it  is  on  grass  land ;  for  this  purpose  it  may 
be  taken  out  and  spread  in  winter  while  the  ground  is  frozen, 
and  this  I  think  is  the  best  time  to  apply  it  to  this  crop.  It 
should  be  spread  evenly  from  the  wagon,  for  if  dropped  in  piles 
it  would  kill  out  the  grass.  When  the  manure  is  applied  to 
pasture  land  some  coarse  litter  with  it  will  not  be  objection- 
able as  it  will  protect  the  grass  and  make  it  start  earlier  in  the 
spring,  but  when  applied  to  meadows  it  should  be  well  rotted. 


MANURES.  81 

There  is  little  difficulty  in  reducing  coarse  manure  even  in  winter 
if  there  is  enough  horse  dung  in  it  to  cause  active  fermentation, 
for  "it  is  always  summer  in  a  manure  heap."  There  are  many 
farmers  who  think  a  straw  stack,  or  corn  butts,  can  not  be  reduced 
to  a  condition  in  which  it  can  be  used  for  top  dressing,  in  less 
than  a  year,  and  I  have  often  received  letters  asking  if  it  could 
be  done  and  how.  When  I  followed  truck  farming  I  wanted 
most  of  my  manure  for  spring  use,  and  I  have  fed  out  twenty 
acres  of  heavy  corn  fodder,  cut  up  at  the  ground,  thrown  all  the 
butts  into  the  manure  pile,  and  had  it  in  good  condition  for  the 
garden  before  the  first  of  April. 

The  way  I  managed  it  was  this :  My  barn-yard  was  small, 
about  forty  by  fifty  feet,  and  we  took  pains  to  see  that  all  the  ma- 
terial was  well  mixed ;  I  do  not  mean  that  we  mixed  it  by  fork- 
ing over,  but  merely  that  we  did  not  dump  the  horse  manure 
in  one  part  of  the  yard  and  the  cow  manure  in  another,  and 
throw  the  corn  butts  in  a  pile  by  themselves,  but  we  took  pains 
to  see  that  the  wheelbarrow  loads  of  manure  from  the  horse  and 
cow  stable  were  placed  so  that  they  would  be  sure  to  become 
mixed,  and  instead  of  throwing  an  armful  of  corn  stalks  down 
in  a  pile  we  scattered  them  singly.  About  six  weeks  before 
we  wanted  to  use  this  manure  we  put  a  few  good-sized,  vigor- 
ous hogs  in  the  barn-yard  and  fed  them  on  the  manure  pile. 
They  would  work  it  over  every  day  to  the  depth  of  a  foot  or 
more,  and  in  about  two  weeks  the  stalks  were  pretty  well  broken 
up  and  the  manure  ready  to  turn.  Then  we  began  at  one  side 
and  turned  it  from  the  bottom,  mixing  thoroughly,  and  in  three 
weeks  it  was  ready  for  use. 

Bommer's  Method. — Some  forty  years  ago  a  process  of 
rapidly  reducing  crude  vegetable  material  to  manure  was  pat- 
ented by  George  Bommer,  and  in  1847  the  right  for  the  United 
States  was  bought  by  Eli  Barnett,  of  Connecticut.  I  think  the 
method  was  never  adopted,  at  least  not  to  any  great  extent,  but 
it  contained  some  valuable  ideas,  which  in  a  modified  form  could 
be  used  to  good  advantage  by  farmers  to-day. 

The  method  briefly  stated  is  this :  An  excavation  is  made — 
on  a  hard  soil  that  will  not  leach — to  the  depth  of  eight  to 


82  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

twelve  inches.  This  is  made  dishing,  and  with  a  slight  fall,  so 
that  any  liquid  will  drain  into  a  vat ;  or  it  may  simply  be  a  pond, 
if  in  a  stiff  clay.  Strong  poles  are  laid  across  the  excavation, 
on  which  an  open  floor  of  rails  or  old  boards  is  laid.  On  this 
floor  is  built  up  the  material  to  be  made  into  manure,  which  may 
be  straw,  weeds,  corn-stalks,  sods,  sawdust,  spent  tan,  apple 
pomace,  peat,  swamp  mud,  or  any  or  all  of  them  mixed.  The 
pond  or  vat  is  to  be  filled  with  water,  which  is  to  be  made 
into  what  is  called  saturated  or  corrupted  water.  This  is  done 
by  throwing  into  it  dead  animals,  butchers'  offal,  chamber  and 
kitchen  refuse,  hen  manure,  etc.  It  is  claimed  that  the  addition 
of  a  pint  of  quicklime — previously  slaked — to  each  barrel  of 
water  will  prevent  any  unhealthy  exhalations  from  this  pond. 
After  this  water  has  become  polluted  it  is  to  be  made  into  a  lye 
by  adding  to  each  thirty  barrels  the  following : 

2  bushels  of  quicklime. 

2  bushels  of  chimney  soot  (if  obtainable). 

2  bushels  of  wood  ashes. 

4  pounds  of  salt. 

2  pounds  of  saltpeter. 

5  bushels  of  plaster  paris. 

3  barrels  of  night  soil. 

1  barrel  of  water  leached  from  manure. 

This  lye  is  then  to  be  dipped  or  pumped  over  the  mass  of 
absorbents  which  have  been  built  on  the  floor  over  the  excava- 
tion and  will  produce  a  violent  fermentation,  killing  all  seeds  and 
causing  rapid  decomposition.  The  liquid  should  be  applied  until 
it  leaches  through,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  apply  it  to  all 
parts.  After  it  has  heated  up  thoroughly,  give  it  a  second  wat- 
ering, and  a  few  days  later  still  a  third.  The  manure  will  be 
ready  for  use  in  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  days. 

I  have  described  this  method,  not  because  I  suppose  that  our 
readers  will  be  likely  to  adopt  it,  but  because  it  suggests  the 
best  use  to  be  made  of  our  liquid  manures.  I  believe  it  would 
pay  to  have  a  vat  adjoining  every  barn-yard  to  conduct  the 
liquid  manure  into,  and  that  the  best  way  to  use  this  liquid 
would  be  to  saturate  the  manure  heap  with  it.  On  our  clay 
upland  there  is  no  difficulty  in  making  a  pond  water-tight,  and 
all  we  should  need  to  guard  against  would  be  its  overflowing 


MANURES.  83 

from  the  surface  water.  A  pile  of  coarse  manure  wet  with  this 
lye  would  be  improved  in  quality,  and  it  would  greatly .  hasten 
its  decomposition  and  aid  in  pulverizing  it. 

Special  Fertilizers. — I  find  that  we  can  save  in  a  year  a 
large  amount  of  valuable  fertilizers.  Our  plan  is  this :  I  have  a 
shed  sixteen  feet  by  eight  set  apart  for  this  purpose;  during 
the  fall  we  store  here  two  or  three  wagon  loads  of  the  richest 
and  finest  soil  we  can  get.  I  sometimes  get  it  from  the  woods, 
sometimes  from  an  old  chip-yard,  and  again  from  under  an  old 
building.  We  put  with  it  some  sods.  On  this  heap  we  pour 
our  chamber  slops,  and  once  a  month,  or  oftener,  we  clean  the 
box  under  the  privy,  and  the  floor  under  the  hen-roost,  and  take 
this  material  to  the  shed;  we  mix  this  at  one  end  of  the  shed 
with  an  equal  bulk  of  the  earth  and  sprinkle  a  little  plaster 
over  it,  and  by  spring  we  have  accumulated  quite  a  bulk.  We 
now  cut  it  down  with  the  spade,  mix  it  thoroughly,  and  work 
it  over  till  it  can  be  screened,  and  then  pass  it  through  a  ma- 
son's sieve.  The  coarse  part  is  wheeled  to  the  compost  heap, 
and  the  fine  spread  out  to  dry.  This  makes  a  fine  and  good 
manure  for  using  in  the  hill  or  for  top  dressing  the  radishes, 
onions,  etc.,  in  the  garden,  or  it  can  be  sown  with  the  fertilizer 
drill  on  the  wheat  crop.  I  think  such  a  fertilizer,  when  care- 
fully prepared,  is  worth  at  least  ten  dollars  per  ton.  I  have 
had  as  good  results  from  pulverized  hen  manure,  drilled  at  the 
rate  of  two  barrels  to  the  acre,  as  from  two  hundred  pounds  of 
bone  meal.  There  is  nothing  disagreeable  about  preparing  this 
compost,  except  cleaning  the  privy  box,  for  if  laid  up  in  alter- 
nate layers  of  earth,  and  sprinkled  with  a  small  amount  of 
plaster,  the  mixture  is  odorless. 

A  single  experiment  which  I  have  made  with  bran  as  a  ma- 
nure, will,  perhaps,  be  read  with  interest,  and  lead  others  to  ex- 
periment further.  I  mixed  one  hundred  pounds  of  bran  with  an 
equal  bulk  of  rich  mold,  and  wet  it  with  leachings  from  the 
manure  pile.  It  underwent  a  violent  fermentation,  and  I  then 
spread  it  out  on  the  barn  floor  and  turned  it  every  day  till  it 
cooled  off,  and  was  so  thoroughly  decomposed  that  no  one  could 
have  told  what  it  was.  I  planted  in  June  on  a  poor  clay  knoll 


84  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

some  peach-blow  potatoes,  and  manured  every  alternate  row  with 
a  handful  to  the  hill  of  this  bran  mixture,  using  at  the  rate  of 
five  hundred  pounds  of  bran  to  the  acre,  which,  at  that  time,  cost 
me  but  ten  dollars  per  ton.  In  a  month  there  was  a  difference 
of  six  inches  in  height  in  favor  of  the  rows  fertilized  with  the 
bran,  and  they  were  a  better  color.  At  digging  time  I  dug  and 
weighed  first  from  the  manured,  and  then  from  the  unmanured 
rows,  and  repeated  this  several  times ;  in  no  case  did  I  get  less 
than  fifty  per  cent  more  from  the  manured  rows,  and  in  sev- 
eral cases  double,  and  the  quality  was  very  superior.  I  esti- 
mated that  the  extra  potatoes  produced  by  the  bran  did  not 
cost  more  than  eight  cents  per  bushel.  A  friend  of  mine  the 
same  year  tried  dry  bran  in  the  hill  for  his  potatoes,  and  the 
result  was  that  scarcely  any  of  them  came  up,  either  the  fer- 
mentation killed  the  sprouts  or  the  dry  bran  absorbed  the  moist- 
ure from  the  seed  so  that  it  could  not  grow. 

In  another  chapter  you  will  find  tables  giving  the  relative 
values  of  manure  from  different  kinds  of  stock,  and  also  the 
amount  and  value  of  the  manurial  constituents  found  in  one  ton 
of  different  foods,  and  I  recommend  a  careful  study  of  these 
tables.  I  think  that  but  few  of  our  farmers  give  sufficient 
weight  to  the  fact  that  manure  contains  only  what  we  put  into 
it,  and  that  a  ton  of  manure  made  by  a  fat  animal,  fed  on  grain, 
bran,  and  oil  meal  is  worth  several  tons  from  a  poor  animal  fed 
on  straw  or  poor  hay.  By  recording  the  experiment  with  bran 
as  a  manure,  I  do  not  wish  to  be  understood  as  recommending 
its  general  use,  for  under  ordinary  circumstances  it  would  not, 
perhaps,  be  economical.  The  best  way  to  use  bran  as  a  ma- 
nure, is  to  feed  our  cattle  liberally  with  it,  and  carefully  save 
the  droppings,  both  liquid  and  solid,  for  its  value  will  be  found 
nearly  as  great  after  passing  through  the  animal  as  before. 

You  will  find  in  the  table  referred  to  the  manurial  value  of 
a  ton  of  bran  given  at  $13.25,  and  I  think  that  in  preparing  a 
special  manure  for  use  in  the  hill,  or  for  drilling  with  the  fertil- 
izer drill,  it  may  be  much  more  than  this.  I  find  it  especially 
valuable  when  I  wish  to  produce  a  quick,  active  fermentation  in 
order  to  thoroughly  mix  and  pulverize  some  special  manure, 


MANURES.  85 

such  as  night  soil,  or  poultry  manure  which  has  been  wet  so  as 
to  have  lost  its  heating  power.  When  it  can  be  bought  at  low 
prices  I  would  recommend  that  experiments  be  made  with  it  as 
a  fertilizer. 

I  think  if  bone  meal  is  to  be  applied  broad-cast,  it  would 
pay  to  mix  it  with  an  equal  bulk  of  bran,  and  wet  it  with  lye 
from  the  manure  heap,  and  as  soon  as  it  is  thoroughly  hot  mix 
again  with  an  equal  bulk  of  rich  sifted  mold,  with  a  sprinkle 
of  plaster,  and  turn  it  every  day  till  cool.  I  recommend  this 
for  the  reason  that  I  think  the  fermentation  produced  by  the 
bran  would  partly  decompose  the  bone  and  make  it  immediately 
available  to  the  wheat  plant,  which,  as  the  season  of  growth  in 
the  fall  is  short,  is  a  matter  of  great  importance.  My  expe- 
rience with  bone  meal  on  the  wheat  crop  has  been  that  I  could 
see  no  effect  from  it  until  the  following  spring,  and  if  only  the 
bran  in  the  mixture  was  immediately  available,  it  would  be  a 
decided  advantage,  but  if  in  addition  the  fermentation  rendered 
a  portion  of  the  plant  food  in  the  bone  meal  at  once  available 
to  the  plant,  it  would  be  a  still  greater  advantage. 

Commercial  Manures. — Under  this  head  we  include 
ground  bone,  super-phosphate,  guano,  poudrette,  dried  blood, 
rock-phosphate,  plaster,  and  many  other  substances  which  are 
sold  in  the  market  as  fertilizers.  While  their  use  is  general  in 
many  parts  of  the  East  and  South,  it  is  but  recently  that  they 
have  been  introduced  in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  there  is 
much  misapprehension  among  farmers  in  regard  to  them.  Many 
regard  them  as  stimulants  only,  which,  while  they  will  enable  the 
farmer  to  reap  larger  crops  for  a  while,  will  result  in  the  final 
exhaustion  of  the  soil.  Others  look  upon  them  as  a  substitute 
for  stable  manure,  and  think  that  by  their  use  they  can  escape 
much  of  the  dirty,  disagreeable  work  of  handling  barn-yard  ma- 
nure. Both  these  ideas  are  incorrect.  Most  commercial  fertili- 
zers furnish  plant  food,  and  cause  an  increase  of  crops  in  the 
same  way  that  stable  manure  does,  the  difference  being  that 
they  do  not,  like  stable  manure,  furnish  all  the  constituents  of 
the  plant,  and  so  by  the  continued  and  exclusive  use  of  a  fertil- 
izer that  is  deficient  in  some  elements  of  plant  food,  heavy 


86  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

crops  may  be  grown,  which  will  ultimately  exhaust  the  soil  of 
the  elements  wanting  in  the  fertilizer.  The  remedy  is  to  change 
the  fertilizer,  or  use  it  in  connection  with  stable  manures. 

These  manures  are  not  a  substitute  for  stable  manure,  but 
should  be  used  to  supplement  it,  and  the  farmer  should  carefully 
save  and  apply  every  manurial  substance  produced  on  the  farm 
before  he  invests  in  commercial  manures.  I  would  not  advise 
any  one  to  invest  largely  in  any  commercial  fertilizers  till  by 
careful  experiment  on  his  own  farm  he  has  tested  their  value, 
for  they  are  not  uniform  and  certain  in  their  effect  like  barn- 
yard manure.  It  is  wise,  therefore,  for  all  farmers,  even  though 
they  do  not  now  need  them,  to  experiment  each  year  with  small 
amounts  of  commercial  fertilizers  of  different  kinds,  so  that  if 
at  some  future  time  they  should  wish  to  use  them,  they  will  be 
able  to  make  an  intelligent  selection. 

Three  questions  should  be  carefully  considered  in  deciding 
whether  or  not  to  invest  in  any  commercial  fertilizer.  First.  Is 
it  what  your  soil  needs?  Second.  Is  it  adapted  to  the  crop  to 
which  you  wish  to  apply  it?  Third.  Is  it  worth  the  price 
charged  for  it?  This  question  of  commercial  fertilizers  will  be 
treated  more  fully  in  another  chapter. 

Green  Manuring. — Under  this  head  I  include  any  and  all 
crops  that  help  to  enrich  the  soil  or  improve  it  mechanically, 
whether  grown  especially  for  the  purpose  or  utilized  for  other 
purposes,  and  the  fertilizing  merely  incidental.  I  have  already 
in  this  chapter  intimated  that,  as  far  as  possible,  we  should  use 
our  manure  with  reference  to  its  producing,  in  addition  to  a  grain 
crop,  something  that  we  can  return  to  the  soil.  Probably  the 
best  manure  we  can  have,  especially  for  corn,  is  an  old  blue- 
grass  sod;  but  it  takes  years  to  produce  this,  and  we  can  not 
afford  to  depend  on  it.  All  things  considered,  clover  should  be 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  list  of  plants  valuable  for  green  manur- 
ing; and  one  reason  why  I  give  it  this  preference  is,  that  the 
crop  may  be  utilized  for  stock  food,  and  yet  excellent  effects 
produced  on  the  soil.  This  is  largely  due  to  the  network  of 
roots,  which  penetrate  the  soil  far  below  the  reach  of  the  plow, 
and  which  constitute  more  than  half  the  weight  of  the  plant, 


MANURES.  87 

and  contain  more  inorganic  matter  than  the  foliage.  In  my 
own  experience,  on  land  that  had  been  cropped  until  it  yielded 
no  profit,  I  have  found  that  plowing  under  the  second  growth  of 
clover,  after  cutting  the  first  for  hay,  has  given  me  an  increase 
of  ten  to  fifteen  bushels  of  wheat  to  the  acre,  and  as  good  results 
as  a  dressing  of  ten  or  twelve  loads  of  stable  manure  to  the  acre. 
Farmers  of  large  experience  in  growing  clover  seed  find  that, 
even  when  the  crop  is  cut  twice  (once  for  hay  and  then  for  seed) , 
the  land  is  greatly  benefited,  and  careful  experiment  has  shown 
that  the  greatest  development  of  root  comes  after  the  first  cut- 
ting, and  while  the  plant  is  maturing  the  seed. 

Harlan,  in  his  book,  Farming  with  Green  Manures,  not  only 
recommends  using  the  entire  crop  for  manure,  but  that  the  clover 
from  four  acres  be  cut  and  spread  on  one  acre,  and  left  there  to 
rot,  and  that  this  cutting  and  spreading  be  done  two  or  three 
times  through  the  season.  It  seems  to  me  that  this  would  be 
too  expensive  manuring,  for  the  crop  is  generally  worth  from 
twelve  to  twenty  dollars  per  acre,  and,  in  exceptional  seasons, 
even  more  than  this,  for  food  and  seed,  and  the  cost  of  manuring 
an  acre  by  this  plan  would  often  exceed  the  value  of  the  land. 
Besides,  if  the  clover  was  fed  to  cattle,  and  the  manure  properly 
saved  and  applied,  it  would  be  worth  almost  as  much  to  the  land 
as  if  it  was  all  left  to  rot  on  the  field.  Our  farmers  who  have 
had  the  most  experience  with  clover,  find  that  they  can  improve 
their  land  by  its  use  while  utilizing  the  crop.  Professor  Brown, 
of  Indianapolis,  writes  as  follows : 

"In  the  process  of  recuperating  exhausted  soils,  clover  has 
long  held  an  important  place.  In  this  process  it  performs  its 
good  work  by  two  distinct  methods:  First,  it  increases  the 
organic  matter  in  the  soil  to  a  greater  extent  than  any  other 
crop;  second,  it  brings  within  the  reach  of  other  crops  a  large 
supply  of  mineral  elements.  In  regard  to  the  first  of  these 
statements,  we  observe  the  large  leaf  surface  which  it  exposes 
to  the  air,  and  by  which  it  absorbs  carbonic  acid  that  is  subse- 
quently converted  into  organic  matter.  From  this  is  formed 
the  large  amount  of  root  which  is  a  special  characteristic  of 
the  red  clover. 


88  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

"  One  who  has  never  performed  the  experiment  will  be  aston- 
ished if  he  will  carefully  dig  up  a  plant  of  red  clover  so  as  to 
preserve  all  the  roots.  He  will  find  them  penetrating  far  below 
any  depth  reached  by  his  plow,  and  spreading  laterally,  so  as  to 
fill  a  wide  space  of  earth  with  a  complete  network  of  organic 
matter.  More  than  half  the  weight  of  a  red  clover  plant  is 
under  ground,  and  is  seldom  taken  into  the  account  when  we 
calculate  the  manurial  value  of  a  full  crop  of  clover  turned  under 
with  the  plow.  By  repeating  this  process  every  third  year,  pre- 
ceding a  wheat  crop,  even  a  soil  badly  exhausted  in  organic  mat- 
ter may,  in  a  few  years,  be  made  rich  in  vegetable  mold.  To 
produce  the  best  results  with  clover  on  an  exhausted  soil,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  apply  a  liberal  top-dressing  of  gypsum  and  bone- 
meal  every  spring.  By  this  means  the  activity  of  the  vegetable 
forces  is  greatly  increased,  and  the  amount  of  vegetable  matter 
to  be  plowed  in,  both  top  and  root,  will  be  correspondingly  large. 
The  effect  of  this  on  stiff  clay  soils  will  be  to  render  them  more 
brittle  and  easily  pulverized,  and  to  increase  their  power  to 
absorb  moisture  and  gases  from  the  air.  These  properties  con- 
stitute the  leading  features  in  the  physical  conditions  of  a  fertile 
soil;  and  a  soil  brought  into  this  state  will  need  only  the  proper 
mineral  elements  to  give  it  a  high  fertility." 

It  is  evident  from  the  next  sentence  that  Prof.  Brown  un- 
derstands practically  not  only  the  importance  of  a  mellow  soil, 
but  also  that  the  use  of  clover  will  produce  this  desirable 
condition : 

"There  is  no  more  direct  road  to  this  desirable  state  than 
by  green  manuring  with  clover.  Practical  farmers,  who  are  the 
best  observers  of  facts,  and  who  too  seldom  inquire  into  the 
causes  which  lie  behind  these,  all  concur  in  the  maxim  that  the 
mellowest  soil  they  cultivate  is  that  which  follows  a  heavy  clover 
crop  plowed  in.  All  this,  however,  presupposes  that  the  clay 
soil  has  been  properly  relieved  of  water  by  underdrainage. 
Without  this  no  soil  can  be  made  permanently  mellow. 

"  The  influence  of  clover  on  the  mineral  elements  of  a  soil  is 
that  in  which  its  chief  manurial  value  lies.  Professor  Way 
gives  us  an  analysis  of  the  clover  plant  in  all  its  parts — root, 


MANURES.  89 

stem,  leaves  and  flowers — taken  at  the  period  of  growth  when 
the  flowers  had  begun  to  fade.  In  order  to  get  the  mineral 
elements  he  reduced  the  plant  to  ashes,  one  hundred  parts  of 
which  showed: 

Phosphoric  acid, 5.82 

Lime, 35.02 

Potash, 18.44 

Soda, 2.79 

Sulphuric  acid, 3.01 

Earthy  matter,             34.92 

100.00 

"The  striking  feature  of  this  analysis  is  the  large  propor- 
tion of  lime  and  potash.  Now,  while  it  is  evident  that  the 
clover  did  not  produce  these  alkalies,  yet  it  was  the  instrument 
for  collecting  them  and  bringing  them  into  easy  reach  of  other 
crops,  and  placing  them  in  an  available  form  for  their  use.  The 
clover  sent  its  roots  down  into  the  subsoil,  far  beyond  the  reach 
of  the  plow,  and  gathered  up  these  important  minerals  and 
incorporated  them  in  its  own  structure;  and  this,  being  decom- 
posed, leaves  its  elements  in  the  surface  soil,  ready  for  the  use 
of  subsequent  crops." 

Many  farmers  fail  to  benefit  their  soil  by  clovering,  from  the 
fact  that  they  turn  on  it  when  too  young  and  pasture  it  off  too 
closely.  The  development  of  the  roots  in  the  soil  must  corre- 
spond with  the  growth  of  the  foliage,  and  a  clover  pasture  that 
is  closely  cropped  through  the  entire  season  will  have  but  little 
effect  upon  the  soil.  I  think  that  clover  should  never  be  pas- 
tured till  the  blossoms  begin  to  show,  and  that  this  will  be 
found  more  profitable  both  for  food  and  fertilizer  than  to  turn 
on  it  earlier.  In  favorable  seasons  I  have  had  clover  grow  to  its 
full  height  the  first  fall,  making  a  crop  that  would  cut  two  tons 
of  cured  hay  to  the  acre.  If,  instead  of  cutting  this,  it  is 
allowed  to  remain  and  is  turned  under  the  following  spring,  it 
will  give  a  large  amount  of  fertilizing  matter  for  a  corn  crop. 
I  turned  under  clover  crops  of  this  age  in  the  spring  of  1882 
and  1883  that  were  as  heavy  as  any  growth  I  ever  turned 
down,  and  produced  as  good  effects  on  the  corn  crop  that 
followed. 


90  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

I  have  seen  wheat  crops  ruined  from  plowing  under  a  heavy 
growth  of  clover  late  in  the  season  and  seeding  on  it  before  the 
land  had  time  to  settle.  I  think  that  it  may  be  set  down  as  a 
rule  that  when  clover  is  used  as  a  fertilizer  for  wheat,  it  is  safest 
to  cut  and  remove  the  clover  crop  if  heavy,  unless  it  can  be 
plowed  under  at  least  six  weeks  before  seeding.  Whether  the 
damage  to  the  wheat  crop  comes  from  the  fermentation  of  the 
mass  of  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil  or  from  the  fact  that  it 
does  not  allow  the  land  to  become  settled,  and  the  spaces  fill 
with  water  which  in  freezing  expands  the  soil  and  kills  the 
wheat,  or  from  both  these  causes,  I  can  not  say;  but  the 
fact  remains  that  the  wheat  is  killed,  and  we  should  avoid  the 
cause.  My  observation  of  this  has  been  confined  to  clay  lands, 
but  I  should  hesitate  on  any  soil  to  turn  under  a  heavy  growth 
just  before  seeding.  For  more  than  twenty-five  years  I  have 
made  it  a  rule  to  sow  clover  with  all  small  grain,  and 
it  has  paid  me,  even  when  I  have  plowed  the  field  again  for 
wheat  the  same  fall. 

I  think  that  next  in  value  to  clover  for  green  manuring  I 
would  place  rye.  It  is  admirable  for  this  purpose,  because,  first, 
it  can  be  grown  to  its  full  development  between  other  crops 
without  losing  the  rent  of  the  land ;  second,  it  is  an  exceedingly 
hardy  plant,  which  will  grow  on  poor  land  and  is  seldom  injured 
by  the  winter ;  third,  its  length  of  straw  produces  a  great  body 
of  vegetable  matter  and  makes  it  easy  to  plow  under  (by  the 
use  of  a  chain  or  the  patent  weed  hook  we  can  put  it  so 
thoroughly  below  the  soil  as  to  plant  and  cultivate  a  crop  with- 
out disturbing  it)  ;  fourth,  its  early  growth  in  the  spring  prepares 
it  for  turning  under,  so  that  it  may  be  followed  by  almost  any 
regular  farm  crop.  In  the  latitude  of  southern  Ohio,  rye  will 
usually  have  attained  its  growth  by  the  middle  of  May. 
I  usually  grow  a  half  acre  or  so  of  it  each  year,  and  cut  it  when 
in  blossom  to  be  used  for  bands  for  corn  fodder,  and  my  diary 
shows  that  I  have  cut  it  as  early  as  May  19th,  and  rarely  later 
than  the  24th.  When  the  crop  is  to  be  used  as  a  fertilizer,  it 
is  ready  to  plow  down  a  week  or  ten  days  sooner. 

The  late  J.  B.  Root,  of  Rockford,  Illinois,  was  an  earnest  ad- 


MANURES.  91 

vocate  of  rye  as  a  fertilizer.  His  first  experience  of  its  value 
was  by  accident.  Wishing  to  grow  a  few  acres  of  melon  seed 
one  season,  after  all  his  own  land  was  occupied,  he  rented  a  piece 
of  land  on  which  rye  was  growing  and  plowed  it  under.  The 
season  proved  dry,  and  while  his  crop  was  almost  a  failure  on 
his  own  land  which  had  been  liberally  manured,  he  found  that 
the  land  on  which  the  rye  had  been  plowed  under  was  loose  and 
moist  through  the  entire  season,  and  produced  a  good  crop.  For 
several  years  after,  until  his  death,  Mr.  Root  made  use  of 
rye  on  all  land  wanted  for  late  crops,  and  each  year  added 
to  his  appreciation  of  its  value.  In  1875  he  wrote  "  I 
can  not  say  that  it  adds  as  much  to  the  fertility  of  the 
soil  as  forty  two-horse  loads  of  manure,  but  I  do  say  that 
in  dry  seasons  it  produces  as  great  an  increase  of  crop.  It 
certainly  pays  to  use  it  largely  even  on  land  well  supplied 
with  stable  manure." 

I  would  recommend,  when  rye  is  sown  for  the  purpose  of 
plowing  under,  that  two  bushels  of  seed  be  used  to  the  acre, 
and  if  the  land  is  poor  I  would  use  some  fertilizer  to  give  the 
rye  a  start.  In  my  own  experience  I  have  found  the  effect  of 
rye  quite  lasting  in  the  soil,  and  it  gave  a  larger  increase  of  the 
corn  crop  the  second  year  than  the  year  it  was  plowed  down. 
Taking  into  consideration  all  the  advantages  of  this  crop,  its 
hardiness,  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  put  in,  its  adaptation  to 
poor  soils,  and  the  short  time  in  which  it  will  produce  a  large 
amount  of  vegetable  matter  to  turn  under,  I  can  recommend  it 
most  heartly  as  a  green  manure. 

Buckwheat  is  another  quick-growing  crop  and  can  be  sown 
in  July,  when,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  the  farmer  fails  to  get  a 
stand  of  clover.  Where  the  entire  season's  growth  is  to  be  devoted 
to  enriching  the  land,  rye  could  be  plowed  under  early  in  May 
and  buckwheat  sown,  and  plowed  under  in  July,  and  a  second 
crop  of  buckwheat  sown,  which  would  be  large  enough  to  plow 
under  before  frost.  Mr.  Harlan  tells  of  a  crop  of  buckwheat 
which  he  grew,  that  in  fifty-one  days,  (between  July  14th  and 
September  3d,)  made  a  growth  of  twenty-seven  tons  to  the 
acre.  The  advantages  of  this  crop  are  its  rapid  growth,  which 


92  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

enables  it  to  smother  out  all  the  weeds  and  produce  in  a  very 
short  time  a  large  amount  of  vegetable  matter  to  plow  under, 
and  also  the  fact  that  it  is  tender  and  succulent,  and  can  be 
easily  plowed  under  and  will  decay  rapidly  in  the  soil. 

Another  crop  which,  I  think,  would  be  found  profitable  for 
this  purpose,  is  corn.  I  have  seldom  known  it  to  be  plowed 
under,  but  in  the  few  experiments  that  have  come  to  my  notice 
the  result  was  highly  satisfactory.  In  1878  a  neighbor,  finding 
that  his  clover  had  failed,  plowed  up  a  piece  of  wheat-stubble, 
and  with  the  force  feed  wheat-drill  sowed  corn  at  the  rate  of 
three  bushels  to  the  acre.  This  was  about  the  first  of  August, 
and  before  frost  the  corn  had  attained  a  height  of  several  feet, 
and  was  showing  the  tassels.  As  soon  as  the  frost  killed  it  it 
was  plowed  under,  and  the  next  spring  the  entire  field  was 
planted  to  corn.  The  growth  of  corn  on  the  part  where  this 
crop  had  been  plowed  under  was  so  marked  that  it  could  be 
seen  to  a  row. 

I  think  it  important,  when  green  crops  are  plowed  under 
early  in  the  season,  and  we  expect  to  seed  with  some  other  crop, 
that  we  should  follow  the  plow  at  once  with  the  roller  or  har- 
row, or  both,  so  as  to  compact  the  soil  and  bring  it  in  close 
contact  with  the  green  plants;  but,  when  we  plow  under  a 
green  crop  late  in  the  fall,  and  leave  the  land  for  corn,  this 
should  be  omitted,  and  the  land  left  as  loose  and  uneven  as 
possible. 

Every  year  of  experience  on  the  farm  deepens  my  conviction 
that  through  green  manuring  will  be  found  the  cheapest  and  best 
method  of  both  maintaining  and  restoring  fertility,  and  that  the 
wise  farmer  of  the  future  will  use  his  manure  more  with  refer- 
ence to  what  it  will  produce  to  feed  the  land  than  to  its  imme- 
diate returns  in  grain.  With  less  land  under  cultivation,  more 
stock  kept  to  consume  the  grass,  all  the  manure  saved*and  intel- 
ligently applied,  and  the  land  kept  always  at  work  producing  a 
crop  to  be  returned  to  the  soil,  our  farms  will  increase  in  produc- 
tiveness, and  we  shall  solve  the  problem  of  profitable  farming. 


THE  SU1L  AND  ITS  IMPROVEMENT.  93 


V. 

THE    SOIL   AND    ITS    IMPROVEMENT.  * 

THE  soil,  the  air,  and  the  sun  are  the  sources  of  all  earthly 
life.  From  the  sun  is  obtained  all  energy  or  force;  from 
the  soil  and  air  the  means  of  subsistence.  Vegetable  life,, 
which  is  the  original  supporter  of  all  animal  life,  draws  from 
these  three  sources.  From  the  soil  it  obtains  a  small  per  cent 
of  its  substance;  from  the  air  a  larger  per  cent  of  substance, 
and  from  the  sun  the  power  by  which  it  is  able  to  take  up  dead 
minerals  and  invisible  gases  and  work  them  up  into  all  the  use- 
ful and  beautiful  forms  of  vegetable  life.  The  sun  pours  down 
its  rays  of  life-giving  energy  unasked  and  unhelped.  The  air 
brings  daily  to  the  plant  unlimited  supplies  of  food.  It  needs 
no  help  from  man ;  he  could  not  change  it  if  he  needed  to ;  it 
is  everywhere  plentiful,  everywhere  alike  in  its  supplies  of 
material. 

But  the  soil  varies  greatly.  We  have  soils  which  seem  to 
contain  all  the  material  for  the  sustenance  of  vegetable  life  in 
exhaustless  abundance.  We  have  soils  which  are  either  entirely 
destitute  of  these  substances,  or  else  hold  them  in  forms  and 
conditions  which  render  them  as  unavailable  as  though  in  the 
original  rock,  and  we  have  soils  occupying  every  shade  of  differ- 
ence between  these. 

The  fertility  of  the  soil  is  the  measure  of  its  capability  for 
supporting  vegetable  life,  and  on  this  depends  the  prosperity, 
not  of  individuals  alone,  but  of  nations.  The  civilizations  of 
Egypt,  Greece,  and  Rome  had  been  impossible  but  for  the  won- 
derful fertility  of  the  soil  they  possessed.  The  remarkable 
progress  which  has  been  made  in  the  United  States  during  the 
first  century  of  its  existence  has  not  been  due  merely  to  the 

*  Contributed  by  R.  S.  THOMPSON,  Author  of  Science  in  Fanning. 


94  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

intelligence  and  enterprise  of  its  inhabitants,  but  also  to  the  fact 
that  within  its  limits  was  soil  of  unsurpassed  fertility. 

Whenever  the  soil  of  a  nation  becomes  so  impoverished  that 
it  is  no  longer  able  to  furnish  food  in  abundance,  the  prosperity 
of  that  nation  must  vanish  and  its  progress  cease.  There  is, 
therefore,  no  subject  of  more  vital  interest  to  humanity  than  the 
methods  by  which  the  fertility  of  the  soil  can  be  maintained 
and  increased.  There  is  no  subject  which,  to  the  farmer,  should 
possess  so  deep  an  interest  as  the  origin,  character,  and  treat- 
ment of  his  soil.  He  needs  to  know  what  it  contains,  what  the 
crop  derives  from  it,  how  loss  of  fertility  under  continued  crop- 
ping may  be  avoided,  and  how  its  fertility,  when  once  impaired 
by  bad  management,  can  be  restored. 

Origin  of  Soil. — It  is  supposed  that,  when  the  earth  was 
first  created  and  had  cooled  from  its  original  condition  of  a  mass 
of  fiery  molten  material,  it  was  simply  a  great  ball  of  rock.  The 
surface  was  seamed  and  scarred,  and  wrinkled  with  the  strug- 
gles it  had  passed  through.  Water  covered  the  more  depressed 
portions  of  the  surface,  forming  oceans,  while  great  mountains 
of  barren  rocks  reared  their  heads  far  above  the  clouds.  On 
this  rocky  waste  the  sun  poured  its  rays,  and  the  rains  descended 
in  torrents,  wearing  away  the  rock,  grinding  the  fragments  into 
sand,  which  was  strewn  over  the  more  level  portions. 

Other  influences  worked  upon  the  rock.  The  frosts  of  win- 
ter, acting  on  the  water  that  penetrated  the  cracks  and  fissures, 
broke  off  fragments,  that  were  ground  to  powder  by  other  forces. 
In  presence  of  sun  and  water  and  air,  chemical  forces  worked, 
causing  the  rock  to  soften  and  melt  away  in  the  form  of  clay, 
and  the  water  took  this  and  spread  it  and  mixed  it  with  the 
sand. 

Thus  a  soil  began  to  be  formed  of  sand  and  clay,  containing 
many  substances  from  the  rock,  but  specially  two  that  were  to 
be  of  great  importance  in  the  future  history  of  the  world,  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash.  Over  all  this  waste  floated  the  atmos- 
phere, formed  then,  as  now,  chiefly  of  two  gases,  nitrogen  and 
oxygen.  Through  the  upper  regions  of  this  atmosphere,  at  times, 
roared  great  thunder-storms,  more  fierce  and  wild  than  those  we 


THE  SOIL  AND  ITS  IMPROVEMENT.  95 

know  to-day.  The  lightning  would  cause  a  little  of  the  elements 
of  the  air  to  unite,  forming  a  substance  called  nitric  acid,  which 
the  rains  washed  out  and  brought  down  to  the  slowly  forming 
soil,  thus  adding  the  substance,  nitrogen. 

Low  forms  of  vegetable  life  were  placed  upon  the  earth. 
Mosses  and  lichens  clung  to  the  rocks  and  corroded  them,  draw- 
ing from  them  material  needed  for  their  own  life.  When  these 
died,  the  substances  thus  obtained  were  added  to  the  soil. 
Higher  forms  of  life  were  placed  upon  the  soil,  taking  from 
it  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  potash,  and  some  other  substances 
we  need  not  mention  here,  and  gathering  from  the  air  the  sub- 
stance, carbon,  which  we  see  so  often  in  the  form  of  charcoal. 
This  exists  in  the  air  in  the  form  of  an  invisible  gas,  but  the 
plant  can  take  it  from  the  air  and  change  it  into  a  solid  form. 
When  these  plants  died  and  decayed  they  added  this  new  sub- 
stance, carbon,  to  the  soil,  and  it  began  to  assume  a  dark  color. 

This  work  went  on  through  the  years  and  ages,  and  very 
likely  through  thousands  of  ages,  and  the  soil  was  constantly 
being  increased  in  quantity  by  the  destruction  of  the  rocks, 
gaining  from  them  potash,  phosphoric  acid,  and  other  mineral 
elements  of  plant  life,  and  gaining  from  the  rains  nitrogen,  in 
the  form  of  nitric  acid.  The  growing  plants  took  these  from 
the  soil,  added  the  carbon  from  the  air,  worked  it  all  up  into 
forms  of  life,  and,  dying,  returned  to  the  soil  all  that  had  been 
taken  from  it,  and  the  carbon  from  the  air  besides.  This  car- 
bon, thus  added  to  the  soil,  could  not  be  taken  up  by  the  roots 
of  plants,  but  it  made  a  suitable  bed  for  them  to  grow  in,  and 
formed  a  soil  that  could  retain  the  warmth  and  moisture  so 
needful  to  their  growth,  and  which  was  porous,  to  admit  the 
air,  also  needed.  As  the  process  of  decay  in  the  soil  continued 
further,  this  carbon  gradually  united  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air, 
forming  carbonic  acid,  to  begin  the  great  circuit  over  again. 
Thus  excess  of  this  substance  in  the  soil  was  avoided,  except  in 
places  where  the  soil  was  always  soaked  with  water.  In  these 
places  the  carbon  of  the  decaying  plants  could  not  unite  with 
oxygen  from  the  air,  and  it  accumulated,  forming  beds  of  muck, 
or  peat,  composed  principally  of  carbon. 


96  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Thus  was  formed  the  soil  on  which  we  live,  and  it  contains 
three  substances  of  great  importance  —  of  such  importance  that 
it  will  b.e  well  to  repeat  them :  Phosphoric  acid  and  potash, 
obtained  from  decaying  rocks,  and  nitrogen,  brought  down  by 
the  rains  from  the  air ;  also,  a  substance  of  scarcely  less  import- 
ance, carbon,  gathered  by  the  plants  from  the  air,  and  added  to 
the  soil  on  the  death  of  the  plant.  This  work  is  still  going  on. 
The  rocks  still  decay  and  furnish  their  share  of  plant  food ;  the 
rains  still  bring  down  nitrogen,  and  the  plants,  when  allowed  to 
decay  upon  the  land  on  which  they  are  grown,  still  add  carbon. 

Source  of  Nitrogen  in  Soils. — We  have  seen  that  the 
original  source  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil  was  that  brought  down  by 
the  rains  in  the  form  of  nitric  acid.  Of  course  decaying  plants 
add  much  nitrogen  to  the  soil,  but  this  they  obtained  in  the  first 
place  from  the  soil,  as  they  have  no  power  to  gather  nitrogen  from 
the  air,  although  their  leaves  are  constantly  bathed  in  an  ocean  of 
it.  Therefore  crops  by  growing  and  decaying  can  not  increase  the 
amount  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil. 

The  amount  gained  each  year  from  the  air  is  very  small,  not 
more  than  from  five  to  ten  pounds  on  the  surface  of  an  acre.  It 
is  therefore  a  question  of  both  interest  and  importance  to  know 
if  there  is  any  other  source  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil.  On  this 
point  scientific  men  have  differed,  and  long  and  warm  have  been 
the  controversies  over  it.  The  writer  of  this  article  is  of  the 
opinion  that  there  is  another  source. 

All  soils — at  least  all  good  soils — are  porous,  and  the  pores 
of  the  soil,  when  not  filled  with  water  are  filled  with  air,  four- 
fifths  of  which  is  nitrogen.  Now  we  believe  that  under  certain 
circumstances  this  nitrogen  contained  in  the  pores  of  the  soil 
combines  with  oxygen,  forming  nitric  acid,  which  remains  in  the 
soil,  adding  to  the  total  amount  of  nitrogen  it  contains.  The 
circumstances  we  believe  to  be  essential  are  these: 

Warmth. 

A  porous  soil,  moist  but  not  wet,  and  containing  a  good  pro- 
portion of  decaying  vegetable  matter. 

The  presence  of  some  alkaline  substance,  such  as  lime,  in 
the  soil. 


THE  SOIL  AND  ITS  IMPROVEMENT.  97 

As  these  are  conditions  of  soil  completely  under  the  farmer's 
control,  it  is  evident  that  if  this  theory  is  correct  the  farmer  has 
it  in  his  power  to  add  to  the  nitrogen  in  his  soil  without  the 
purchase  of  fertilizers  from  outside  his  farm ;  and  as  these  condi- 
tions of  soil  are  desirable  on  all  accounts  it  is  perfectly  safe  for 
the  farmer  to  endeavor  to  add  to  the  nitrogen  in  his  soil  in  this 
manner.  On  the  other  hand,  as  this  is  as  yet  only  an  opinion 
and  has  not  been  demonstrated,  it  is  perfectly  safe  for  the 
farmer  to  be  very  careful  about  his  farm  and  stable  and  allow 
no  waste  of  this  substance  (nitrogen)  which  is  one  of  the  most 
essential  for  the  growth  of  plants  and  one  of  the  most  expensive 
if  it  has  to  be  purchased. 

Purposes  of  Soil. — The  soil  serves  a  threefold  purpose  in 
the  economy  of  nature. 

1st.  A  bed  to  support  the  plant  and  afford  protection  and 
moisture  to  the  roots. 

2d.  It  furnishes  a  supply  of  food  for  the  plants.  Just  as 
truly  as  animals  eat  and  live  upon  the  food  set  before  them,  so 
truly  do  plants  live  upon  the  soil.  Although  they  get  compara- 
tively a  small  portion  of  their  food  from  the  soil  (the  greater 
part  being  obtained  from  the  air),  yet  this  portion  is  essential  to 
their  existence,  and  without  it  they  have  no  power  to  take  food 
from  the  air. 

3d.  The  soil  is  a  great  chemical  laboratory,  in  which  mate- 
rial that  is  in  itself  inert  and  valueless  is  changed  into  forms 
capable  of  sustaining  plant  life.  In  any  fertile  soil  this  pro- 
cess goes  on  continually,  except  when  stopped  by  frost. 
Through  these  changes  a  soil  that  seems  barren  and  infertile 
may  become  fertile  without  any  thing  being  added  to  it,  and  if 
this  process  is  stopped  or  proceeds  wrongly,  a  fertile  soil  may 
lose  its  fertility  without  any  thing  being  taken  from  it. 

Varieties  of  Soil. — The  substances  we  have  mentioned, 
phosphoric  acid,  potash,  and  nitrogen  form  but  a  small  percent- 
age (usually  less  than  one  per  cent)  of  even  a  fertile  soil.  The 
remainder  is  composed  of  sand,  clay,  and  the  partially  decom- 
posed remains  of  plants,  called  humus.  According  as  sand  or 
clay  predominate  in  the  soil  it  is  called  a  clay,  a  clay-loam,  a 

7 


98  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

loam,  a  sandy  loam,  or  a  sand.  When  humus  predominates 
largely  it  is  called  muck  or  bog  soil. 

Sand. — Perfectly  pure  quartz  sand  furnishes  nothing  for 
the  sustenance  of  the  plant.  Some  sands  contain  valuable 
mineral  substances,  which,  in  the  laboratory  of  the  soil,  are  grad- 
ually fitted  for  the  use  of  the  plant.  Any  kind  of  sand,  if 
present  in  due  proportion,  is  a  valuable  constituent  in  soil.  It 
causes  the  soil  to  grow  warm  readily  in  the  spring;  it  favors 
the  escape  of  surplus  water;  it  makes  the  soil  porous,  thus  per- 
mitting the  roots  of  plants  to  permeate  it  readily  in  search  of 
food;  it  admits  air  to  the  soil,  so  essential  for  the  chemical 
changes;  it  makes  the  soil  easy  to  work.  Excess  of  sand  is  a 
disadvantage.  From  its  tendency  to  acquire  heat,  it  may  cause 
the  roots  to  perish  in  hot  weather;  it  is  liable  to  permit  too 
much  of  the  water  to  escape  in  a  dry  season ;  it  is  liable  to 
permit  the  water  to  pass  through  it  so  readily  that  the  most 
valuable  fertilizing  elements  will  be  leached  out.  Soils  that  are 
defective  in  this  respect  are  called  "  leachy."  Sandy  soils  usu- 
ally respond  very  promptly  to  the  application  of  fertilizers,  but 
the  effect  is  usually  short  lived.  Of  all  soils,  sand  has  the  least 
power  of  retaining  moisture  and  elements  of  fertility. 

Clay. — The  presence  of  this  substance  in  large  proportion 
in  a  soil,  renders  it  "  retentive,"  by  which  is  meant  that  it  has 
the  power  of  retaining  whatever  is  added  to  it,  whether  water  or 
manure.  Clay  soils  are  generally  "strong  "  soils,  and  wear  well. 
They  are  less  likely  to  be  injured  by  bad  treatment  than  other 
soils,  and  are  more  readily  restored,  after  having  been  "  run 
down."  A  soil  containing  excess  of  clay,  however,  is  apt  to  be 
heavy  to  work,  difficult  to  drain,  and  "  bakes "  badly. 

Humus. — The  partially  decayed  vegetable  matter  to  which 
this  name  has  been  applied,  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  con- 
stituents of  any  soil.  An  artificial  soil  can  be  made  which  will 
support  plant  life  perfectly,  and  which  contains  no  humus,  but 
practically  all  fertile  soils  contain  humus,  and  the  proportion  of 
this  substance  is  sometimes  the  measure  of  their  fertility.  It 
not  only  contains  all  the  soil  elements  needed  for  plant  life, 
but  it  also  contains  carbon,  or  charcoal,  in  large  proportion. 


THE  SOIL  AND  ITS  IMPROVEMENT.  99 

This  substance  does  not  furnish  any  food  to  the  roots  of  plants, 
but  it  has  a  wonderful  power  of  retaining  moisture,  and  the 
elements  of  fertility.  In  any  ordinary  soil  it  is  always  under- 
going decay,  and  by  this  process  the  elements  of  plant  food 
contained  in  the  humus  itself,  and  also  those  contained  in 
the  sand  and  clay,  of  which  the  remainder  of  the  soil  is  com- 
posed, are  set  free  in  forms  which  the  plant  can  use.  When 
in  excess,  humus  renders  the  soil  light  and  chaffy,  and  it  is 
commonly  noticed  that  in  reclaimed  bogs  and  swamps,  the  soil, 
which  is  usually  largely  composed  of  this  substance,  though 
very  productive  at  first,  soon  loses  its  fertility.  This  is  due  to 
the  lack  of  sufficient  mineral  elements. 

Humus  is  not  a  constant  element  in  the  soil.  As  we  have 
already  seen,  it  is  always  undergoing  decomposition;  the  min- 
eral matters  it  contains  return  to  their  original  form,  while  the 
carbon,  combining  with  oxygen  from  the  air,  is  converted 
into  carbonic  dioxide,  and  escapes  into  the  air.  The  more  thor- 
oughly the  land  is  cultivated,  the  more  rapidly  does  this  pro- 
cess take  place,  and  a  soil  that  contains  but  a,  moderate  per 
cent  of  humus  may  lose  nearly  all  of  it  after  a  few  years' 
persistent  cropping  and  cultivating.  Such  a  soil  is  said  to  be 
"  run  down,"  and  though  it  may  still  contain  in  abundance  the 
materials  needed  for  the  sustenance  of  plant  life,  it  becomes  in- 
fertile, because  the  chemical  processes  by  which  this  material  is 
made  available  for  the  plant  proceed  but  slowly,  unless  there  is 
a  reasonable  percentage  of  humus  in  the  soil. 

Changing  the  Character  of  Soil.— The  gardener,  with 
a  small  amount  of  ground  yielding  crops  of  great  propor- 
tionate value,  may  find  it  profitable  to  change  the  character  of 
his  soil  by  hauling  on  clay  if  too  sandy,  or  sand  if  it  is  a  heavy 
clay,  but  in  the  operations  of  the  farm,  this  is  impracticable. 
Humus  alone,  of  the  three  great  constituents  of  the  soil,  can 
practically  be  controlled  by  the  farmer.  If  it  is  in  excess,  he 
can  diminish  it  by  cultivation,  and  the  use  of  lime  and  mineral 
manures.  If  it  is  deficient,  it  can  be  increased  by  growing 
clover,  rye,  buckwheat,  or  other  similar  crops,  and  plowing 
them  under.  The  reader  will  also  notice  that  it  corrects  the 


100  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

defects  of  both  sand  and  clay  soils.  Added  to  sand  it  makes 
it  more  retentive  of  moisture  and  elements  of  fertility.  Added 
to  clay,  it  makes  it  more  porous  and  more  easily  worked.  By 
the  use  of  green  crops  plowed  under  to  increase  the  proportion 
of  humus,  or  by  cultivation  and  use  of  lime  to  decrease  its  pro- 
portion, the  farmer  can  thus  change  the  character  of  his  soil,  and 
to  a  considerable  extent  make  such  a  soil  as  he  needs. 

What  Constitutes  a  Fertile  Soil  ? — A  fertile  soil  is  one 
that  is  capable  of  yielding,  under  favorable  conditions  of  season, 
large  crops.  The  requisites  of  fertility  are 

1st.  A  sufficient  supply  in  the  soil  of  plant  food — that  is,  of 
the  material  which  the  plant  draws  from  the  soil.  In  practical 
estimates  we  may  consider  this  plant  food  to  consist  of  nitro- 
gen, phosphoric  acid,  and  potash.  There  are  other  substances, 
such  as  lime,  magnesia,  sulphuric  acid,  and  iron,  which  are 
equally  essential  for  the  growth  and  health  of  the  plant,  but  as 
these  are  almost  always  present  in  sufficient  quantity  the  real 
question  of  fertility  rests  on  the  first  three  named. 

2d.  The  plant  food  in  the  soil  must  be  in  such  a  state  of 
combination  that  the  plant  can  use  it.  This  is  a  point  of  the 
utmost  importance.  Many  soils  contain  plant  food  in  abun- 
dance, yet  are  infertile,  because  the  material  is  in  forms  that  the 
plant  can  not  use.  Where  one  piece  of  soil  will  be  found  that 
is  unproductive  on  account  of  lack  of  plant  food,  a  hundred  can 
be  found  which  produce  but  poor  crops,  though  containing  plant 
food  in  abundance,  because  the  food  is  in  forms  which  the  plant 
can  not  use.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  soils  containing  in  the 
upper  twelve  inches  from  five  thousand  to  ten  thousand  pounds 
of  nitrogen  to  the  acre,  and  which  yet  show  greatly  increased 
crops  by  the  addition  of  thirty  or  forty  pounds  of  nitrogen  to 
the  acre.  Of  course,  such  an  addition  would  make  no  appreci- 
able difference  in  the  actual  amount  of  nitrogen  the  soil  con- 
tained, but  the  benefit  was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  thirty  or 
forty  pounds  of  nitrogen  contained  in  the  manure  was  in  form 
that  the  crop  could  immediately  use,  while  nearly  all  of  the  ni- 
trogen originally  in  the  soil  was  in  unavailable  forms. 

3d.  The  fertile  soil  must  contain  sufficient  moisture  to  supply 


THE  SOIL  AND  ITS  IMPROVEMENT.  101 

the  needs  of  the  plants,  but  must  not  be  "water-logged."  Ex- 
perience has  shown  that  the  condition  of  soil,  with  regard  to 
moisture,  most  favorable  for  plant-  growth,  js  that  in  which  the 
particles  of  soil  are  moist,  but  the  spaces  between  the  particles 
contain  no  water. 

4th".  The  soil  must  be  in  a  state  of  minute  division.  The  won- 
derful fertility  of  the  soil  in  many  river  bottom  lands  is  largely 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  particles  of  which  they  are  composed  are 
exceedingly  fine.  When  the  soil  is  in  lumps,  or  even  in  large, 
coarse  particles,  the  roots  of  plants  can  not  draw  from  it  the 
nourishment  they  need,  nor  can  the  chemical  changes,  so  essen- 
tial for  fertility,  proceed  with  any  degree  of  rapidity. 

5th.  The  soil  must  be  in  such  condition  that  chemical  action 
can  proceed  rapidly,  whereby  the  plant  food  it  contains  may  be 
rendered  available. 

It  will  be  seen  by  this  that  the  requirements  of  a  fertile  soil 
are  many,  and  that  an  abundant  supply  of  plant  food  is  neces- 
sary. This  food,  instead  of  being,  as  has  often  been  supposed, 
the  one  essential  characteristic,  is  but  one  of  several,  all  equally 
needful.  We  will  usually  find  all  these  essentials  in  a  soil  that 
is  composed  of  a  due  proportion  of  sand,  clay,  and  humus ;  that 
is  thoroughly  drained,  either  naturally  or  artificially;  that  is 
kept  in  fine  condition  by  thorough  cultivation,  and  that  is  sup- 
plied with  plant  food  by  proper  applications  of  manure. 

Improvement  of  Soils. — There  are  three  different  meth- 
ods by  which  soils  may  be  improved,  or  by  which  the  five  essen- 
tials of  fertility  can  be  secured.  These  are  Drainage,  Cultiva- 
tion, Manure. 

Drainage. — We  place  this  first  because  when  needed,  the 
improvement  of  the  soil  by  the  other  two  methods  is  impossible. 
Cultivation  and  manure  are  alike  wasted  on  a  water-logged  soil. 
The  practice  of  drainage  is  sufficiently  explained  in  the  chapter 
on  that  subject,  and  we  will  need  here  only  to  give  a  brief  ex- 
planation of  the  scientific  principles  connected  with  it. 

One  of  the  essentials  of  fertility  we  have  seen  is  such  a 
condition  of  soil  that  chemical  change  can  progress  rapidly, 
constantly  converting  plant  food  into  available  forms.  This 


102  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

chemical  action  proceeds  most  rapidly  when  the  soil  is  moist 
and  warm,  the  spaces  between  the  particles  being  filled  with 
air.  In  the, -chapter  on.  drainage  it  is  shown  that  this  condition 
of  soil  is  secured  by  this  me.thod.  When  the  soil  is  water- 
logged this  process  .of  .change  ceases  altogether,  and  hence 
manures  applied  to  such  a  soil  are  without  effect. 

Drainage,  therefore,  not  only  secures  the  condition  of  soil 
best  fitted  for  plant  growth,  but  it  also  secures  that  chemical 
action  essential  to  fertility. 

When  corn  turns  yellow  and  dies  in  a  long  wet  spell,  it  is 
not  because — as  seems  to  be  commonly  supposed — the  corn  is 
"  drowned  out,"  but  because  the  presence  of  excess  of  water  in 
the  soil  has  stopped  the  chemical  work,  and  the  plant  starves. 
There  is  plenty  of  food  all  around  it,  but  the  process  by 
which  that  food  is  made  available  has  ceased.  The  first  ques- 
tion to  be  considered  in  the  improvement  of  a  piece  of  land 
is  therefore :  "  Does  it  need  draining  ?"  If  it  does,  this  should 
first  be  attended  to,  as  without  it  all  other  treatment  will  be 
ineffectual. 

Cultivation. — By  thorough  cultivation  the  soil  is  pulver- 
ized and  the  quality  of  fineness  secured.  The  soil  is  also 
more  exposed  to  the  air,  and  chemical  change  is  thus  facili- 
tated. Cultivation  should  be  preceded  by  drainage — when 
needed — and  should  usually  be  accompanied  by  the  use  of 
manure.  Cases  are  on  record  of  fields,  which  had  become 
almost  barren,  but  were  restored  to  fertility  by  thorough  culti- 
vation. Cultivation  to  a  small  extent  adds  to  the  amount  of 
plant  food  in  the  soil,  as  by  exposing  so  much  surface  to  the  air 
it  causes  an  increased  absorption  of  ammonia  from  the  air,  but  its 
principal  value  consists  in  the  fact  that  it  renders  available  ma- 
terial already  present  in  the  soil. 

Manures. — These  are  usually  divided  into  three  classes — 
barn-yard  manures,  green  manures,  and  commercial  manures. 
They  act  in  two  different  ways :  first,  by  supplying  plant  food ; 
second,  by  rendering  available  plant  food  already  present. 
Some  manures  act  in  one  way,  some  in  the  other,  and  many 
in  both. 


THE  SOIL  AND  ITS  IMPROVEMENT.  103 

Barn -yard  Manure. — This  varies  greatly  in  value  accord- 
ing to  the  animals  it  is  obtained  from,  the  food  on  which  they 
are  fed,  and  the  care  with  which  it  is  treated.  The  actual 
value  of  the  manure  comes  in  all  cases  from  the  food,  and  not 
from  the  animal.  No  animal  can  put  into  the  manure  heap 
any  substance  that  was  not  contained  in  the  food,  and  the 
manure  produced  from  any  animal  can  never  contain  any 
more  plant  food  than  was  contained  in  the  food  the  animal 
consumed. 

There  has  been  much  misconception  on  this  subject,  and 
many  persons  have  imagined  that  a  field  could  be  enriched  by 
simply  pasturing  sheep  on  it.  The  manure  produced  by  the 
sheep  will  be  valuable,  but  it  can  not  by  any  possibility  be  of 
more  value  than  the  crop  they  ate  off  would  have  been  if  turned 
under,  except  in  the  fact  that  it  might  decompose  in  the  soil 
more  rapidly.  Poultry  are  often  spoken  of  as  being  of  great 
value  because  they  produce  such  rich  manure,  and  some  enthu- 
siastic individuals  have  claimed  that  poultry  would  pay  for 
their  feed  in  their  manure.  But  the  manure  produced  by  a 
flock  of  poultry  while  eating  a  bushel  of  corn  could  not  contain 
any  more  plant  food  than  was  contained  in  the  corn,  and  in  fact 
would  contain  somewhat  less.  Nevertheless,  there  is  a  difference 
in  the  value  of  the  manure  according  to  the  animal  producing  it, 
which  arises  from  two  causes. 

First.  Some  animals  take  more  plant  food  out  of  the  food 
given  them  than  others,  and  so  leave  less  of  it  in  the  manure. 
The  manure  produced  from  a  ton  of  corn  fed  to  animals  which 
are  neither  giving  milk  nor  gaining  in  weight,  will  contain 
almost  precisely  the  same  amount  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid, 
and  potash  that  was  contained  in  the  corn.  But  if  the  ton 
of  corn  is  fed  to  cows  giving  milk  or  to  young  animals  that  are 
growing  rapidly,  the  manure  produced  will  not  contain  more 
than  from  fifty  to  seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen,  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  potash  that  was  contained  in  the  food.  Hence 
the  value  of  manure  produced  from  a  given  amount  of  food 
will  vary  much,  according  to  the  animal  to  which  the  food  is 
given,  not  because  any  animal  can  add  to  the  amount  of  plant 


104  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

food  contained  in  the  food  given  it,  but  because  some  take  out 
more  of  it  for  their  own  use. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  loss  of  nitrogen,  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  potash  in  feeding  will  be :  in  feeding  animals 
that  are  neither  growing  nor  giving  milk,  practically  none;  in 
fattening  full  grown  animals,  from  five  to  ten  per  cent;  in 
young  animals  that  are  growing  rapidly  or  giving  milk,  from 
twenty-five  to  fifty  per  cent.  In  common  farm  practice  the  real 
loss  is  always  much  heavier  than  this  because  the  manure  is 
never  entirely  saved.  All  scientific  calculations  must  of  course 
be  made  with  reference  to  the  whole  amount  of  manure  pro- 
duced by  the  animal.  The  farmer  must  make  his  own  calcula- 
tion as  to  how  much  of  this  manure  he  allows  to  go  to  waste. 

Second.  Some  animals  produce  a  larger  quantity  of  manure 
from  a  given  quantity  of  food  than  others,  which  of  course 
makes  it  worth  less  per  pound.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
some  animals  consume  in  their  systems  a  larger  proportion  of  the 
carbonaceous  matter  in  the  food  than  others  and  also  because 
some  animals  drink  more  water  than  others.  To  illustrate :  If 
ten  bushels  of  corn  were  fed  to  a  fattening  steer,  and  another  ten 
bushels  fed  to  a  flock  of  fattening  poultry,  there  would  be  very 
little  difference  in  the  value  of  the  two  piles  of  manure,  but  the  pile 
made  by  the  ox  would  be  three  or  four  times  as  large  as  that 
made  by  the  poultry.  The  latter  would  be  worth  three  or  four 
times  as  much  per  pound. 

The  food  given  to  the  animal  which  produces  the  manure 
has  a  great  influence  on  its  value.  This  is  evident  from  what 
has  already  been  said.  The  manure  made  by  an  ox  while  eat- 
ing a  ton  of  bran  will  be  worth  more  than  that  made  by  another 
ox  while  eating  a  ton  of  corn,  which  again  will  be  worth  a  great 
deal  more  than  that  made  by  another  ox  while  eating  a  ton  of 
straw.  This  result  is  inevitable:  poor  food  makes  poor  manure; 
rich  food  makes  rich  manure.  In  making  a  selection  of  foods  it 
is  always  a  matter  of  importance  to  consider  what  will  be  the 
value  of  the  manure  produced.  If  the  farmer  wishes  to  buy 
fertilizers  from  outside  his  farm,  there  is  usually  no  more  profita- 
ble way  than  to  buy  good  food  and  feed  it  to  stock  on  his  farm: 


THE  SOIL  AND  ITS  IMPROVEMENT.  105 

that  is,  if  he  takes  care  of  the  manure.  The  treatment  of  the 
manure  makes  a  great  difference  in  its  value.  There  are  three 
sources  of  loss : 

First — Leakage.  Many  farmers  make  little  attempt  to  save 
the  liquid  manure.  By  reference  to  the  tables  given  further  on 
in  this  chapter,  it  will  be  seen  that  one  ton  of  horse  urine  is 
worth  about  as  much  as  ten  tons  of  solid  manure  from  cattle.  It 
will  thus  be  readily  understood  that  the  quality  of  the  manure 
will  be  greatly  depreciated  if  the  liquid  is  allowed  to  escape  and 
only  the  solid  saved. 

Second — Leaching.  Much  of  the  plant  food  in  manure  is  in 
insoluble  forms,  but  there  is  a  portion  that  can  very  readily  be 
washed  out.  Therefore,  if  the  manure  pile  is  kept  where  so 
much  water  will  fall  on  it  that  it  will  leach  through  it,  great 
loss  will  be  incurred.  Whenever  the  farmer  sees  a  stream  of 
dark-brown  liquid  draining  from  his  manure  pile,  he  may  be  sure 
that  much  of  the  richness  of  his  farm  is  leaking  away.  The 
better  the  quality  of  the  manure  the  more  it  is  likely  to  be 
injured  by  leaching,  as  the  more  soluble  matter  it  will  contain. 

Third — Heating.  When  manure  is  thrown  into  a  pile  it  soon 
grows  warm,  and  decomposition  commences.  If  the  manure  is 
sufficiently  wet  to  prevent  this  process  from  being  too  rapid  or 
going  too  far,  the  manure  will  be  benefited  and  no  loss  be 
incurred;  but,  if  it  proceeds  so  rapidly  that  the  pile  gets  dry 
inside  and  the  smell  of  ammonia  is  perceptible,  the  farmer  may 
know  that  one  of  the  most  valuable  substances  (nitrogen)  is 
escaping. 

Fermentation  of  Manure. — Barn-yard  manure,  we  have 
seen,  consists  of  a  large  bulk  of  material  containing  a  small 
amount  of  certain  valuable  substances.  The  composition  of  a 
ton  of  average  fresh  barn-yard  manure  is  about  as  follows : 

Water, 1,420      Ibs. 

Carbonaceous  matter,  etc.,     .....  556.4    " 

Nitrogen, 9       " 

Phosphoric  acid,             .         .         .         .         .         .  4.2    " 

Potash, 10.4    " 

Total,  2,000      " 


106  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

When  manure  undergoes  fermentation,  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  carbon  unites  with  oxygen  from  the  air,  and  escapes  in 
the  form  of  gas.  The  heat  which  this  occasions  drives  off  part 
of  the  water,  and,  if  the  process  is  properly  managed,  the  total 
weight  of  the  heap  may  be  reduced  one-half  without  any  appre- 
ciable loss  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  or  potash,  and  the 
manure  that  is  left  will  "be  worth  twice  as  much  per  ton. 
This  will  not  be  because  the  fermentation  has  added  any  thing 
to  the  heap,  but  because  it  has  reduced  the  total  quantity  in 
the  heap  without  reducing  its  total  value.  It  is  evident  that, 
if  a  farmer  had  a  heap  of  manure  weighing  twenty  tons,  and 
worth  forty  dollars,  if  it  could  be  reduced  to  ten  tons  and  still 
be  worth  forty  dollars,  the  smaller  pile  would  be  worth  twice 
as  much  per  ton  as  the  larger  one  had  been. 

Another  advantage  gained  by  fermentation,  and  thus  reducing 
the  bulk,  is  that  the  cost  of  hauling  and  spreading  is  reduced. 
Farmers  who  buy  manure  in  town  and  haul  to  their  farms  will 
often  find  the  expense  of  hauling  fresh  manure  is  greater  than 
its  value,  while  a  pile  of  old  and  thoroughly  rotted  manure  may 
be  a  profitable  purchase. 

Fermenting  manure  also  improves  it  by  rendering  the  plant 
food  it  contains  more  soluble.  In  fresh  manure  nearly  all  the 
nitrogen  is  in  combinations  which  are  not  available  to  the  plant, 
and  it  only  becomes  available  as  the  manure  undergoes  decom- 
position, either  in  the  manure  heap  or  in  the  soil;  and,  as  this 
process  is  much  more  rapid  in  the  manure  heap  than  in  the  soil, 
there  is  an  advantage  in  having  the  manure  thoroughly  fer- 
mented in  the  heap. 

In  these  calculations  we  have  supposed  that  the  carbonaceous 
matter  in  the  manure  was  of  no  value  in  the  soil.  It  is  of  no 
value  as  plant  food,  but  it  has  a  value  when  the  soil  is  deficient 
in  humus,  as  by  its  decomposition  it  is  converted  into  that  sub- 
stance, which  is  so  essential  to  a  fertile  soil.  At  the  same  time 
the  humus  in  the  soil  can  usually  be  increased  more  cheaply  by 
plowing  under  green  crops  than  by  hauling  out  manure.  There- 
fore, the  great  object  in  manure  should  be  to  secure  the  largest 
proportion  of  plant  food ;  but  the  carbonaceous  matter  it  con- 


THE  SOIL  AND  ITS  IMPROVEMENT.  107 

tains  will  not  be  without  value,  especially  on  sandy  or  clayey 
soils. 

Green  Manures. — As  the  practical  instructions  concerning 
green  manures  are  given  in  the  appropriate  chapter,  we  here 
need  to  consider  only  the  scientific  principles  connected  with 
their  use. 

When  a  farmer  grows  a  heavy  crop  of  clover  or  rye,  and 
plows  it  under,  he  adds  to  the  soil  a  large  amount  of  vegetable 
matter  —  perhaps  eight  tons  to  the  acre.  The  composition  of 
this  would  be  about  as  follows : 

Water, 12,600  Ibs. 

Carbonaceous  matter,           ......  3,100 

Lime,  sand,  etc.,     .......  120 

Nitrogen,             ........  80 

Potash,                    78 

Phosphoric  acid,           .......  22 

Total, 16,000    " 

Of  this,  the  one  hundred  and  eighty  pounds  of  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  are  valuable  plant  food,  and  were  all 
obtained  from  the  soil.  The  carbonaceous  matter  was  obtained 
from  the  air,  and  is  not  plant  food.  The  question,  then,  nat- 
urally arises :  "  Seeing  that  all  the  plant  food  which  this  crop 
adds  to  the  soil  was  taken  from  it  by  the  crop,  how  can  the 
soil  be  enriched  by  the  process?  Does  a  man  get  rich  by 
taking  a  dollar  out  of  his  pocket  and  then  putting  it  back 
again  ?" 

It  must  be  remembered  that  there  are  two  ways  of  improv- 
ing the  soil :  one  by  adding  plant  food  to  it,  the  other  by  ren- 
dering available  that  which  it  already  contains.  The  green  crop 
enriches  the  soil  by  the  latter  method.  The  clover  plant  gathers 
from  the  soil  large  quantities  of  plant  food  which  other  plants 
can  not  use,  and  when  it  decays  in  the  soil  it  leaves  this  plant 
food  in  available  forms.  It  also  sends  its  roots  deep  into  the 
soil,  and  gathers  food  which  is  out  of  reach  of  other  crops ;  when 
it  decays  it  leaves  this  in  the  surface  soil,  within  reach  of  other 
crops.  But  it  has  yet  another  effect :  By  keeping  the  soil  moist 
and  shaded,  and  full  of  decaying  vegetable  matter,  it  furnishes 


108  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

just  the  conditions  needed  for  those  chemical  changes  by  which 
plant  food  is  changed  from  inert  into  available  forms. 

There  is  also  always  a  risk  of  loss  of  fertility  by  drainage. 
As  the  plant  food  is  rendered  soluble  by  chemical  action,  it  may 
be  washed  out  by  a  sudden  heavy  rain.  Clover  saves  this  waste 
by  taking  up  the  material  as  rapidly  as  it  is  rendered  soluble, 
organizing  it  into  forms  which  will  not  waste,  but  can  be  readily 
used  by  the  succeeding  crop.  As  this  waste  from  drainage  is 
most  likely  to  occur  in  the  latter  part  of  the  summer  and  early 
fall,  the  great  advantage  of  sowing  clover  with  wheat  becomes 
apparent.  Experiments  have  shown  that,  if  the  soil  is  left  bare 
after  the  wheat  is  cut,  there  will  often  be  more  fertility  lost  by 
drainage  than  was  taken  up  by  the  crop. 

If  the  theory  referred  to  in  the  beginning  of  this  chapter — 
that,  under  certain  conditions  and  in  some  climates,  the  nitrogen 
in  the  soil  may  be  increased  by  chemical  action — then  it  is  prob- 
able that,  in  warm  climates,  on  suitable  soils,  clover  actually 
causes  an  increase  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil.  This  point,  however, 
is  not  yet  established,  and,  while  it  favors  clover,  should  not  be 
depended  on. 

Another  question  will  probably  occur  to  the  reader:  "If 
clover  adds  no  plant  food  to  the  soil,  but  only  enables  the  suc- 
ceeding crop  to  draw  more  heavily  on  the  original  supply,  will 
not  the  constant  use  of  green  manures,  unaccompanied  by  the 
addition  of  plant  food,  either  in  barn-yard  manures  or  commer- 
cial fertilizers,  bring  about  the  ultimate  exhaustion  of  the  soil 
more  rapidly  than  continuous  cropping  without  clover?"  The 
answer  must  be  that,  with  regard  to  phosphoric  acid  and  potash, 
it  certainly  will ;  and,  unless  the  theory  already  referred  to  con- 
cerning nitrogen  is  true,  the  result  will  be  the  same  with  it. 

Sir  J.  B.  Lawes,  the  great  English  experimenter,  found  that 
a  plat  which  he  cropped  alternately  with  clover  and  wheat, 
through  a  long  term  of  years,  showed  at  the  end  of  the  period 
a  much  greater  reduction  in  the  percentage  of  plant  food  in  the 
soil,  than  another  plat  which  he  cropped  continuously  with 
wheat,  no  manure  being  used  in  either  case. 

But  the  ultimate  exhaustion  of  the  soil  is  not  a  thing  so 


THE  SOIL  AND  ITS  IMPROVEMEMT.  109 

easily  reached  as  is  commonly  supposed.  No  soil  that  was  orig- 
inally fertile  has  ever  been  entirely  exhausted  of  plant  food  by 
cropping  alone.  A  soil  of  ordinary  fertility  contains  in  the  upper 
twelve  inches  plant  food  enough — could  it  all  be  utilized — to 
produce  a  crop  of  thirty  bushels  of  wheat  per  acre  every  year 
for  two  hundred  years,  supposing  the  entire  crop  to  be  removed 
and  nothing  returned.  Of  course,  it  is  not  possible  to  draw  from 
the  soil  in  this  manner,  but  these  facts  show  that  it  is  a  matter 
of  fully  as  much  importance  to  know  how  to  render  available 
the  plant  food  the  soil  already  contains,  as  to  apply  more.  Of 
course  this  wonderful  abundance  of  material  provided  by  nature 
should  not  cause  the  farmer  to  be  prodigal  or  wasteful  of  this 
supply,  but  the  farmer  who  uses  clover  or  other  green  manures 
intelligently  and  in  connection  with  barn-yard  manures,  and  a 
proper  rotation  of  crops,  need  have  no  fear  of  reaching  the  ul- 
timate exhaustion  of  his  soil. 

Fallow. — In  olden  times  the  system  of  summer  fallowing 
was  largely  relied  on  for  the  improvement  of  soils.  It  was 
called  "  resting  the  land,"  an  erroneous  term,  as  the  soil  being 
simply  passive  in  the  matter  of  producing  a  crop,  can  need  no 
rest.  Experiments  have  shown  that  a  field  cropped  with  wheat 
each  alternate  year,  and  cultivated  as  a  fallow  the  intervening 
years,  produced  more  wheat  in  a  given  time  than  another  field 
cropped  continuously. 

By  fallowing,  nothing  is  added  to  the  land  except  a  little 
ammonia,  which  is  absorbed  from  the  air  by  the  exposed  sur- 
face. The  gain  of  fertility  is  due  to  the  fact  that  by  the  ex- 
posure to  the  air,  and  constant  stirring,  chemical  changes  are 
induced  by  which  plant  food  in  the  soil  is  rendered  available. 
Fallowing  is,  therefore,  similar  in  principle  to  green  manuring, 
but  is  inferior  to  it,  the  disadvantages  being : 

A  crop  is  lost  the  fallow  year. 

The  humus  in  the  soil  instead  of  being  increased  is  de- 
creased. 

It  costs  more  to  keep  the  soil  constantly  stirred  than  to  grow 
a  crop  of  clover. 

The  chance  of  a  gain  of  nitrogen  under  the  influence  of  shade, 


110  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

moisture,  and  decaying  vegetable  matter  is  lost.  There  is  liable 
to  be  a  great  waste  of  fertility  by  drainage,  and  if  a  field  that 
has  been  kept  stirred  in  fallow  through  a  hot  summer  receives 
a  long,  heavy,  drenching  rain  in  the  fall  before  the  crop  has 
started,  it  is  possible  for  a  large  part  of  the  liberated  fertility  to 
be  washed  out  and  wasted. 

Commercial  Manures. — We  consider  under  this  head  the 
various  fertilizing  materials  usually  bought  off  the  farm. 

LIME. — This  has  been  long  in  use  for  the  improvement  of 
the  soil.  All  crops  contain  lime,  and  yet  it  is  difficult  to  imag- 
ine that  lime  is  valuable  as  a  fertilizer,  by  supplying  plant  food, 
for  nearly  all  soils  contain  it  far  in  excess  of  the  needs  of  any 
crop.  But  lime  acts  in  improving  the  soil  in  a  twofold  manner. 
On  heavy  clay  lime  is  valuable,  as  it  renders  it  more  easily  pul- 
verized and  less  adhesive.  This  not  only  makes  it  more  easy  to 
work,  but  enables  the  roots  of  plants  to  penetrate  it  more  readily. 

Lime,  also,  has  the  effect  of  causing  the  decomposition  of  veg- 
etable matter  in  the  soil.  Hence,  when  lime  is  added  to  soils 
rich  in  vegetable  matter,  this  is  rapidly  decomposed  and  ren- 
dered useful.  Lime,  therefore,  improves  the  soil  by  rendering 
available  the  plant  food  it  already  contains,  and  it  does  this  at 
the  expense  of  the  humus.  Hence  has  arisen  the  proverb : 

"Lime  and  lime  without  manure, 
Will  make  both  the  farm  and  the  farmer  poor." 

There  are  instances  where  lime  has  been  continuously  used 
for  a  long  course  of  years  without  either  green  crops  or  barn- 
yard manure,  resulting  in  reducing  the  soil  almost  to  sterility. 
Properly  used,  however,  lime  is  a  valuable  material  for  increas- 
ing the  fertility  of  the  soil.  Its  chief  use  should  be: 

1.  On  heavy  clays  to  render  them  more  easily  worked.  In  this 
case  its  application  should  be  accompanied  by  green  manuring 
to  avoid  too  greatly  reducing  the  amount  of  humus  in  the  soil. 

2.  On  soils  rich  in  vegetable  matter,  which  has  but  partially 
decayed.     It  is  specially  valuable  on  reclaimed  swamps  and  bogs. 

3.  In  connection  with  barn-yard  or  green  manures  to  render 
their  action  more  prompt.     When  lime  and  barn-yard  manure  are 
used  in  connection,  the  manure  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  with 


THE  SOIL  AND  ITS  IMPROVEMENT.  Ill 

the  soil  before  the  lime  is  added.  In  no  case  should  barn-yard 
manure  and  lime  be  mixed,  as  loss  of  ammonia  is  certain  to  result. 

There  is  yet  another  manner  in  which  lime  is  beneficial. 
When  vegetable  matter  undergoes  decomposition  in  the  soil 
where  there  is  an  excess  of  water,  and  consequent  deficiency  of 
air,  certain  organic  acids  are  formed  in  the  soil  which  are  inju- 
rious to  vegetations.  This  is  indicated  by  the  growth  of  moss 
and  plants  like  red  sorrel.  When  lime  is  added  to  a  soil  in  this 
condition,  it  combines  with  these  acids,  forming  harmless  com- 
pounds. Draining  such  land  by  removing  the  water,  and  ad- 
mitting the  air,  overcomes  the  cause  of  "  sourness." 

GYPSUM. — Land  Plaster. — The  beneficial  action  of  this  sub- 
stance has  never  been  fully  understood,  but  some  recent  experi- 
ments seem  to  show  that  when  sprinkled  on  the  clover,  it  is  ab- 
sorbed by  the  leaves.  If  this  is  the  fact,  the  benefit  derived 
from  plaster  probably  arises  from  its  furnishing  lime  to  the  plant 
in  a  soluble  form,  as  plaster  is  the  most  soluble  of  any  of  the  or- 
dinary compounds  of  lime. 

BONE  MEAL. — This  important  fertilizer  is  or  should  be  simply 
bones  reduced  to  powder.  The  object  of  the  grinding  is  to 
cause  the  bones  to  undergo  decomposition  in  the  soil  more  rap- 
idly. It  contains  all  the  important  elements  of  plant  food  in 
large  proportion.  Bones  are  entirely  insoluble  in  water,  but 
when  mixed  in  the  soil  with  decaying  vegetable  matter  they  un- 
dergo decomposition  and  are  changed  into  available  plant  food. 
The  more  finely  they  are  ground  the  more  rapidly  this  decompo- 
sition proceeds.  As  the  presence  of  vegetable  matter  is  essen- 
tial, it  is  found  that  bones  act  more  rapidly  when  applied 
to  a  sod. 

ROCK  PHOSPHATE. — In  South  Carolina  and  some  other  coun- 
tries immense  deposits  of  phosphate  of  lime  are  found.  This, 
when  reduced  by  grinding  to  a  fine  powder,  is  known  as  rock 
phosphate,  and  is  valuable  as  a  manure  for  the  purpose  of  sup- 
plying phosphoric  acid.  Like  bones  it  is  more  rapid  in  its 
action  when  applied  to  soil  containing  decaying  vegetable  mat- 
ter, and  hence  is  most  useful  on  sod  ground.  It  contains  no 
nitrogen  and  would  seem  to  be  best  adapted  to  lands  over-rich 


112  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

in  vegetable  matter.  The  acids  produced  in  such  soils  decom- 
pose the  phosphate,  rendering  it  more  soluble  arid  the  acids 
harmless. 

SUPERPHOSPHATE. — Phosphoric  acid  in  bones,  or  rock  phos- 
phate, is  in  combination  with  lime;  in  form  called  by  chemists 
tricalcic  phosphate.  This  form  is  very  insoluble.  When  an  acid 
such  as  sulphuric  is  added  to  this  tricalcic  phosphate  it  takes 
part  of  the  lime,  and  of  course  the  compound  of  lime  and  phos- 
phoric lime  that  is  left,  containing  less  lime,  has  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  phosphoric  acid.  This  new  combination  is  known  by 
chemists  as  bicalcic  and  mono-calcic  phosphate,  according  to  the 
amount  of  lime  that  is  removed,  but  it  is  commonly  known  as 
superphosphate.  Its  advantage  as  a  fertilizer  over  bones  or 
rock  phosphate  arises  from  the  fact  that  it  is  more  soluble. 
Rock  phosphate  is  often  converted  into  superphosphate  by 
treatment  with  acid,  and  is  then  called  "Dissolved  Rock." 

Commercial  "  superphosphate  "  is  a  substance  of  very  uncer- 
tain composition.  It  is  usually  made  from  bones  treated  with 
acid,  to  which  is  added  slaughter-house  refuse,  nitrate  of  soda, 
and  sometimes  other  more  questionable  materials  to  bring  up  the 
per  cent  of  nitrogen.  Much  of  it  is  made  by  treating  the  re- 
fuse bone  black  of  the  sugar  refineries  with  acid.  As  the  bone 
black  contains  phosphoric  acid  but  no  nitrogen,  either  slaughter- 
house refuse  or  nitrate  of  soda  is  usually  added  to  make  it  show 
a  due  proportion  on  analysis.  When  superphosphate  is  mixed 
with  the  soil  it  often  combines  with  more  lime,  and  returns  to  its 
original  condition  of  "  bone  phosphate  "  or.  tricalcic  phosphate ; 
but  this  new  formed  phosphate  is  in  a  state  of  such  fine  division 
that  it  is  readily  acted  on  by  the  roots  of  plants. 

GUANO. — This  is  the  excrement  of  sea-fowls,  which  in  some 
of  the  Pacific  islands  has  accumulated  for  ages.  There  are  two 
kinds,  one  found  on  islands  where  rain  never  falls.  This  is  rich 
in  nitrogen,  potash,  and  phosphoric  acid.  The  other  kind  has 
had  the  nitrogen  and  potash  washed  out  by  the  rains,  and  con- 
tains phosphoric  acid  only.  This  latter  kind  is  often  treated 
with  sulphuric  acid  and  converted  into  superphosphate  before 
being  sold. 


THE  SOIL  AND  ITS  IMPROVEMENT.  113 

These  commercial  fertilizers  are  all  valuable  solely  for  the 
plant  food  they  contain,  having  no  beneficial  action  on  the  soil, 
such  as  is  produced  by  barn-yard  manure  or  green  crops. 

Valuation  of  Fertilizers. — It  would  of  course  be  im- 
possible to  adopt  any  standard  of  valuation  which  could  show 
exactly  what  any  particular  fertilizer  would  be  worth  to  the 
farmer.  That  would  depend  on  his  soil  and  crop.  A  certain 
fertilizer  might,  from  the  nitrogen  it  contained,  be  worth  forty 
dollars  a  ton,  and  yet  on  some  field  or  crop  that  did  not  need 
nitrogen  it  would  be  worth  nothing.  But  for  convenience  in 
comparison  experiment  stations  have  adopted  certain  standards 
of  value  for  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash.  By  these 
standards  the  intrinsic  value  of  different  fertilizers  can  be  deter- 
mined, and  by  their  means  and  analysis  a  farmer  can  determine 
whether  he  is  paying  more  for  a  fertilizer  than  it  is  really 
worth,  and  he  can  compare  the  value  of  commercial  fertilizers 
with  barn-yard,  and  he  can  compare  different  kinds  of  barn-yard 
manure  with  each  other. 

The  same  article  of  plant  food  has  a  different  value,  accord- 
ing to  the  condition  it  is  in.  A  pound  of  nitrogen  in  nitrate  of 
soda  is  worth  more  than  a  pound  of  nitrogen  in  barn-yard 
manure,  for  the  nitrogen  in  the  former  article  will  be  almost  all, 
and  immediately  available  for  the  use  of  the  crop,  while  the 
nitrogen  in  the  latter  may  have  to  lie  in  the  soil  for  many 
years  before  it  will  be  converted  into  available  forms.  We  shall 
give  in  this  book  the  valuations  adopted  by  the  Ohio  State 
Board  of  Agriculture. 

Value  per  pound. 

Ammonia,     ..........  18  cts. 

Which  is  equal  to  nitrogen, 21.86   " 

Phosphoric  acid  in  compounds  which  are  soluble  in  water,  and 
which  is  described  in  official  analysis  as  "soluble"  phos- 
phoric acid, 12  eta. 

Phosphoric  acid  in  compounds  which  though  insoluble  in  water 
are  yet  available  as  plant  food,  and  which  is  described  in 
official  analysis  as  "  reverted  phosphoric  acid,"  .  .  10  eta, 

Phosphoric  acid  in  insoluble  compounds  which  must  undergo 
decomposition  in  the  soil  before  being  available  as  plant 
food,  and  which  is  described  in  official  analysis  as  "insolu- 
uble  phosphoric  acid," 5  ct§. 

Potash, 6   " 


114 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


These  valuations  have  been  agreed  upon  for  commercial  fer- 
tilizers. As  the  condition  of  plant  food  in  barn-yard  manures  is 
seldom  twice  the  same,  the  determination  of  a  standard  of  valua- 
tion for  them  is  both  difficult  and  uncertain.  A  pound  of  nitro- 
gen in  the  manure  from  highly  fed  cattle  will  be  worth  more 
than  a  pound  of  nitrogen  in  the  manure  produced  by  those 
which  have  been  poorly  fed.  An  average  estimate  is  therefore 
the  best  that  can  be  obtained.  In  preparing  my  work,  Science 
in  Farming,  I  adopted  the  following  standards  of  value,  and 
have  not  since  seen  reason  for  making  any  change : 

VALUE    OP   PLANT    FOOD    IN   MIXED   MANURE. 

Nitrogen,  ........ 

Phosphoric  acid,    ....... 

Potash, 

VALUE  OF  PLANT  FOOD  IN  SOLID  EXCREMENT. 

Nitrogen,  ........ 

Phosphoric  acid,    ....... 

Potash, 

VALUE  OF  PLANT  FOOD  IN  URINE. 

Nitrogen,  ........ 

Phosphoric  acid,     ....... 

Potash, 

VALUE  OF  PLANT  FOOD  IN  FOODS. 

Nitrogen,  ........ 

Phosphoric  acid,    ....... 

Potash 

I  give  now  the  following  table,  taken  from  Science  in  Farm- 
ing, showing  the  composition  of  various  barn-yard  manures,  and 
their  values  according  to  the  above  standard.  The  calculations 
are  made  for  one  ton  of  each  kind : 


15  cents. 


10  cents. 

6      " 

4  " 

22  cents. 
12     " 

6     " 

15  cents. 
8      " 

5  " 


Name  of  Manure. 

Nitrogen. 
Ibs. 

Phosphoric 
Acid, 
Ibs. 

Potash, 
Ibs. 

Value. 

Fresh  barn-yard  manure,  
Fresh  hen  manure  

9 
32.6 

4.2 

30.8 

10.4 
17 

$2  21 
8  20 

Dried  hen  manure,  

65.2 

61.6 

34 

16  41 

Solid  excrement,  horses,  

8.8 

3.4 

7 

1  36 

"          cattle  

5.8 

3.4 

2 

86 

"          sheep  

11 

6  2 

3 

1  59 

swine  

12 

8  2 

2.6 

1  79 

Urine,  horses,  

31 

30 

8  62 

cattle,  

11.6 

9.8 

3  14 

sheep,  

39 

0  2 

45*2 

11  31 

8.6 

1  4 

16.6 

3  06 

THE  SOIL  AND  ITS  IMPROVEMENT.  115 

The  low  value  of  the  urine  of  cattle  and  swine  is  largely 
due  to  the  amount  of  water  they  take  with  their  food. 

This  table  does  not  show  what  any  particular  manure  will  be 
worth  to  the  farmer,  as  that  will  depend  on  the  soil  and  crop, 
but  it  does  show  the  comparative  value.  A  ton  of  dried  hen 
manure  may  not  be  worth  to  the  farmer  $16.41;  but  if  not, 
then  a  ton  of  solid  cattle  manure  will  not  be  worth  86  cents ; 
and,  if  the  ton  of  solid  manure  from  cattle  is  worth  more  than  86 
cents,  then  the  ton  of  dried  hen  manure  will  be  worth  more  than 
$16.41. 

Food  and  Manure. — As  we  have  seen  that  the  value  of 
the  manure  all  comes  from  the  food,  and  not  from  the  animal,  it 
is  often  important  to  know  what  will  be  the  value  of  the  manure 
produced  from  a  ton  of  food.  This  will  depend  not  only  on  the 
food,  but  on  the  animal:  for,  although  animals  can  not  add  any 
thing  to  the  manure,  yet  some  take  up  more  of  the  valuable  con- 
stituents of  the  food  for  their  own  use  than  others. 

The  following  table,  which  is  taken  from  Science  in  Farm- 
ing, gives  the  amount  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  in 
different  foods,  and  their  value  according  to  the  standard  already 
given.  It  differs  slightly  from  the  one  prepared  by  Sir  J.  B. 
Lawes,  which  has  been  so  extensively  published,  as  the  valu- 
ation of  fertilizers  in  this  country  and  England  is  somewhat 
different. 

In  using  this  table  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  manure 
made  from  a  ton  of  any  of  these  articles,  when  fed  to  fattening 
animals,  will  be  worth  about  ten  per  cent  less  than  the  figures 
here  given,  and  that,  when  the  food  is  given  to  young,  growing 
animals,  or  animals  giving  milk,  the  manure  will  be  worth  from 
twenty-five  to  fifty  per  cent  less  than  the  figures  given.  It 
should  also  be  remembered  that  the  estimate  thus  obtained  will 
be  the  value  of  the  total  amount  of  manure  produced,  and  the 
farmer  must  calculate  for  himself  how  much  he  will  allow  to 
be  wasted.  The  plant  food  in  manure  produced  from  foods 
that  are  largely  digestible  will  be  more  soluble,  and,  there- 
fore, more  promptly  available  than  that  in  manure  made  from 
poor  food. 


116 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


AMOUNT   AND    VALUE     OF   THE   MANURIAL  CONSTITUENTS    CONTAINED   IN    ONE 
TON    OF   DIFFERENT    FOODS. 


Name  of  Food. 

Nitrogen, 
Ibs. 

Phosphoric 
acid. 
Ibs. 

Potash, 
Ibs. 

Value. 

Linseed  cake,  

90.0 

39.2 

29.4 

818    10 

Cotton  cake,  decorticated,  
"          "      undecorticated,.. 
Beans,  

132.0 
78.0 
'820 

62.4 

45.8 
23.2 

30.0 
40.2 
24.0 

26  29 
17  37 
15  36 

Peas    

72  0 

17.6 

19.6 

13  18 

Bran    

44  0 

64.6 

29.6 

13  25 

Oats,  

41.2 

12.4 

9.0 

7  62 

34  0 

14.6 

9.8 

6  76 

Indian  corn    

33.2 

12.2 

7.2 

6  32 

Clover   hay  

39.4 

11.2 

39.0 

8  76 

Meadow  hay    

31.0 

7.6 

33.6 

6  94 

W^heat  straw,  

9.6 

5.2 

11.6 

2  44 

Barley  straw  ... 

10.0 

4.0 

19.4 

2  79 

Oat  straw              

10.0 

5.0 

20.8 

2  94 

Pea  straw    cut  in  bloom  

45.8 

13.6 

46.4 

10  28 

"         "      ripe,.. 

20.8 

7.0 

20.2 

4  69 

Corn-stalks  .  .             

9.6 

10.6 

19.2 

3  25 

Green  Fodder  — 
Grass    

10.8 

3.0 

9.2 

2  32 

Red    clover  

10.2 

2.8 

8.8 

3  37 

Peas  

10.2 

3.0 

10.2 

2  50 

Oats,  

7.4 

3.4 

15.0 

2  73 

Rye    

10.6 

4.8 

12.6 

2  60 

Corn    

3.8 

2.6 

8.6 

1  21 

20.0 

2.5 

17.0 

4  05 

8.0 

1.6 

7.2 

1  69 

Roots  — 
Potatoes    

6.8 

3.6 

11.2 

1  87 

Mangels    

3.8 

1.4 

7.8 

1  07 

Carots  

3.2 

2.0 

6.4 

96 

Turnips,  

3.6 

1.2 

5.8 

92 

Summary. — We  have  seen  how  the  soil  was  formed  during 
the  countless  ages  of  the  past — how  from  the  rocks  and  air  were 
gathered  the  exact  materials  needed  to  make  a  soil.  We  have 
seen  what  a  wealth  of  material  has  thus  been  placed  under 
our  feet.  So  great  is  this  wealth  that  if  the  nitrogen,  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  potash  contained  in  the  upper  twelve  inches  of  a 
good  soil  were  valued  at  the  prices  charged  for  them  in  a  com- 
mercial fertilizer  the  soil  of  a  farm  of  one  hundred  and  sixty 
acres  would  be  worth  about  a  half  million  dollars. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  farmer  to  wisely  husband  and  use  thia 


THE  SOIL  AND  ITS  IMPROVEMENT.  117 

wealth,  not  to  squander  it,  but  to  develop  it,  use  it,  and  finally  re- 
turn it  to  the  soil  from  whence  it  came.  The  development  of  this 
wealth  is  accomplished  by  drainage,  cultivation,  and  green  ma- 
nures, and  sometimes  by  the  use  of  lime.  The  husbanding  of 
it  is  accomplished  by  growing,  as  far  as  possible,  those  crops 
that  can  be  fed  on  the  farm,  and  by  avoiding  all  wastes  of  ma- 
nure, particularly  of  the  liquid  portion.  For  the  improvement 
of  the  soil  we  may  safely  adopt  the  following  rules : 

Drain  all  land  that  requires  it,  not  only  removing  surplus 
water  but  admitting  the  air,  without  which  development  of  plant 
food  can  not  take  place. 

Cultivate  thoroughly,  thus  still  further  favoring  chemical 
action. 

Keep  the  surface  of  the  soil,  when  not  growing  a  cultivated 
crop,  in  grass  or  clover,  thus  avoiding  waste  of  fertility  by 
drainage. 

Adopt  such  a  rotation  of  crops  as  will  give  every  cultivated 
field  a  term  in  clover  every  few  years.  The  exception  to  this 
last  rule  is  in  the  case  of  fields  over-rich  in  humus. 

Use  lime  only  on  land  over-rich  in  humus,  or  in  connection 
with  green  crops  or  barn-yard  manure. 

Feed  on  the  farm  all  crops  that  you  can,  and  if  you  sell 
grain  largely,  strive  to  balance  the  loss  by  the  purchase  of 
bran,  or  other  food  from  outside  the  farm. 


118  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


VI. 

GRASSES  AND    CLOVER. 

TO  get  a  true  idea  of  the  value  of  the  grass  crop  of  the 
country  requires  some  thought  and  study.  When  by  study 
and  comparison  we  see  the  many  products  of  the  farm 
which  come  directly  or  indirectly  from  this  crop,  we  shall  realize 
that  in  it  is  the  farmer's  wealth.  Not  only  does  the  bulk  of  his 
income  often  come  from  the  grass  crop,  but  it  comes  with  less 
labor  and  loss  of  fertility  than  from  any  other.  A  few  statistics 
will  prove  this. 

The  last  compendium  of  the  census  puts  the  hay  crop  of  the 
United  States  in  round  numbers  at  35,000,000  tons,  and  this  at 
$10  per  ton  is  worth  $350,000,000.  The  butter  product  is 
placed  at  806,672,071  pounds,  worth  at  20  cents  a  pound, 
$161,334,414.  Of  cheese  we  produce  243,157,850  pounds, 
worth,  at  10  cents  a  pound,  $24,315,785.  Of  wool  155,000,000 
pounds,  worth  at  25  cents  a  pound,  $38,750,000.  These  three 
items,  butter,  cheese,  and  wool,  may  be  said  to  be  almost  en- 
tirely the  product  of  grass.  The  entire  valuation  of  the  live 
stock  of  the  United  States  is  $1,500,000,000,  and  it  would  be  a 
very  moderate  estimate  to  allow  that  one-half  of  this  is  due  to 
the  grass  crop,  for  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  value  of  all  our  live 
stock  is  cattle  and  sheep,  and  much  more  than  half  of  their 
value  comes  from  grass. 

It  is  a  little  difficult  to  know  what  part  of  this  stock  is 
disposed  of  each  year,  but  I  should  think  it  a  fair  estimate  to 
add  $200,000,000  to  the  income  from  grass  for  this  item,  and  this 
added  to  the  value  of  the  hay,  butter,  cheese,  and  wool,  gives  an 
aggregate  value  to  the  annual  grass  products  of  the  farms  of  the 
country  of  about  $774,400,199.  The  annual  wheat  crop  is 


GRASSES  AND  CLOVER.  119 

about  450,000,000  bushels,  and  worth  on  an  average  the  same 
number  of  dollars,  and  the  annual  corn  crop  at  forty  cents  per 
bushel  would  bring  about  $700,000,000. 

In  getting  at  the  relative  values  of  these  different  crops  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  expense  of  each  acre  of  corn,  or 
wheat,  for  plowing,  harrowing,  seed,  and  harvesting,  will  on  an 
average  amount  to  nearly  or  quite  half  the  value  of  the  crops. 
Grass,  however,  being  usually  sown  with  small  grain,  requires 
no  special  preparation  of  soil,  and  as  a  single  seeding  lasts  from 
two  to  an  indefinite  number  of  years,  the  expense  to  be 
charged  to  the  crop  amounts  to  a  very  small  per  cent  of  its 
value. 

That  a  system  of  farming  which  keeps  a  large  per  cent  of 
the  land  in  grass  will,  under  right  management  improve  the  soil, 
scarcely  needs  an  argument,  for  every  farmer  knows ;  first,  that 
continual  cropping  in  grain  always  reduces  the  fertility  of  the 
soil,  and,  second,  that  the  cheapest  plant  food  at  the  farmer's 
command  is  a  decaying  sod.  A  proper  proportion  of  grass  on 
the  farm  enables  us  to  follow  a  wise  rotation  of  crops,  and  to 
grow  stock  to  consume  the  grain,  straw,  and  fodder,  and  thus 
produce  the  manure  which  is  indispensable  to  good  farming. 

Farms  which  on  account  of  a  rolling  surface,  and  the  quality 
of  the  soil  would  soon  be  ruined  by  washing  if  cultivated  in 
grain,  can  be  kept  in  good  condition  by  keeping  them  seeded  to 
grass.  I  have  seen  this  illustrated  along  the  "  Big  Miami 
River."  For  some  twenty  miles  above  its  mouth  the  bluffs  will 
average  about  three  hundred  feet  high,  and  on  the  farms  whose 
owners  have  persisted  in  cultivating  them  these  hill-sides  are 
now  barren,  seamed,  and  gullied,  so  that  they  can  never  produce 
grain  again;  and  even  to  get  them  set  in  grass  will  require  the 
planting  of  trees  and  building  of  dams  in  the  washes,  and  will 
be  a  work  requiring  long  time  and  great  labor,  and  even  then  the 
grass  product  of  these  hill-sides  will  be  small  compared  with 
those  which  have  been  kept  in  grass  and  thus  saved  from  this 
loss.  Often  on  the  adjoining  farm  will  be  seen  hill-sides  just  as 
steep,  clothed  from  base  to  summit  with  a  velvety  sward  of  blue 
grass,  which  starts  into  rapid  growth  with  the  first  warm  days  of 


120  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

spring,  enabling  the  farmer  to  pasture  his  stock  a  month  before 
the  clover  fields  are  ready.  I  am  aware  of  the  fact  that  farms 
may  be  reduced  in  fertility  while  kept  in  grass,  when  pastured 
close  in  summer  and  little  or  no  manure  applied  to  them ;  and  I 
have  seen  examples  of  this  among  the  factory  dairies,  where 
the  cows  are  wintered  on  hay  alone  and  no  rotation  followed. 

Varieties. — Botanists  have  classified  about  four  thousand 
species  of  grass,  and  there  is  no  soil  but  some  of  them  are 
adapted  to.  When  we  name  those  of  value  to  the  farmer,  how- 
ever, we  reduce  the  list  to  a  small  number  of  varieties,  and  for 
much  the  larger  part  of  the  United  States  four  will  very  nearly 
cover  the  list.  These  are  timothy,  blue-grass,  orchard-grass,  and 
redtop.  Through  a  wide  scope  of  territory  with  which  I  am 
familiar — if  we  except  clover  and  the  millets — these  are  the 
only  grasses  ever  sown.  There  are  other  varieties  which  are 
valuable  for  certain  localities  or  special  purposes,  among  which 
may  be  named  the  following:  Meadow,  fox-tail,  fowl  meadow, 
rough  stalked  meadow,  perennial  rye  grass,  English  bent, 
meadow  fescue,  and  sweet-scented  vernal. 

TIMOTHY. — Of  the  varieties  named,  all  things  considered,  this  is 
the  most  valuable.  It  forms  a  large  proportion  of  all  the  hay 
sold  in  our  markets,  and  is  the  standard  of  value  for  this  purpose. 
It  contains  a  large  percentage  of  nutritive  matter.  It  thrives 
best  on  loamy  soils,  or  a  rich  clay,  and  is  not  well  suited  to 
light  or  sandy  lands.  On  moist  soils  its  roots  are  fibrous,  and 
on  dry,  loamy  ones  bulbous.  On  rich  lands,  well  suited  to  it, 
this  grass  makes  a  rapid  growth,  and  will  sometimes  yield  from 
three  to  four  tons  of  cured  hay  per  acre.  It  is  not  well  suited 
for  pasture,  as  it  is  soon  killed  out  by  close  grazing,  and  in 
a  dry  fall  will  make  very  little,  if  any,  aftermath.  When  sown 
for  pasture,  therefore,  it  should  always  be  in  connection  with 
other  grasses. 

BLUE-GRASS. — This  is  known  in  many  localities  as  "June 
grass,"  and  it  varies  much  in  size  and  appearance  on  different 
soils.  It  flourishes  best  on  limestone  lands,  and  is  universally 
esteemed  for  pasture.  It  starts  early,  and  forms  a  turf  which 
can  be  tramped  with  little  injury  when  the  land  is  in  a  condition 


GRASSES  AND  CLO\ 'ER.  1 2 1 

that  would  not  admit  of  pasturing  many  other  varieties.  The 
grass  is  nutritious,  and  stock  fatten  rapidly  on  it,  arid  it  is  not 
in  the  least  injured  by  close  cropping.  It  is  seldom  injured  by 
the  frosts  of  winter.  As  it  starts  slowly,  and  requires  at  least 
four  years  to  become  well  set,  it  is  not  advisable  to  sow  it  on 
level  plow  lands ;  but  on  all  soils  where  it  flourishes,  it  should 
always  be  sown  with  other  grasses  for  permanent  pastures.  It 
should  be  sown  during  the  winter,  that  the  melting  snows  and 
the  freezing  and  thawing  may  cover  it,  so  that  it  will  start  in 
early  spring.  Wherever  it  gains  a  foot-hold,  it  will,  in  time, 
crowd  out  all  other  grasses.  It  is  claimed  that  it  will  catch  as 
well  on  the  hard  surface  of  an  old  pasture  as  on  a  mellow  field. 
It  is  usually  recommended  to  sow  about  four  pounds  of  this  seed 
to  the  acre  in  connection  with  other  grasses,  but  I  would  not 
sow  less  than  twice  that  amount,  and  believe  that  one  bushel  (14 
pounds)  is  none  too  much.  I  would  not  sow  old  seed,  as  I 
doubt  if  it  will  germinate,  and  to  know  that  you  get  new  seed 
will  require  care,  as  much  seed  is  held  over  and  sold  the  second 
year,  or  later. 

ORCHARD-GRASS. — also  called  Rough  Cocksfoot,  stands  pre-emi- 
nent as  a  pasture  grass.  It  possesses  a  host  of  good  qualities. 
It  is  palatable  and  nutritious,  and  makes  a  very  rapid  growth.  It 
blossoms  early,  and  when  pastured  close  or  cut,  makes  a  luxu- 
riant aftermath.  It  resists  drought  well,  and  is  less  exhaustive 
to  the  soil  than  Timothy.  The  seed  weighs  twelve  pounds  to 
the  bushel,  and  when  sown  alone  requires  two  bushels  to  the 
acre.  When  sown  with  a  mixture  of  other  grasses  for  pasture, 
about  one-fourth  the  above  amount  is  best.  I  have  succeeded 
best  with  this  grass  sown  in  the  spring  with  oats  or  barley.  It 
forms  an  admirable  mixture  with  red  clover,  either  for  pasture 
or  hay,  as  it  blossoms  about  the  same  time,  and  keeps  the  clover 
from  lodging. 

RED-TOP. — This  grass  is  called  herds-grass  in  Pennsylvania, 
and  is  known  by  many  local  names,  and  assumes  a  variety  of 
forms  on  different  soils.  It  is  well  adapted  to  a  great  variety 
of  soils,  but  flourishes  best  on  a  moist  loam.  It  makes  a  heavy 
crop  of  hay,  but  inferior  in  quality  to  timothy.  It  is  well  suited 


122  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

to  permanent  pasture,  as  it  bears  close  feeding,  but  if  allowed 
to  run  to  seed,  it  becomes  wiry  and  unpalatable  to  cattle.  It 
endures  all  the  vicissitudes  of  heat  and  cold,  wet  and  dry,  as 
well  as  any  grass  we  have,  and  should  form  part  of  the  mixture 
for  permanent  grass  lands.  As  the  seed  is  very  fine,  only  a 
small  quantity  will  be  needed. 

MEADOW  FOXTAIL. — This  grass  resembles  timothy,  but  is 
earlier  and  has  a  softer  spike.  It  is  not  valuable  to  sow  by  itself 
for  a  crop,  but  a  little  of  it  in  a  permanent  pasture  will  add 
greatly  to  its  value.  It  requires  three  or  four  years  to  get  a 
firm  footing  in  the  soil.  The  seed  weighs  but  five  pounds  to 
the  bushel,  and  contains  over  seventy  thousand  seed  to  the 
ounce.  Two  pounds  of  seed  is  enough  for  an  acre. 

FOWL  MEADOW  GRASS. — This  variety  is  of  great  value  for 
low,  marshy  grounds,  where  it  flourishes  best.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  nutritious  of  grasses.  It  thrives  best  in  mixture  with 
other  grasses,  and  should  be  sown  on  all  rich,  moist  lands, 
whether  seeded  for  pasture  or  hay. 

ROUGH  STALKED  MEADOW  GRASS. — This  resembles  the  June 
grass,  but  can  be  distinguished  from  it  by  its  having  a  rough 
sheath,  while  the  former  has  a  smooth  one.  It  grows  best  on 
moist,  sheltered  meadows.  It  is  quite  nutritous,  and  the  second 
crop  more  so  than  the  first.  Seven  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre 
will  form  a  good  sward,  but  it  is  better  to  sow  two  pounds  of 
it  in  mixture  with  other  grasses. 

PERENNIAL  RYE  GRASS. — This  grass  is  more  prized  abroad 
than  in  this  country.  It  is  better  adapted  to  a  wet  climate 
than  to  one  where  drought  is  as  common  as  with  us.  It  is 
quite  palatable  and  nutritious  up  to  the  time  of  blossoming,  when 
it  changes  rapidly  from  a  palatable  and  succulent  plant  to  one 
with  much  woody  fiber,  and  but  little  soluble  matter. 

ENGLISH  BENT  GRASS. — This  is  much  like  red-top,  but  may 
be  distinguished  from  it  by  the  roughness  of  the  sheath  when 
the  hand  is  drawn  down  from  above.  Its  qualities  are  very 
similar  to  those  of  red-top. 

MEADOW  FESCUE. — This  is  said  to  be  identical  with  the  Ran- 
dall-grass of  Virginia.  It  is  a  good  pasture  grass,  and  ripens  its 


GRASSES  AND  CLOVER.  125 

seed  very  early.     If  sown  it  should  be  in  a  mixture  with  other 
grasses.     Its  greatest  value  is  when  in  flower. 

SWEET-SCENTED  VERNAL  GRASS. — This  is  not  a  palatable  or 
nutritious  grass,  but  it  comes  very  early  in  the  spring  and  grows 
late  in  autumn,  and  in  a  mixture  for  pasture  is  of  some  value. 
It  derives  its  name  from  its  sweetness  of  smell  when  partly 
wilted  or  when  crushed  in  the  hand,  and  it  is  this,  chiefly,  that 
gives  the  fragrance  to  new  mown  hay.  It  is  rarely  sown,  but 
comes  spontaneously  into  fields  and  along  roadsides. 

Of  the  varieties  of  grass  named  the  blue-grass  and  orchard- 
grass  do  best  in  the  shade,  and  will  produce  heavy  crops  in 
orchards  and  timber  groves.  Botanists  speak  of  dislikes  and 
affinities  among  plants,  and  blue-grass  and  the  locust  tree  seem 
to  illustrate  the  latter,  for  they  grow  together  with  no  apparent 
injury  to  each  other.  I  have  seen  a  second  crop  of  locust  trees 
grow  large  enough  for  posts  in  twelve  years,  in  a  heavy  blue- 
grass  sward,  and  our  most  dense  groves  of  locust  timber  produce 
about  as  much  of  this  grass  as  the  open  fields. 

The  length  of  time  land  should  remain  in  grass  must  be 
determined  by  the  character  of  the  land  and  the  system  of 
farming  pursued.  On  every  farm  there  should  be  a  permanent 
pasture ;  and,  if  this  is  seeded  with  a  mixture  of  the  grasses 
recommended,  those  best  suited  to  the  soil  will  get  possession 
and  become  permanent.  In  all  locations  where  blue-grass  flour- 
ishes it  will  crowd  out  all  others,  and  the  land  will  not  need 
reseeding  in  a  generation.  These  pastures  become  more  valua- 
ble with  age,  and  are  often  the  most  profitable  lands  on  the  farm. 
On  level  plow  lands,  where  the  object  of  growing  grass  is  to 
improve  the  soil,  as  well  as  for  hay  and  pasture,  the  period  the 
land  should  remain  in  grass  will  vary  somewhat.  In  most  rota- 
tions the  period  will  be  two  years,  and  sometimes  a  poor  catch, 
or  the  damaging  of  the  crop  by  a  very  dry  summer  or  an  unusu- 
ally severe  winter,  will  make  it  wise  to  plow  up  the  land  after 
one  year.  Again,  a  field  may  be  so  well  seeded  and  prove  so 
productive  that  it  will  be  found  profitable  to  allow  it  to  remain 
in  grass  for  a  series  of  years.  I  have  known  timothy  meadows 
to  give  from  four  to  six  good  crops  from  a  single  seeding. 


124  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

On  all  plow  lands  the  farmer  should  strive  to  so  manage  as  to 
grow  a  heavy  sward  as  soon  as  possible.  This  will  often  prove 
as  valuable  for  manure  as  the  crop  will  for  food.  If  the  farmer 
oan  accomplish  this  in  two  years  he  may  be  said  to  have  grown 
three  crops  in  this  time, — two  of  grass,  for  pasture  or  hay,  and 
one  (beneath  the  soil)  of  plant  food  for  succeeding  crops.  To 
secure  this  sward  the  land  must  be  thoroughly  prepared  and 
heavily  seeded.  When  fine,  delicate  seed  like  that  of  most  of 
our  grasses  is  sown  on  a  rough,  clayey  surface,  a  large  part  of 
it  never  comes  up  at  all,  as  it  is  covered  so  deeply  that  the 
germs  perish  before  reaching  the  surface.  It  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  that  the  land  be  made  fine  and  mellow,  and,  fortu- 
nately, this  also  gives  the  best  seed-bed  for  the  small  grains  with 
which  our  grasses  are  usually  sown.  It  is  of  much  greater 
importance  that  two  or  three  inches  of  the  surface  soil  be  fine 
.and  mellow  than  that  the  land  be  deeply  plowed.  One  is  not 
likely  to  err  by  using  the  plank-drag  too  much. 

I  think,  as  a  rule,  that  farmers  are  too  sparing  of  seed,  and 
that  the  best  results  will  follow  heavy  seeding.  I  have  often 
known  farmers  sow  a  bushel  of  timothy  seed  on  ten  acres,  and 
think  they  were  seeding  liberally.  I  recommend,  when  timothy 
is  sown  alone  for  meadows,  that  a  bushel  be  sown  to  three  acres, 
^,nd  when  seeding  land  for  permanent  pasture  I  would  seed 
heavily  with  a  mixture  of  as  many  valuable  varieties  as  I  could 
command  that  were  suited  to  the  soil.  In  seeding  a  pasture 
which  is  to  remain  permanently  in  grass,  I  would  recommend  as 
a,  suitable  quantity  for  an  acre : 

Timothy, 10  Ibs. 

Orchard-grass,  .         .         .         .         .         .         .  6    " 

Red-top, 2    " 

Blue-grass,          .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  7    " 

Clover, 4    " 

There  is  no  economy  in  stinting  the  seed  for  grass  land. 
Most  of  our  grasses  do  best  when  sown  with  small  grain,  and, 
as  this  saves  the  labor  of  preparing  a  seed-bod  specially  for  the 
grass,  it  is  economical  to  do  so.  It  occasionally  becomes  neces- 
sary, however,  in  order  that  we  may  have  pasture  or  meadow, 
that  grass  be  sown  so  as  to  give  a  crop  the  first  year.  When 


GRASSES  AND  CLOVER.  125 

it  is  required  for  pasture,  seed  with  rye,  as  recommended  iu 
another  chapter.  If  for  hay,  clean  land  should  be  selected  and 
put  in  order  for  seeding  early  in  September,  for  the  grass  should 
get  a  good  start  in  the  fall  to  enable  it  to  endure  the  winter, 
and  also  that  it  may  get  the  start  of  weeds.  It  will  pay  to 
top-dress  with  fine  manure,  if  it  is  available,  and,  if  not,  with 
bone-meal,  which  is  a  special  manure  for  grass.  I  have  found 
that  timothy  does  much  better  sown  in  fall  than  in  spring,  as 
it  roots  deep  enough  to  enable  it  to  withstand  drought,  which, 
if  sown  in  spring,  would  be  fatal  to  it.  It  is  sometimes  desira- 
ble to  reseed  old  pastures  without  plowing  them  or  losing  the 
pasturing  for  a  season,  and  I  find  this  can  be  done  by  harrow- 
ing until  the  surface  is  a  little  scarified  and  sowing  in  the  fall. 
If  the  land  is  quite  bare,  I  would  recommend  rye  to  be  sown 
with  the  grass,  as  it  will  catch  when  sown  on  the  surface  if  it 
is  slightly  mellowed,  and  will  not  only  protect  the  young  grass, 
but  also  furnish  early  feed. 

Bare  spots  in  pastures  not  only  give  no  income,  but  are 
unsightly,  and  they  should  be  top-dressed  with  fertilizers  of 
some  kind,  and  re-seeded. 

I  believe  it  wise  to  use  the  larger  part  of  the  manure  made 
on  the  farm  with  reference  to  its  effect  on  the  grass  crop. 
Where  this  can  be  done  (as  recommended  in  other  chapters)  so 
as  to  secure  the  benefit  of  the  manure  for  a  grain  crop,  and  at 
the  same  time  have  it  fertilize  the  grass,  this  is  probably  the 
wisest  use  that  can  be  made  of  it;  but,  when  a  grass-field  is  to 
be  plowed  for  corn,  if  manure  can  be  had  to  top-dress  it  a  year 
beforehand,  it  will  cause  the  roots  to  multiply  in  the  soil  and 
the  sward  to  thicken  up,  so  as  to  furnish  as  great,  or  a  greater, 
amount  of  plant  food  for  the  corn,  and  give  in  addition  a  very 
heavy  grass  crop. 

In  1883  I  saw  on  the  farm  of  a  neighbor  a  good  illustration 
of  the  value  of  manure  for  grass.  A  field  of  ten  and  a  half 
acres  was  liberally  top-dressed  with  good  barn-yard  manure,  and 
it  produced  at  two  cuttings  fifty-six  loads  of  hay.  Eight  of 
these  loads  were  weighed,  and  averaged  twenty-one  hundred 
pounds  to  the  load ;  and,  taking  these  as  an  average,  the  field 


126  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

yielded  at  the  two  cuttings  over  five  and  a  quarter  tons  to  the 
acre.*  Chemical  analysis  shows,  also,  that  hay  grown  on  land 
well  fertilized  is  of  a  much  greater  feeding  value  than  that 
grown  on  a  poor  soil. 

A  dressing  of  manure  on  permanent  pastures  will  not  only 
give  one  or  two  largely  increased  crops,  but  will  make  the  pas- 
ture better  for  many  years.  I  have  passed  daily,  for  several 
years,  some  pasture  lots  which  have  been  heavily  top-dressed 
with  manure,  and  they  carry  fully  double  the  stock  per  acre 
that  the  ordinary  pastures  of  the  same  neighborhood  do,  and 
endure  drought  better. 

While  pastures  should  not  be  overstocked,  it  is  often  a 
decided  advantage  to  have  them  eaten  short,  as  many  varieties 
of  grass  become  dry  and  of  little  value  if  allowed  to  go  to  seed. 
It  is  wise,  therefore,  to  have  the  pasture  divided  so  as  to  enable 
the  farmer  to  concentrate  the  stock  on  one  field  while  another 
is  growing  up.  This  changing  of  the  stock  is  of  advantage  both 
to  them  and  to  the  pasture. 

Hay  Making. — I  doubt  if  in  any  farm  operation  there  is  so 
little  judgment  exercised  as  in  hay  making,  or  if  on  any  other 
point  a  little  scientific  knowledge  would  be  of  so  great  value. 
The  practice  of  a  majority  of  the  farmers  of  my  acquaintance  is 
to  allow  their  grass  to  stand  till  ripe,  often  so  that  the  seed 
shatters  in  handling  it.  Chemical  analysis  shows  that  the 
changes  the  plant  undergoes  in  maturing  the  seed,  greatly  re- 
duces the  value  of  the  grass  for  food,  and  careful  experiments 
in  feeding  confirm  this.  On  this  subject  Professor  Jordan,  of 
the  Pennsylvania  State  College,  says :  "  So  far  as  composition  is 
any  indication  of  value,  the  hay  from  early  cut  grass  is  more 
valuable  pound  for  pound  than  that  from  late  cut  grass." 

Some  experiments  made  by  Professor  Jordan  in  feeding 
early  and  late  cut  hay,  confirm  this:  During  the  winter  of  1881 
and  1882,  four  steers  were  selected  for  experiment  and  two  fed 
on  early  cut  hay  for  twenty-eight  days  and  the  other  two  on  late 
cut  hay  for  the  same  period.  Then  they  were  changed  and  for 
the  same  period  those  that  had  been  fed  early  cut  hay  were  fed 

*  These  two  cuttings  were  made  the  same  year. 


GRASSES  AND  CLOVER. 


127 


on  late  cut.     The  result  of  the  fifty-six  days'  feeding  is,  given  in 
the  following  table : 


Early  cut  Hny. 
Pounds. 

Late  cut  Hay. 
Pounds. 

Total  amount  of  hay  eaten      

1  696 

1  634 

Hay  eaten  per  day  

30.3 

29  2 

12 

12 

Total  gain  iu  weight  

176 

134 

Gain  of  two  steers  per  dav  

3.14 

2  4 

Gain  per  Ib    of  hay  fed  

104 

082 

This  gives  the  relative  value  of  early  and  late  cut  hay 
at  ::100:79. 

A  second  experiment  was  made,  in  which  a  smaller  quantity 
of  corn-meal  was  fed  in  connection  with  the  hay.  This  experiment 
lasted  nearly  three  months,  beginning  December  1st,  and  ending 
February  25th. 


Fed  early  cut  Hay 
Pounds. 

Fed  late  cut  Hay. 
Pounds. 

Weight  of  two  steers  Dec.  1st  
"     "        "    Feb.  25th  
Total  gain  in  weight  

1,750 
1,922 
172 

1,630 
1,702 
72 

Total  amount  of  hay  eaten  

2,924 

2,234 

Corn-meal  eaten  per  day        

7 

7 

Gain  per  Ib   of  hay  fed...  

.059 

032 

Gain  of  two  steers  per  day  

2 

84 

This  experiment  would  show  a  relative  value  of  early  cut  to 
late  cut  ::100:55. 

These  cattle  were  fed  all  they  would  eat  clean,  and  it  is 
noticeable  that  the  two  fed  on  the  early  cut  hay  ate  690  pounds 
more  than  those  fed  on  that  which  was  cut  late.  These  steers 
were  sold  at  6i  cents  per  pound,  which  gave  a  return  for  the 
690  pounds  extra  of  early  cut  hay,  equal  to  $18.80  per  ton. 

Not  only  does  the  degree  of  ripeness,  but  also  the  method  of 
curing,  affect  the  quality  of  the  hay.  The  quicker  hay  can  be  cured 
the  better  the  quality  will  be,  and  it  is  almost  as  damaging  to 
leave  it  exposed  too  long  to  the  hot  sun,  as  to  have  a  rain  fall  on 
it.  All  grasses  should  be  cut  when  free  from  external  moisture 
and  then  cured  as  rapidly  as  possible.  Under  favorable  circum- 
stances hay  can  be  cured  and  put  in  the  barn  the  same  day,  and 


128  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

when  this  can  not  be  done  it  is  best  to  put  it  in  cocks  so  as  to  pro- 
tect it  from  the  dew.  There  is  a  great  difference  between  good 
sweet  hay  cut  before  the  rich  juices  have  turned  to  woody  fiber, 
and  that  which  has  been  allowed  to  get  over-ripe,  and  then 
allowed  to  lie  for  two  or  three  days  exposed  to  dew  and  burning 
sun,  and  the  former  who  likes  to  see  his  stock  comfortable  and 
thrifty,  and  who  expects  to  find  a  profit  from  feeding,  will  be 
watchful  and  vigilant  to  see  that  all  the  work  of  hay-making  is 
done  at  the  right  time  and  in  the  best  possible  manner.  The  use 
of  hay  caps  is  usually  recommended  in  giving  directions  about 
hay-making,  but  I  have  serious  doubts  as  to  whether  they  would 
pay.  If  the  rain  is  heavy  and  long-continued  the  hay  will  be 
wet  from  the  ground,  and  the  heat  and  moisture  from  the  cock 
will  gather  under  the  cap  and  damage  the  top.  Besides,  our 
summer  showers  usually  come  up  so  suddenly  that  it  would  be 
impossible  to  cover  a  field  of  hay  in  time  to  protect  it.  Bar- 
racks similar  to  those  described  in  our  chapter  on  wheat,  will  be 
found  profitable  on  farms  where  hay  is  grown  as  a  leading  crop, 
and  for  this  purpose  they  can  be  built  cheaply  by  setting  posts 
of  lasting  wood  in  the  ground  to  support  the  roof.  When  hay  is 
to  be  stacked  or  put  in  barracks  in  the  field,  much  time  and  labor 
in  handling  can  be  saved  by  the  use  of  the  "twenty-foot  hay 
rake,"  which  you  will  find  described  and  illustrated  in  the  chapter 
on  "Handy  things." 

Since  the  introduction  of  the  self-binders  for  wheat,  I  have 
heard  of  some  farmers  cutting  the  timothy  hay  with  these  ma- 
chines. I  believe  that  it  would  cure  out  in  the  shock  as  well  as 
wheat,  and  would  be  very  little  damaged  by  rain,  and  I  would 
recommend  that  farmer's  owning  these  machines  try  this  plan. 

Shrinkage  of  Hay  in  Barn. — It  is  a  question  of  con- 
siderable interest  to  the  farmer  who  sells  hay,  to  know  what  the 
shrinkage  will  be  between  the  time  it  is  stored  and  the  following 
winter  or  spring  when  it  has  thoroughly  dried  out. 

I  have  before  me  the  results  of  seventeen  trials  made  at  the 
Pennsylvania  State  College  Farm.  The  experiments  extended 
over  a  space  of  three  years,  1879-81,  and  included  timothy  and 
clover,  and  the  cutting  was  made  at  different  stages  of  growth 


GRASSES  AND  CLOVER.  129 

from  the  time  the  grass  began  to  head,  until  it  was  nearly  dead. 
In  all  of  these  trials  but  three,  about  two  tons  was  put  in  a  lot. 
In  the  three  eight  hundred  pounds  each.  The  greatest  shrinkage 
was  36  per  cent,  and  in  four  cases  it  exceeded  30  per  cent.  The 
smallest  was  12  per  cent,  on  clover  nearly  dead,  and  in  five  cases 
it  was  less  than  twenty  per  cent.  The  average  for  the  seventeen 
trials  was  24.1  per  cent.  The  second  weighing  was  made  in 
December  or  at  a  later  period  during  the  winter.  From  these 
experiments  it  will  be  seen  that  it  will  require  a  large  advance 
in  price  to  pay  for  the  shrinkage  and  rehandling  of  hay. 

Millet. — The  millet  family  is  better  for  green  feeding  than 
for  hay,  but  as  it  will  make  the  best  crop  when  sown  about  the 
first  of  June,  and  the  yield  of  hay  from  our  meadows  can  be 
estimated  closely  by  that  date,  it  is  often  wise  for  the  farmer  to 
sow  a  field  in  millet  when  he  finds  the  hay  crop  likely  to  be 
short.  If  the  crop  is  to  be  grown  for  seed,  not  more  than 
twelve  quarts  of  seed  should  be  sown  to  the  acre.  If  for  hay, 
from  sixteen  to  twenty  quarts.  The  yield  is  often  very  heavy, 
and  the  quality  is  fair.  For  fodder  it  should  be  cut  before  ripen- 
ing. It  does  best  on  loamy  land,  but  will  produce  a  crop  on  any 
good  soil.  Great  pains  must  be  taken  in  the  preparation  of  the 
seed  bed,  as  when  it  is  sown  at  the  hot  season  of  the  year  the 
land  soon  dries  out,  making  it  difficult  to  get  a  stand,  and  if  the 
millet  is  thin  on  the  ground  it  will  be  coarse  and  inferior  as  food, 
and  likely  to  be  mixed  with  weeds.  In  preparing  land  for  millet 
I  would  recommend  that  it  be  rolled  as  fast  as  plowed,  then  har- 
rowed fine  and  the  seed  sown  and  covered  with  the  plank  drag. 
It  will  make  a  better  start  if  sown  soon  after  a  rain,  than  if  sown 
before  one  heavy  enough  to  crust  the  land,  particularly  on  a  clay 
upland.  The  hay  is  better  for  cattle  than  horses,  and  it  is 
thought  to  be  unwholesome  for  the  latter  if  the  seed  is  near 
maturity. 

Clover. — I  have,  in  a  previous  chapter,  spoken  of  clover  as 
a  renovator  and  cleanser  of  the  soil,  and  here  I  shall  speak 
more  particularly  of  it  as  a  food-producing  plant.  While  the 
varieties  are  numerous,  there  are  but  few  which  are  of  suffi- 
cient value  to  the  farmer  to  justify  the  devoting  of  our  space 


130  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

to  them.  These  are  the  "  Common  Red,"  of  which  we  have  two 
varieties,  the  larger  of  which  is  called  the  "  Sapling,"  and  also 
"  Large  English,"  and  in  Europe  goes  by  the  name  of  "  Cow 
Grass."  The  "  White,"  or  "  Dutch,"  the  "  Alsike,"  and  "  Al- 
falfa," or  "  Lucerne."  The  common  red  and  white  need  no  de- 
scription, as  they  are  familiar  to  all.  The  "  Sapling  "  is  of  larger 
and  coarser  growth  than  the  common  red,  and  some  weeks  later 
in  ripening,  which  makes  it  valuable  to  SOAV  for  hay  with  tim- 
othy, as  it  will  be  ready  to  cut  with  the  latter  grass,  and  will 
not  only  be  supported  during  its  growth  by  it  and  prevented 
from  lodging,  but  can  be  much  more  easily  cured.  It  also  grows 
finer  when  mixed  with  timothy.  It  makes  a  wonderful  growth 
and  is,  I  think,  of  much  greater  value  for  fertilizing  purposes 
than  the  common  red,  and  so  far  as  my  experience  goes,  makes 
as  good  pasture.  The  heaviest  crops  of  hay  we  have  ever  cut 
on  "  East  View  Farm,"  were  when  we  had  sown  two  or  three 
pounds  of  this  mammoth  clover  seed  with  the  timothy.  I  think 
that  the  hay  from  this  variety  of  clover  is  more  easily  cured  than 
from  the  common  red,  one  reason  being  that  it  is  not  so  sappy, 
and  another  that,  being  cut  later,  the  weather  is  usually  hotter 
and  better  for  curing.  I  have  found  that  it  is  relished  by  the 
stock  as  well  and  eaten  with  as  little  waste.  The  sapling  clover 
seeds  in  the  first  crop,  and  does  not  make  a  heavy  second  growth 
like  the  common  red.  I  would  advise  every  farmer  to  give  it  a 
trial,  but  as  it  might  not  succeed  as  well  on  all  soils  as  on  our 
limestone,  it  would  be  prudent  to  experiment  with  a  single  field 
for  a  year  or  two  before  substituting  it  entirely. 

Alsike  clover  is  an  intermediate  variety  between  the  white 
and  common  red.  It  grows  nearly  as  tall  as  the  latter,  with  a 
much  finer  stem  and  foliage,  and  has  a  pale  red  or  pinkish  blos- 
som. It  is  a  perennial,  extremely  hardy,  and  will  yield  good 
crops  for  eight  or  ten  years.  It  branches  very  heavily,  and 
throws  out  many  stalks  from  one  root,  and  so  requires  but  thin 
seeding ;  the  roots  strike  very  deeply  into  the  subsoil.  The  period 
of  bloom  is  much  longer  than  with  red  clover,  and  it  will  be 
ready  to  cut  with  timothy.  Only  half  as  much  seed  will  be  re- 
quired as  of  red  clover,  and  it  may  be  sown  either  spring  or  fall. 


GRASSES  AND  CLOVER.  131 

It  bears  its  seed  in  the  first  crop.  It  yields  a  fair  crop  of  hay 
or  pasture,  and  is  in  great  favor  with  bee  keepers,  as,  like  the 
white  clover,  bees  can  work  it,  while  they  can  not  reach  the 
sweets  in  the  common  red  clover. 

Lucern,  or  alfalfa,  is  largely  cultivated  in  some  countries  to 
supply  green  food  for  cattle.  It  is  not  valuable  for  hay,  as  it  be- 
comes very  woody  and  fibrous  as  it  matures,  and  should  be  cut 
for  green  food  before  it  comes  into  blossom.  It  will  bear  several 
crops  in  a  season,  and  produce  a  large  amount  of  succulent 
food.  It  does  not  succeed  on  wet  soil  or  tenacious  clays,  but 
is  specially  adapted  to  warm,  sandy  soils,  and  to  hot  climates  as 
its  long  roots  enable  it  to  withstand  drought.  It  is  largely 
grown  in  Peru,  under  the  heat  of  a  tropical  sun,  and  is  es- 
teemed a  valuable  plant  in  California  and  the  South.  As  it  is 
very  sensitive  to  weeds,  it  is  best  to  sow  in  drills  and  hoe  the 
first  season,  till  it  becomes  well  established,  and  top  dress  each 
fall  with  well-rotted  manure.  When  once  well  established,  it 
will  yield  bountiful  crops  for  many  years. 

White  clover  is  rarely  sown  as  a  farm  crop,  but  seems  to  be 
indigenous  to  many  soils,  and  comes  in  of  itself  along  the  road- 
sides, pastures,  and  meadows.  I  was  much  troubled  with  it  in  my 
strawberry  beds  many  years  ago,  when  engaged  in  market  garden- 
ing, and  was  puzzled  to  know  how  the  seed  came  there,  as  I  was 
sure  that  I  had  not  taken  it  in  the  manure.  A  study  of  the 
habits  of  the  plant  showed  how  the  seed  was  disseminated.  The 
white  clover,  unlike  the  red,  seeds  in  the  first  crop,  and  the  seed 
is  not  inclosed  in  a  tight  hull,  but  shatters  readily.  As  the  head 
ripens  half  the  spikes  or  flowerets  turn  down,  and  when  ripe  the 
stem  becomes  brittle  and  the  head  breaks  off,  and  is  nearly  as 
round  as  a  ball,  and  is  rolled  along  by  the  wind,  scattering  its 
seed  as  it  goes.  The  seed  of  white  clover  possesses  great  vi- 
tality, and  will  remain  for  many  years  in  the  soil,  and  then  grow 
when  the  conditions  are  favorable.  By  dressing  old  meadows 
with  ashes,  a  heavy  crop  of  white  clover  will  often  result, 
although  none  has  grown  on  the  field  for  a  generation.  I  think 
that  on  soils  where  white  clover  flourishes  it  would  be  profit-able 
in  seeding  permanent  pastures  to  use  a  pound  or  two  of  it  per 


132  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

acre  in  the  mixture,  as  it  will  fill  the  vacancies  and  protect  the 
soil,  and  also  furnish  a  large  amount  of  sweet  and  nutritious  food. 

As  red  clover  is  the  variety  of  universal  growth  and  great- 
est value  to  the  farmer,  I  shall  confine  myself  to  it  in  the  re- 
mainder of  this  chapter.  I  place  a  very  high  value  on  clover, 
and  believe  that  it  ranks  in  value  and  importance  with  our  lead- 
ing grain  crops.  My  reasons  for  this  are :  1st.  Because  of  the 
large  amount  of  food  it  furnishes  at  small  expense.  2d.  Be- 
cause of  the  value  of  the  manure  made  from  it.  3d.  It  can  be 
produced  not  only  without  reducing  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  but 
on  the  contrary,  the  field  which  has  grown  a  crop  of  clover  has 
a  larger  supply  of  available  plant  food,  and  is  improved  in  its 
mechanical  condition.  4th.  It  is  a  cleansing  crop,  by  which  I 
mean  that  we  have  much  less  trouble  with  weeds,  when  cultiva- 
ting a  field  that  has  been  in  clover  than  when  one  grain  crop 
follows  another. 

In  estimating  the  profit  of  a  crop,  we  can  not  be  governed 
entirely  by  its  cash  market  value,  but  must  take  into  consider- 
ation, 1st.  The  cost  of  producing  and  getting  it  into  market, 
and,  2d  The  condition  of  the  soil  after  the  crop  has  been  re- 
moved, and  its  capacity  to  grow  a  succeeding  crop.  Tried  by 
these  standards,  clover  compares  favorably  with  any  crop  of 
the  farm.  While  it  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  estimate 
accurately  the  fertility,  either  removed  from  or  added  to  the  soil, 
we  may,  perhaps,  approximate  it,  and  I  give  the  following  as 
what  I  believe  to  be  a  fair  estimate : 

I  should  not  expect  to  keep  a  field  at  average  fertility  if 
continuously  cultivated  in  grain  without  the  addition  of  manure, 
and  if  the  field  was  dressed  once  in  five  years  with  fifteen  loads 
of  manure,  worth  one  dollar  a  load,  it  would  average  three  dol- 
lars a  year  per  acre ;  and  this  seems  to  me  to  fairly  represent 
on  average  soils  the  reduction  of  fertility  by  a  grain  crop.  On 
the  other  hand,  I  have  rarely  failed  to  get  an  increase  of  grain 
when  following  clover  ranging  from  five  to  twelve  or  fifteen 
dollars  in  value  per  acre,  and,  even  taking  the  lowest  estimate, 
it  would  give  a  difference  of  eight  dollars  per  acre  in  the  con- 
dition of  the  soil  in  favor  of  the  clover  crop;  and  this  estimate 


GRASSES  AND  CLOVER.  133 

I  make  on  the  supposition  that  both  crops  are  removed  from 
the  soil.  The  feeding  value  of  a  clover  crop  depends  on  so 
many  circumstances  that  we  can  not  lay  down  any  fixed  rules 
in  determining  it.  We  can,  however,  get  an  approximate  idea 
of  its  worth.  Mr.  Coburn,  in  his  work  on  Swine  Husbandry, 
estimates  that  an  acre  of  clover  fed  to  hogs  will  produce  one- 
half  more  pork  than  an  average  acre  of  corn.  He  claims  that 
fifteen  pounds  of  green  clover  will  make  a  pound  of  pork,  and 
that  an  acre  of  good  average  clover  will  produce  six  tons  green, 
and  foots  up  a  feeding  value  of  thirty-two  dollars  for  it.  While 
I  would  not  dispute  that,  under  favorable  circumstances,  this 
might  be  realized  from  it,  yet  I  know  that  the  estimate  is  more 
than  double  what  we  could  expect  as  an  average  result.  Mr. 
L.  N.  Bonham,  who  has  a  bottom  farm,  and  follows  a  rotation 
which  gives  a  clover-field  of  about  thirty  acres  each  year,  has 
made  the  feeding  value  of  clover  a  matter  of  careful  study,  and 
puts  the  average  pasture  value  at  nine  dollars  per  acre.  I  con- 
sider this  a  safe  and  moderate  estimate,  and  think  that  the 
clover  crop  will  compare  favorably  with  our  grain  crops  on  this 
basis.  I  should  call  eight  dollars  peY  acre  a  low  estimate  for 
the  cost  of  growing  and  harvesting  an  acre  of  corn  or  wheat; 
and,  if  we  add  to  this  the  three  dollars  which  we  have  estimated 
the  soil  is  reduced  in  fertility,  it  will  make  eleven  dollars  to  be 
deducted  from  the  grain  crop  in  making  up  our  balance-sheet  to 
find  out  what  the  profit  is.  We  deduct  from  the  clover  crop  only 
one  dollar  per  acre  as  the  expense  of  seeding;  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  credit  it  with  the  value  of  fertilizing  elements  developed  in 
the  soil. 

When  the  crop  is  cut  for  hay  and  seed  it  often  proves  very 
profitable,  especially  near  a  city  or  village  market,  as  clover-hay 
is  considered  superior  food  for  milch  cows,  producing  yellow 
butter  in  winter.  When  the  second  crop  is  to  be  cut  for  seed  it 
is  important  to  cut  the  first  crop  early,  and  I  would  advise  cut- 
ting as  soon  as  the  earliest  blossoms  have  turned  brown.  It  will 
be  harder  to  cure  than  if  cut  later,  but  will  contain  less  indigest- 
ible woody  fiber,  and  the  seed  crop  will  be  heavier. 

The  nutritive  value  of  clover  hay,  if  cut  at  the  right  season 


134  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

and  well  cured,  is  fully  equal  to  that  of  timothy,  and  in  some 
combinations  it  is  even  more  valuable,  on  account  of  the  larger 
proportion  of  albuminoids  it  contains,  but  is  not  considered  so 
good  for  horses  as  for  cattle. 

When  hay  is  the  main  object  from  clover  it  will  pay  to  sow 
grass  with  it.  If  the  large  English  clover  is  sown,  timothy  is 
the  best,  and  I  recommend  that  not  less  than  double  the  amount 
of  timothy  seed  be  used  that  you  do  of  clover,  or  the  latter  will 
entirely  smother  out  the  timothy  for  the  first  season.  If  the 
common  red  clover  is  sown,  orchard-grass  will  give  the  best  sat- 
isfaction, as  it  ripens  with  the  clover.  Clover  hay  is  more  dam- 
aged if  wet  when  partially  dried  than  the  grasses,  and  also  by 
being  overdried,  for  in  either  case  the  leaves  will  crumble  and 
fall  off.  The  best  plan  is  to  cut  clover  in  the  afternoon,  and 
not  disturb  it  till  the  next  day,  after  the  dew  has  dried  and  the 
top  wilted ;  then  turn  and  dry  as  rapidly  as  possible,  and  get  it 
into  the  barn  if  it  will  do ;  if  not,  put  in  small  cocks,  and  open 
the  next  day.  If  the  farmer  has  a  supply  of  old  hay  or  bright 
straw,  and  will  put  a  layer  of  this  in  the  mow  every  eighteen 
inches  or  two  feet,  the  clover  may  be  put  in  safely  with  much 
less  curing  than  if  put  by  itself,  as  the  moisture  will  be  absorbed 
so  as  to  prevent  its  taking  harm. 

A  method  of  curing  clover-hay  by  its  own  heat  is  coming 
into  practice  with  some  of  our  best  farmers.  The  conditions  of 
success  in  this  method  are  that  it  should  be  entirely  free  from 
external  moisture,  and  that  it  be  packed  into  the  mow  as  solid  as 
possible.  The  clover  is  cut  after  the  dew  is  thoroughly  dried 
off  in  the  morning,  and  allowed  to  wilt,  and  by  two  o'clock  it  is 
ready  to  draw  to  the  barn ;  at  the  first  appearance  of  dampness 
in  the  afternoon  the  work  should  be  stopped.  If  more  hay  is 
cut  than  can  be  taken  to  the  barn  it  should  be  cocked  up,  and 
these  cocks  should  not  be  opened  the  next  day  till  the  outside 
is  thoroughly  dry,  and  then  two  hours'  sun  will  be  sufficient  for 
them.  When  a  mow  is  filled  in  this  way  the  moisture  will  gather 
at  the  top  and  spoil  a  little  of  the  hay,  but  the  bulk  of  the  mow 
will  be  found  sweet  and  bright,  and  of  the  best  quality. 

Clover-hay   can   not  be  kept  in   the  stack  without  damage, 


GRASSES  AND  CLOVER.  135 

unless  some  better  material  is  used  to  top  out,  and  those  who 
expect  to  use  much  of  it  should  provide  barracks  for  it  if  they 
have  not  barn  room.  Salt  as  it  is  put  into  the  mow,  as  it  will 
render  it  more  palatable  to  the  stock.  Over-salting  is  injurious, 
and  I  would  recommend  not  more  than  one  gallon  to  the  ton. 

Time  to  Sow. — As  a  rule,  I  think  the  best  results  will  be 
had  from  early  seeding — say  about  the  first  half  of  March.  If, 
however,  the  farmer  sows  his  seed  in  the  chaff,  as  is  the  custom 
with  many,  it  may  be  sown  in  February,  as  the  seed,  when 
inclosed  in  the  hull,  does  not  germinate  so  soon,  and  the  young 
germ  is  somewhat  protected.  If  the  farmer  will  harrow  his 
wheat,  so  as  to  loosen  the  surface  a  little,  the  seeding  can  be 
safely  postponed  to  a  later  date,  and  any  time  the  first  half  of 
April  is  seasonable.  When  seeding  with  spring  grain  smooth  off 
the  field  with  the  plank-drag  (a  cut  of  which  you  will  find  in  the 
chapter  on  corn)  before  sowing,  and,  unless  a  rain  falls  within 
two  or  three  days,  run  over  the  field  again  with  the  drag.  I  am 
seeding  more  heavily  of  late  years  than  formerly,  as  I  am  con- 
vinced that  it  is  profitable.  The  testimony  of  a  man  who  was  for 
many  years  in  charge  of  a  clover-hulling  machine  is  that  the 
heaviest  yields  of  seed  are  where  the  land  was  seeded  at  the 
rate  of  ten  pounds  to  the  acre,  and  I  think  this  none  too  much, 
but,  on  fresh,  loose  land,  or  that  which  had  been  well  top-dressed 
with  manure,  I  should  expect  a  good  stand  from  a  less  quantity 
of  seed.  When  the  land  is  not  to  be  harrowed  I  prefer  to  sow 
on  frozen  ground,  on  a  clear  morning,  when  there  is  likely  to  be 
a  thaw,  as  this  settles  the  seed  and  covers  it,  so  that  it  is 
not  likely  to  be  washed  into  bunches  by  a  rain. 

It  would  be  of  great  advantage  if  clover  could  be  sown  in  the 
corn  with  a  certainty  of  getting  a  stand,  and  this  is  often  done. 
My  own  experience,  however,  has  not  been  favorable  to  this 
method,  as  I  have  found  that  I  often  failed  to  get  a  stand.  Other 
farmers  have  been  more  successful,  and  it  would  be  so  great  an 
advantage  to  be  able  to  seed  our  corn  fields  with  clover,  that  I 
would  advise  every  farmer  to  try  experiments  to  ascertain  the 
best  time  and  manner  of  seeding  in  the  corn-field.  I  would  try 
sowing  in  July  when  the  corn  was  worked  the  last  time,  and  also 


136  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

about  the  first  of  September.  It  is  certain  that  there  are  soils  or 
seasons  that  give  excellent  results  for  summer  or  fall  seeding  of 
clover,  and  if  an  acre  or  two  of  the  corn-field  was  sown  each  year 
at  different  times,  and  the  experiment  repeated  for  several  years, 
it  would  not  be  long  till  the  farmer  would  learn  the  conditions 
necessary  to  success. 

As  a  rule,  farmers  turn  their  stock  on  the  clover  too  soon  after 
harvest,  and  by  so  doing  they  not  only  permanently  injure  the 
crop,  but  also  fail  to  get  the  benefit  from  the  fall  feed  which  they 
would  if  they  would  allow  it  to  make  more  growth.  The  same 
rule  holds  good  as  with  spring  pasturing.  It  should  not  be  pas- 
tured, at  least  heavily,  until  the  blossom  buds  show.  In  favor- 
able autumns  clover  will  grow  large  enough  after  harvest  to  make 
a  heavy  crop  of  hay,  and  will  also  mature  seed.  I  have  known 
nearly  two  tons  of  hay  cut  to  the  acre,  or  a  bushel  of  seed, 
from  the  growth  after  a  wheat  crop.  If  it  is  the  intention  to 
follow  with  corn  the  following  spring,  I  would  advise  that  the 
clover  be  allowed  to  make  all  the  growth  it  will  and  neither  be 
pastured  or  mowed;  but  if  it  is  to  stand  over  it  is  not  safe  to 
leave  this  mass  of  foliage  on  the  soil,  as  it  will  in  some  cases 
kill  out  the  entire  crop.  I  had  in  the  fall  of  1882  thirty  acres 
of  heavy  clover,  and  allowed  the  stock  to  partially  pasture  all  of 
it  but  five  acres.  The  pastured  part  came  through  the  winter 
in  fine  condition,  while  the  part  on  which  the  fall  growth  was 
left  was  entirely  dead  the  next  spring.  It  was  not  winter- 
killed, for  there  was  such  a  mass  on  the  ground  that  it  could 
scarcely  freeze  at  all,  but  was  either  smothered  or  killed  by  field 
mice.  I  did  not  at  the  time  make  a  careful  examination  to  de- 
termine the  cause,  but  as  I  noticed  a  number  of  owls  all  winter 
near  the  field  I  am  inclined  to  suspect  that  the  mice  caused  the 
trouble.  I  have  been  told  by  farmers  who  have  wintered  heavy 
clover  without  pasturing  or  mowing,  that  it  is  quite  common  for 
field  mice  to  greatly  damage  the  crop. 

Clover  for  Pasture. — I  consider  clover  as  only  a  supple- 
mentary pasture  crop,  by  which  I  mean  that  the  farmer  never 
should  depend  on  it  entirely.  We  have  grasses  that  are  less 
injured  by  tramping  or  close  feeding,  which  will  enable  the 


GRASSES  AND  CLOVER.  137 

farmer  to  turn  his  stock  out  more  than  a  month  earlier  than 
clover  ought  to  be  pastured.  It  is  especially  damaging  to  allow 
stock  to  run  on  clover  while  there  are  frosts  in  spring,  as  every 
plant  that  is  touched  when  frozen  is  killed.  If  the  clover  is  al- 
lowed to  grow  until  it  begins  to  blossom  before  stock  is  turned 
on  it,  the  roots  have  pushed  down  deeply  into  the  soil,  and  the 
land  is  so  densely  shaded  that  it  will  take  a  very  severe 
drought  to  affect  it  at  all;  and  when  the  grasses  are  drying  up 
and  their  growth  is  entirely  stopped,  the  clover  will  still  grow 
and  furnish  an  abundant  supply  of  food. 

Fertilizers  for  Clover. — As  clover  is  always  sown  with 
a  grain  crop,  manure  is  seldom  if  ever  applied  with  reference  to 
the  growth  of  the  clover,  but  I  have  shown  that  when  the  ma- 
nure is  applied  at  the  surface  and  finely  pulverized,  it  will 
greatly  benefit  the  clover  as  well  as  the  grain.  I  consider  this 
a  strong  argument  in  favor  of  using  the  manure  as  a  top  dress- 
ing on  small  grain,  and  also  for  thoroughly  pulverizing  it.  Gyp- 
sum or  land  plaster  is  considered  a  valuable  fertilizer  for  clover, 
and  particularly  to  give  the  second  crop  a  start  when  it  is  to  be 
cut  for  seed.  The  plaster  should  be  applied  when  the  dew  is 
on  in  the  morning  or  on  a  damp  day.  Two  hundred  pounds 
per  acre  is  sufficient.  "Harris"  in  his  Talks  on  Manures 
says :  "  The  effect  of  a  top  dressing  of  gypsum  on  clover  was 
often  wonderful.  The  crop  was  larger  and  more  luxuriant,  and 
this  extra  growth  was  caused  by  the  small  dressing  of  powdered 
gypsum  rock." 

Growing  Clover  Seed. — The  yield  of  clover-seed  varies 
from  one  to  seven  bushels  per  acre,  and  three  bushels  is  about 
a  fair  average.  In  one  important  particular,  clover  diners  from 
most  other  plants,  which  is,  that  it  produces  a  better  effect  on 
the  soil  when  allowed  to  ripen  its  seed  than  when  removed  in 
the  green  state  either  by  mowing  or  pasturing. 

In  investigating  to  find  the  reason  of  this  it  has  been 
found,  that  the  greatest  development  of  roots  in  the  soil  is 
during  the  period  of  the  growth  of  the  second  crop.  In  an  ex- 
periment by  "  Dr.  Augustus  Voelcker  "  it  was  estimated  that  an 
acre  of  clover  contained  after  cutting  for  hay  in  round  numbers 


138  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

1,500  pounds  of  dried  roots.  In  November  following,  after  the 
field  had  produced  a  crop  of  seed,  further  careful  experiments 
showed  3,000  pounds  to  the  acre. 

Taking,  then,  the  improvement  in  soil,  the  crop  of  hay,  and 
the  seed,  a  clover  crop  will  often  prove  more  profitable  than  a 
grain  crop.  The  seed  crop  should  not  be  allowed  to  stand  too 
long,  or  much  of  it  will  be  lost  by  the  heads  breaking  off.  It 
should  be  left  by  the  reaper  in  bunches  large  enough  for  a 
good  forkfull;  and  the  less  it  is  handled  the  better,  as  each 
handling  causes  waste.  The  better  plan  is  to  thresh  from  the 
field,  as  it  can  not  be  stacked  so  as  to  shed  water,  and  is  so 
dusty  as  to  be  very  unpleasant  to  handle  in  the  barn.  I  think 
it  will  pay  many  farmers  who  do  not  grow  it  as  a  money 
crop  to  grow  their  own  seed.  A  few  acres  can  be  grown  and 
tramped  off  with  horses,  and  sown  in  the  chaff.  I  have  never 
had  a  better  stand  than  when  I  have  sown  in  this  way. 

I  think  it  advisable  for  farmers  to  grow  their  own  seed,  not 
only  for  the  sake  of  economy,  but  from  the  fact  that  often  the 
seed  bought  contains  the  seeds  of  troublesome  weeds  which  will 
prove  a  pest  to  the  farm,  or  it  may  be  old  and  worthless.  I 
can  not  tell  how  long  clover-seed  retains  its  vitality,  but  dear- 
bought  experience  leads  me  to  advise  farmers  not  to  sow  old 
seed.  I  think  old  seed  can  usually  be  distinguished  from  new 
by  its  color,  the  new  seed  appearing  bright  and  glossy,  while  the 
old  has  a  dull  appearance.  Often  old  seed  will  be  mixed 
with  new,  or  the  seed  may  be  adulterated  with  sand  or  stone, 
ground  and  sifted  to  the  size  of  clover  seed.  These  mixtures 
and  adulterations  are  difficult  to  detect  with  the  naked  eye,  but 
by  the  aid  of  a  small  magnifying  glass  they  can  easily  be  seen. 
I  would  advise  the  farmer  to  always  carry  with  him  one  of 
these  small  glasses.  I  prefer  the  kind  called  linen  glass  or 
linen  tester,  as  they  are  made  with  hinges  to  fold  flat  and  when 
closed  one  of  them  occupies  but  little  more  room  than  a  nickel, 
and  can  be  carried  in  the  purse  or  vest  pocket.  The  magnifying 
power  of  this  glass  is  sufficient  to  make  a  clover  seed  look  as 
large  as  a  pea,  and  will  readily  indicate  whether  the  seed  is 
mixed  or  adulterated. 


GRASSES  AND  CLOVER.  139 

Hoven,  or  Clover  Bloat,  and  Slobbers. — These  are 
both  produced  by  clover,  and  the  former  sometimes  becomes  a 
serious  matter,  as  it  is  often  fatal,  and  sometimes  in  a  very 
short  time.  I  have  known  a  cow  to  be  milked  and  turned  out 
early  in  the  morning*  perfectly  well,  and  to  be  found  dead,  from 
this  cause,  before  9  o'clock.  I  shall  not  speak  of  the  treatment 
to  relieve  this,  as  that  will  be  found  in  our  veterinary  depart- 
ment, but  will  mention  what  I  believe  to  be  preventives.  Ho- 
ven is  caused  by  fermentation  instead  of  digestion  of  the  green 
food  in  the  stomach,  and  is  due  to  eating  too  large  a  quantity, 
often  imperfectly  masticated,  and  is  most  liable  to  occur  when 
this  is  taken  into  the  stomach  early  in  the  morning,  when  the 
clover  is  covered  with  dew  or  frost.  The  danger  will  be  greatly 
lessened  if  the  farmer  has  early  pastures  for  the  cattle  to  run 
on,  so  as  to  become  accustomed  to  green  food  before  being 
turned  on  the  clover.  When  you  first  turn  on  the  pasture,  do 
so  in  the  afternoon  of  a  clear  day,  when  the  clover  is  warm. 
A  straw  stack  in  the  field,  or  a  little  hay  fed  in  the  morning  is 
also  said  to  be  a  preventive.  The  risk  from  this  cause  is  cer- 
tainly small,  for  I  have  had  more  or  less  clover  on  my  farm 
every  year,  and  have  not  lost  an  animal  in  thirty-five  years, 
and  have  known  of  but  few  cases  among  my  neighbors.  This 
leads  me  to  think  that  mixed  pasture  is  a  preventive,  for  while 
all  of  our  farmers  sow  clover,  most  of  them  sow  timothy  or  or- 
chard grass  with  it,  or  have  permanent  pastures  to  turn  on  early. 

What  is  commonly  called  slobbers,  is  in  reality  a  salivation, 
somewhat  similar  to  that  produced  by  calomel.  Cattle  are  I'.ot 
affected  by  it,  and  horses  from  the  second  crop  only.  It  is 
said  to  be  caused  by  an  acid  which  is  developed  in  the  late 
growth  of  the  clover,  particularly  after  the  cool  nights  arrest  the 
rapid  growth.  While  this  can  not  be  classed  as  a  disease,  it 
does  reduce  the  strength  and  flesh  of  the  horse,  and  work 
horses  should  not  be  allowed  to  run  on  clover  after  it  reaches 
the  stage  at  which  this  effect  is  produced. 


140  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


VII. 

CORN. 

THE  corn  crop  of  the  United  States  exceeds  one  thousand 
million  bushels  a  year.  The  mind  can  not  comprehend  the 
vastness  of  these  figures,  but,  perhaps,  by  looking  at  the 
matter  in  detail,  we  can  get  some  idea  of  it.  It  amounts  to 
about  twenty  bushels  for  each  man  and  woman  and  child  in  the 
nation.  It  would  load  thirty  million  wagons,  with  thirty-three 
and  a  half  bushels  each,  and  these  wagons  arranged  in  a  pro- 
cession one  hundred  to  the  mile,  would  encircle  the  globe  twelve 
times.  If  loaded  on  cars,  four  hundred  bushels  to  a  car,  it 
would  take  two  and  a  half  million  cars  to  transport  it,  or  sixty- 
two  thousand  five  hundred  trains,  of  forty  cars  each,  and  these 
trains,  one  mile  apart,  would  encircle  the  globe  two  and  a 
half  times. 

The  average  yield  per  acre  in  the  United  States,  for  the 
eleven  years,  from  1871  to  1881,  inclusive,  was  twenty-six 
bushels.  The  center  of  production  has  been  for  years  moving 
westward,  and  may  finally  cross  the  Mississippi  River.  The 
largest  yield  per  acre  is  found  in  the  New  England  States,  and 
is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the  acreage  is  small  and  the 
crop  manured  and  cultivated  like  a  garden.  Ohio  has  long 
ranked  high  as  a  corn-producing  State,  and  during  the  last  thirty 
years  its  averages  have  twice  reached  forty  bushels  per  acre, 
and  eight  times  fallen  below  thirty  bushels.  Our  smallest  yield 
since  1850  was  in  1854,  when  the  average  was  twenty-six  bush- 
els per  acre,  and  the  heaviest  in  1872,  when  it  was  nearly 
forty-one  bushels,  and  the  average  for  the  entire  period  of 
thirty-one  years  is  nearly  thirty-four  bushels.  I  fully  believe 
that  by  the  adoption  of  a  system  of  rotation  that  would  give 


CORN.  141 

a  clover  sod  on  which  to  plant  corn,  by  keeping  more  stock  and 
saving  more  manure,  and  by  the  more  thorough  preparation  of 
the  soil,  and  cultivation  of  the  crop,  we  might  easily  increase 
this  average  one-half,  and  possibly  it  might  be  doubled. 

In  the  chapter  on  "  Farm  Management,"  I  show  the  differ- 
ence in  the  cost  per  bushel  between  a  light  and  heavy  yield  of 
this  crop.  In  the  spring  of  1877,  when  conducting  the  agricul- 
tural department  of  the  Cincinnati  Enquirer,  I  offered  several 
premiums  for  the  largest  yields  of  corn.  We  organized  what  we 
called  "  The  Hundred  Bushel  Club,"  consisting  of  about  seventy 
members,  and  I  here  give  in  full  the  reports  of  nearly  a  score 
of  them: 

MUNCIE,  IND.,  November  2,  1877. 

The  following  is  a  report  of  my  one-hundred-bushel  acre  of  corn :  It  was 
black  burr-oak  land  ;  it  was  a  very  stiff  blue-grass  sod.  I  plowed  it  in  April, 
and  planted  it  in  choice  white  corn  on  the  7th  of  May.  Plowed  it  five  times. 
Just  cultivated  it  the  same  as  the  balance  of  my  crop  (ninety-five  acres). 
Did  not  hoe,  use  any  manure,  or  any  thing  else  but  the  common  two-horse 
cultivator.  Now  for  the  result:  The  first  "choice  acre"  made  102  bushels; 
the  second  made  98  bushels ;  the  entire  field  averaged  78£  bushels. 

GEORGE  NISWANGER. 

MILLGROVE,  BLACKFORD  COUNTY,  IND.,) 
November  3,  1877.      j 

I,  to-day,  have  gathered  my  "Club  acre,"  which  yielded  98  bushels  and 
31  pounds.  The  variety  of  corn  planted  was  the  Martin  yellow.  It  was 
planted  on  new,  black,  loamy  soil,  it  being  the  second  crop,  and  planted  May 
16.  Breaking  the  ground,  $1.50;  harrowing  and  rolling,  $1;  furrowing  and 
planting,  $1;  plowing  five  times,  $3;  husking  and  cribbing,  $3;  total,  $9.50. 
The  greatest  yield  from  a  single  grain  was  two  ears  from  one  stalk,  which 
yielded  2,326  grains,  and  weighed  one  pound  and  ten  ounces  shelled  corn.  I 
have  selected  a  bushel  of  ears  of  the  Martin  yellow  field-corn  which  just  took 
fifty-nine  ears  to  make  the  bushel,  or  seventy  pounds. 

HENRY  S.  McFERREN. 

GIBSONBURG,  SANDUSKY  COUNTY,  O.,| 
November  26,  1877.      j 

The  following  is  the  report  of  my  choice  acre  of  corn,  grown  on  black, 
sandy  land,  clover  and  timothy  sod :  I  plowed  it  the  1st  of  May  with  the 
Oliver  chilled  plow,  from  ten  to  twelve  inches  deep;  harrowed  twice.  Planted 
on  the  17th  of  May  with  a  one-horse  drill,  3^  feet  apart.  Cultivated  as  fol- 
lows: Harrowed  the  corn  with  two-horse  harrow  once;  plowed  with  double- 
shovel  plow  twice;  did  not  hoe;  used  no  manure.  Now  for  the  result: 


142  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Weighed  7,339  pounds,  being  104  bushels  59  pounds,  of  corn ;  shelled  70 
pounds  of  ears ;  made  58^  pounds  of  shelled  corn.  The  expenses  are  as  fol- 
lows: Plowing  laud,  $1.50;  harrowing,  50  cents;  planting  with  drill,  25 
cents;  harrowing  the  corn,  25  cents;  plowing  corn  twice,  $1 ;  husking  and 
cribbing,  $5 ;  total,  $8.50. 

BLUE  KIDGE,  IND.,  November  27,  1877. 

The  following  is  a  report  of  my  acre  of  corn :  Yield,  91  bushels  ;  variety 
of  corn  planted,  mammoth  white;  variety  of  soil,  black  loam.  First  crop. 
Plowing,  $2;  harrowing,  $1;  crossing  off  and  planting,  $1;  plowing  three 
times  with  double-shovel,  $2;  husking  and  cribbing,  $4.50 ;  total,  $8.50.  We 
have  selected  fifty-three  ears  that  weigh  seventy-one  pounds. 

R  A.  BURTON. 

WHITEWATER,  WAYNE  COUNTY,  IND.  , ) 
November,  27,  1877.      j 

I  send  the  result  of  my  acre  to  the  club.  I  selected  my  acre  out  of  a 
five-acre  piece  of  rich  sand  loam,  black  burr-oak  bottom ;  broke  on  the  5th 
of  May ;  harrowed  and  rolled ;  then  took  one  of  Ag's  top-drags  over  it ; 
marked  off,  with  three-runner  sled,  three  and  one-half  feet  each  way;  planted 
eighth  day  of  May  with  hand-planter,  three  and  four  grains  to  the  hill,  of 
the  Excelsior  Kansas  corn;  rolled  soon  as  corn  was  up;  plowed  once  each 
way  with  small  shovel,  then  each  way  with  large  shovel,  using  the  Western 
two-horse  cultivator ;  plowed  close  two  first  times ;  whole  five  acres  plowed 
alike,  only  the  one  acre  I  followed  Avith  the  hoe  first  and  fourth  time,  then 
finished  clearing  it  second  week  in  July.  Laid  by  plowing  28th  June  ;  plowed 
four  times,  hoed  twice,  and  cleaned  up.  I  husked  the  first  week  in  Novem- 
ber four  loads  of  corn,  weighing  26  bushels  10  pounds  per  load,  70  pounds 
per  bushel,  making  104  bushels.  I  shelled  one  barrel  of  2  bushels  10  pounds, 
making  2  bushels  1^  gallons  strong  measure;  then  weighed  the  shelled,  2 
bushels  19  pounds  of  56  pounds  standard.  This  will  bring  me  up  to  about 
107  bushels,  which  is  10  short  of  what  I  expected.  Expenses  as  follows: 
Half  day  plowing,  $1.25;  harrowing,  rolling,  and  dragging,  $1.25;  marking, 
50  cents;  seed,  25  cents;  hoeing  and  cleaning,  $1.50;  plowing  four  times, 
$2;  husking  and  cribbing,  $2.25.  Total,  $8.90.  J.  S.  LONG. 

WlLLIAMSPORT,    PlCKAWAY    COUNTY,    O.,  ) 

November  23,  1877.      j 

I  am  now  prepared  to  give  you  a  full  report  of  my  one  acre  of  corn. 
The  acre  of  land  used  was  a  part  of  a  pond  which  had  remained  idle  for  a 
number  of  years,  filled  with  water  almost  the  year  round.  It  was  ditched 
last  spring,  just  before  plowing,  which  I  did  the  1st  of  May.  I  planted  the 
14th  of  May,  in  rows  three  feet  seven  inches  wide,  and  twenty-one  inches  in 
the  row,  the  variety  known  as  the  Kentucky,  being  white,  large  ears,  deep 
grains,  and  comparatively  small  cob.  The  seed  used  did  n't  come  up  as  well 


CORN.  143 

as  it  should,  and  the  1st  of  July  I  had  a  very  irregular  stand ;  also  a  little 
dry  at  the  time  it  was  earing.  I  plowed  it  four  times,  and  went  through 
with  the  hoe  twice,  but  did  n't  draw  any  earth  to  the  corn.  I  cut  it  the  1st 
of  October,  and  finished  shucking  the  14th  of  November  110  bushels  and  56 
pounds.  The  least  number  of  ears  to  the  bushel  was  52  ;  actual  cost  of  labor 
performed  on  the  acre,  89.60,  or  eight  cents  to  the  bushel.  I  think,  if  all 
things  had  been  favorable,  I  should  have  had  at  least  fifteen  bushels  more 
corn.  And  now,  in  conclusion,  I  would  say  that  the  experiment  has  been 
worth  the  effort  and  all  the  labor  performed,  and  has  taught  me  that  it  pays 
to  underdrain,  to  plow  deep  and  pulverize  well  before  planting ;  and  if  we,  as 
farmers,  were  more  careful  in  this  particular,  the  average  yield  per  acre 
of  corn  would  be  raised  far  above  what  statistics  have  shown. 

H.  A.  MILLER. 

MORRISTOWN,  IND.,  November  23,  1877. 

I  herewith  send  report  of  ray  premium  acre  of  corn :  8  cords  stable 
manure  at  81,  $8 ;  hauling  and  spreading  same,  86 ;  breaking  and  pulverizing, 
82.50;  seed,  25c.  and  planting  50c.;  4|  bush,  salt,  30c.  (sown  broadcast), 
$1.35;  cultivation,  $2;  harvesting  88  bush,  at  3c.,  $2.64;  interest  on  land 
at  10  per  cent,  87;  total,  830.24.  Credit  by  88  bush,  corn  at  30c.,  820.40. 
credit  by  1  acre  stalks,  81 ;  total,  827.40.  The  soil  is  a  black  swamp  laud  of 
good  quality,  and  has  been  in  cultivation  about  fifteen  years.  The  planting 
had  to  be  done  a  second  time.  May  18th.  Drilled  twelve  inches  iu  the 
rows,  with  the  rows  three  feet  apart.  Variety  of  corn,  large  yellow  Dent. 
Full  one-fourth  of  the  stalks  failed  to  produce  any  thing.  I  think  it  was 
planted  too  late  and  too  thickly.  Cultivation  first  and  second  times  with  a 
one-horse  harrow ;  third  time  with  a  small  tooth  cultivator,  and  fourth  with 
a  double  shovel.  A  glance  at  the  figures  is  sufficient  to  satisfy  any  one  that 
the  experiment  was  a  failure  financially,  but  perhaps  the  few  remaining  dol- 
lars are  saved  in  experience.  J.  C.  DAVIS. 

ELLSWORTH,  ILL.,  November  24,  1877. 

I  have  husked  my  premium  acre,  and  have  for  my  pains  118  bushels,  3P> 
pounds  of  as  good  corn  as  I  ever  raised.  The  laud  on  which  my  corn  grew  has 
been  in  cultivation  since  the  year  1853,  has  never  had  any  manure  of  any 
kind  on  it,  and  I  had  thirty-five  acres  to  tend  with  one  team.  I  first  plowed 
my  laud  from  four  to  five  inches  in  depth;  I  then  harrowed  it  once,  marked 
it  off  three  feet,  nine  inches,  and  planted  the  same  distance ;  I  then  plowed  it 
three  times.  This  was  all  the  attention  my  corn  received,  the  entire  piece 
receiving  the  same  attention.  On  the  7th  of  November  I  measured  the  acre, 
10  by  16  from  east  to  west,  the  length  ;  the  width  from  north  to  south.  I 
went  into  the  entire  piece,  and  from  it  selected  the  best  acre,  as  I  thought. 
Then  on  the  12th  I  husked  and  weighed  it  in  baskets.  The  corn  is  of  the 
variety  known  as  the  Kickapoo  Beauty,  a  corn  peculiar  to  this  locality. 


144  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

The  entire  cost  of  production  and  gathering  for  the  acre  is  $8.60.  We 
averaged  the  piece  at  eighty-five  bushels.  My  premium  bushel  of  the  same 
variety  took  sixty-one  ears.  This  was  thoroughly  dried  by  artificial  heat, 
heat,  and  weighed  to-day,  November  24th.  If  necessary,  all  the  above 
will  be  certified  to  when  required.  GEORGE  L.  HOOVER. 

BLOOMINGTON,  CLINTON  COUNTY,  O. ,  ) 
November  24,  1877.      j 

I  send  you  the  result  of  my  premium  acre  of  corn,  gathered  the  21st 
and  22d  of  this  month.  The  acre  was  measured  and  weighed  by  two  disin- 
terested men — named  J.  P.  Delaplane  and  J.  M.  Earley.  The  land  is  sugar- 
tree,  laying  open  to  the  south;  the  first  crop,  a  timothy  sod ;  no  manure;  cul- 
tivated with  a  double-shovel  plow ;  sufficient  harrowing  before  the  corn  was 
planted;  plowed  three  times;  drilled  the  18th  of  May ;  a  large  yellow  corn 
called  the  Learning;  weighed  out  one  hundred  and  six  bushels,  allowing 
seventy  pounds  to  the  bushel.  JONAS  SPEARS. 

P.  P.  DELAPLANE,  J.  M.  EARLEY,  witnesses. 

NEW  LANCASTER,  TIPTON,  COUNTY,  IND.,) 
November  20,  1877.      j 

The  following  is  a  report  of  my  one  hundred  bushel  acre  of  corn :  It 
was  black  walnut  land,  and  a  very  stiff  red-top  sod  of  eleven  years'  standing. 
I  broke  it  in  March,  and  planted  it  the  1st  of  May  with  a  Hoosier  drill, 
twenty  inches  apart,  with  a  large  speckled  corn,  a  gourd-seed  variety;  har- 
rowed once;  hoed  once;  plowed  five  times;  no  manure.  Now  for  the  result: 
My  choice  acre  made  110  bushels  and  33  pounds;  the  second  105  bushels 
and  13  pounds.  The  ground  and  corn  were  measured  by  H.  Lamb,  C.  Van- 
ness,  and  myself.  Now  for  the  expenses:  Breaking,  $1.50;  three  times  har- 
rowing, 50  cents;  furrowing  and  planting,  $1;  plowing  five  times,  $2.50; 
husking  and  cribbing,  $2.50;  hoeing  once,  $1.50;  total,  $9.50. 

WILLIAM  LAMM. 

COLES  COUNTY,  ILL.,  November  26,  1877. 

The  undersigned  respectfully  reports  the  following  concerning  his  club  acre 
of  corn.  The  land  on  which  it  grew  is  timber  land,  and  has  been  in  culti- 
vation eleven  years.  The  soil  is  black  walnut  land,  underdrained  with  three- 
inch  tile  two  and  a  half  feet  under  ground,  and  runs  very  near  through  the 
center  of  said  club  acre.  The  laud  has  been  in  corn  five  seasons,  and  the 
balance  of  the  time  in  small  grain  and  clover  pasture ;  has  never  been  ma- 
nured; was  sown  in  rye  and  clover  in  1875,  and  was  pastured  with  cattle  and 
hogs,  rye  and  all,  until  it  was  planted  in  corn  last  spring;  allowed  no  stock 
to  roam  over  in  the  latter  part  of  winter  and  spring  when  the  ground  was 
soft.  The  ground  was  broken  about  six  inches  deep  the  latter  part  of  April 
and  put  in  as  fine  condition  for  planting  as  the  harrow  and  roller  could  make 
it.  It  was  laid  off  with  a  marker  three  feet,  nine  inches  apart,  was  drilled 


CORN.  145 

with  a  one-horse  drill,  sixteen  inches  apart,  on  the  second  day  of  May.  The 
seed  was  yellow  dent,  and  was  as  sound  as  seed-corn  can  be,  came  up  well, 
was  plowed  with  double-shovel  May  llth  and  hoed  May  12th,  plowed  with 
two-horse  cultivator  May  23d,  June  llth  and  June  23d,  and  hoed  again  July 
7th.  All  the  extra  labor  that  was  performed  on  this  acre  was  more  care  iu 
doing  the  work  and  one  additional  hoeing.  This  made  the  expense  of  rai*- 
iug  it  only  a  trifle  more  than  of  ordinary  cultivation,  and  the  results  about 
twenty  bushels  of  good  corn  more.  We  had  one  drawback  in  the  shape 
of  a  big  storm  about  the  middle  of  August,  which  damaged  it  to  the  ex- 
tent of  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  bushels ;  at  least,  that  was  the  estimate 
put  upon  it  by  the  man  who  helped  to  gather  it. 

Respectfully,  GEO.  BIDLE. 

[The  product  of  this  acre,  as  certified  by  two  persons,  was  eighty-two 
bushels  and  ten  pounds.] 

ELLSWORTH,  McLEAN  COUNTY.  ILL.  ,  ) 
November  23,  1877.      j 

My  club  acre  of  corn  weighed  on  Fairbanks  scales,  net,  7,075  pounds. 
Taking  70  pounds  for  a  bushel,  there  would  be  101  bushels  and  5  pounds. 
I  husked  and  weighed  on  the  13th  and  15th  inst.  The  variety  was  the  yel- 
low Dent.  The  laud  is  prairie  bottom,  and  been  in  cultivation  but  three 
seasons  only.  Depth  of  soil  18  inches,  light  and  sandy  loam,  and  black  as 
the  "ace  of  spades."  It  was  broken  up  to  the  depth  of  ten  inches  on  Sat- 
urday, the  26th  of  May  last,  and  immediately  afterward  harrowed  level  and 
planted  on  the  following  Monday  (the  28th),  using  the  common  two-horse 
planter,  making  the  rows  3  feet  8  inches  wide,  and  dropping  the  hills  2  feet 
7  inches  apart ;  had  an  average  of  two  stalks  to  the  hill.  As  soon  as  planted 
I  rolled  the  ground,  and  as  soon  as  the  corn  was  two  inches  high  I  began  to 
work  it  with  the  "Bloomington  two-horse  double-shovel  cultivator."  I  gave 
it  three  plowings  with  this,  and  "laid  it  by"  with  a  one-horse  "Barsharo 
plow;"  I  cultivated  through  "one  way,"  as  it  is  called.  I  made  use  of  no 
fertilizers  or  manure  of  any  kind.  I  had  three  and  one-half  acres  in  this 
strip  of  land,  and  gave  it  all  the  same  attention,  and  the  result  was  310 
bushels.  Now,  the  cost  of  my  one  acre  was  :  For  breaking  up  with  two 
horses  and  hand,  $1 ;  harrowing,  50  cents;  seed,  20  cents;  planting,  50  cents; 
rolling,  25  cents;  plowing  three  times  with  cultivator,  $1.50;  plowing  once 
with  Barshare,  50  cents;  harvesting,  at  2£  cents  per  bushel,  S2.52£;  total 
cost,  $6.97£. 

David  E.  Arrowsmith,  surveyor;  Willard  C.  Banks,  weigher;  W.  W. 
Harsha,  witness  to  gathering  and  weighing.  DANIEL  ARROWSMITH. 

P.  S. — Largest  production  from  single  grain,  one  large  stalk  and  sucker 
stocks  bearing  three  ears  and  one  "nubbin,"  weight  2  pounds  \\  ounces, 
cob  and  corn.  D.  A. 

10 


146  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

LEXINGTON,  SCOTT  COUNTY,  IND.,  December  5,  1877. 
I  now  report  for  publication  my  success  as  a  competitor  for  the  prizes 
offered  to  farmers.  In  my  effort  to  raise  one  hundred  bushels  of  corn  on  an 
acre  of  land  :  Corn  planted  on  the  17th  day  of  May,  on  land  that  had  been 
in  corn  two  seasons  previous — bottom  land,  sandy  loam  soil ;  rows,  three  and 
a  half  feet  apart;  hills,  two  and  a  half  feet  apart ;  two  stalks  in  a  hill ;  seed, 
common  white  corn,  yellow  cob  and  deep,  long  grain ;  cobs  weighing  only  ten 
pounds  two  ounces  to  the  bushel;  corn  gathered  and  weighed  in  the  ear  on 
the  19th  of  November,  making  ninety-one  bushels  and  a  fraction. 

SOLON  T.  HARDY. 

FOREST  HILL,  DECATUR  COUNTY,  IND.  ,  ) 
December  1,  1877.      j 

I  make  a  report  of  one  acre  of  corn  cultivated  this  season.  My  ground 
was  sandy.  I  drilled  three  feet  seven  inches  apart,  grains  one  foot  apart, 
and  gave  four  plowings,  with  a  common  double-shovel  plow.  It  was  some- 
what injured  in  our  August  drought,  but  made  a.  yield  of  eighty -eight  aud 
one-half  bushels,  and  of  the  same  forty-seven  ears  weighed  just  seventy-one 
pounds.  It  was  planted  May  10th.  H.  J.  POWNER. 

WEST  RUSHVILLE,  FAIRFIELD  COUNTY,  O., ) 
November  26,  1877.      } 

Having  gathered  my  club  acre  of  corn  I  now  report  to  you.  The 
ground  that  I  selected  was  a  piece  of  sod,  the  soil  a  black  loam.  I  plowed 
it  in  March,  harrowed  it,  then  rolled  it ;  planted  May  9th ;  furrowed  it  3  feet 
9  inches  each  way  ;  planted  three  stalks  in  each  hill.  It  made  68§  bushels, 
allowing  70  pounds  to  the  bushel;  plowed  it  four  times  with  a  two-horse  cul- 
tivator; the  cost,  $5  per  acre;  had  seventeen  acres  in  the  same  field  that 
averaged  60  bushels  to  the  acre.  WILLIAM  EYMAN. 

CANTON,  OHIO,  December  5,  1877. 

There  being  so  very  few  reports  yet  from  members  of  the  Corn  Club,  I 
am  afraid  there  will  be  some  who,  through  failure  to  realize  the  100  bushels, 
will  not  deem  a  report  of  any  consequence,  and  we  shall  not  hear  from  them. 
I  have  no  doubt  there  are  more  of  us  who  have  realized  under  100  bushels 
than  who  reached  or  exceeded  that  figure.  Probably  the  same  circumstan- 
ces of  soil,  and  season  did  not  attend  any  two  members  of  the  Club.  While 
members  from  the  southern  part  of  the  State,  and  from  the  corn  producing 
sections  of  Indiana,  reported  favorable  growing  weather  through  the  months 
of  July  and  August,  we  of  Northern  Ohio  had  a  long  and  severe  drought  to 
encounter.  This  necessitated  us  working  our  corn  after  it  was  as  high  as  a 
horse,  to  keep  the  soil  loose  and  mellow,  that  it  might  better  retain  moisture. 
Here  was  not  only  a  chance  to  benefit  the  corn,  but  a  still  better  chance  to 
kill  the  weeds,  which  always  will  appear  in  the  cornfield.  As  a  direct  result 


CORN.  147 

of  this  late  working  I  have  never,  I  believe,  seen  the  fields  so  clean  of  weeds 
as  they  appeared  after  the  corn  was  harvested.  This  item  alone,  I  think, 
has  well  repaid  the  extra  cultivating  required  by  our  dry  weather.  But  we 
must  come  to  the  club  acre.  Our  acre  was  a  clay  loam  ;  in  wheat  the  pre- 
vious season,  well  set  with  clover,  manured  with  twelve  loads  barn-yard  ma- 
nure and  plowed  about  a  week  before  planting-time.  Planted  May  12th  in 
checks  three  and  a  half  feet  apart  each  way,  and  three  grains  to  the  hill. 
Worked  four  times  with  shovel  plow,  and  pulled  what  weeds  could  not  be 
plowed  out.  Husked  and  weighed  November  12th.  Product,  seventy-eight 
bushels  of  seventy  pounds.  Cost  of  crop  as  follows :  Hauling  twelve  loads 
manure,  $3 ;  plowing  and  harrowing,  $3 ;  marking  and  planting,  $1 ;  culti- 
vating, $2;  husking  seventy-eight  bushels,  at  four  cents  per  bushel,  $3.12; 
total,  $12.12.  On  the  creditor  side  we  have  seventy-eight  bushels  of  corn  at 
fifty  cents,  worth  $39,  leaving  a  net  profit  of  826.88.  Variety,  pure  yellow 
Dent.  We  did  not  cut  off  and  save  the  fodder  of  this  acre,  or  we  would 
have  $3.12  to  add  to  the  profit,  as  the  fodder  when  saved  will  pay  for  husk- 
ing. I  feel  satisfied,  had  our  season  at  the  beginning  been  more  favorable 
the  corn  would  all  have  come  up,  and  we  would  have  realized  the  one 
hundred  bushels,  as  this  acre  did  not  average  over  two  stalks  to  the  hill. 
However,  the  yield  was  high  enough  above  our  usual  average  to  pay  the  en- 
tire cost  of  production.  THEO.  KLINKER. 

GERMANTOWN,  O.,  December  1,  1877. 

I  went  into  the  "Hundred  Bushel  Club"  to  try  what  I  could  do  toward 
increasing  the  yield  of  corn,  and  have  been  successful,  raising  a  hundred 
bushels.  My  acre  is  rich  twin-bottom,  two  years  in  clover;  no  manure. 
Ground  broke  in  fall,  and  harrowed  last  of  April,  and  checked  off  4  by  3^ ; 
planted  8th  of  May,  covered  with  hoe ;  dropped  four  grains,  and  thinned  to 
three  stalks;  then,  before  corn  came  up,  went  over  with  drag,  and  after  up 
with  Thomas  harrow,  and  after  that  with  double-shovel,  using  narrow  bull- 
tongue  until  last  plowing.  My  plan  was  to  cultivate  as  level  as  possible ; 
plowed  four  times ;  did  not  give  any  hoeing,  as  ground  was  very  clean.  Ex- 
pense of  raising,  $5 ;  and  here  is  the  result :  105  bushels  and  45  pounds. 
The  variety  of  corn  is  very  large,  white,  heavy  cob,  and  deep  grain  ;  do  not 
know  any  name  for  it.  S.  LINDEMUTH. 

ELMWOOD,  MADISON  COUNTY,  IND.  ,  j 
December  3,  1877.      j 

I  am  ready  to  report  my  success  as  a  hundred-bushel  corn-grower.  The 
land  is  a  sandy  clay  soil,  having  been  timbered  with  mulberry,  black  walnut, 
red-bud,  sugar-tree,  red-elm,  burr-oak,  blue-ash,  and  poplar,  deadened  some 
five  or  six  years,  and  attained  a  pretty  good  set  of  blue-grass;  was  cleared,  and 
having  grown  three  successive  corn  crops  and  a  crop  of  oats  in  1876,  which 
was  a  good  crop,  but,  being  badly  tangled  and  very  stumpy,  I  pastured  with 
hogs.  Then  I  fed  about  a  thousand  bushels  of  corn  to  my  fat  hogs  in  the  fall 


148  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

and  winter  on  said  ground.  Plowed  the  ground  in  March,  $2  ;  harrowing  the 
last  week  in  April,  both  ways,  81 ;  drilling,  May  10th,  three  feet  4  inches  wide 
by  twenty  inches  in  the  row,  50  cents,  with  white  and  red-striped  corn,  pre- 
mium of  Madison  County,  a  thorough  hand-hoeing  at  about  five  inches  high, 
$1 ;  harrowing  with  two-horse  harrow  the  next  week,  50  cents;  plowed  four 
times  with  two-horse  cultivator,  $1.25;  and  one  plowing  about  the  10th  of 
July,  with  single-shovel,  two  furrows  between  each  row,  50  cents ;  husking 
and  cribbing,  $2  ;  total  expense,  $8.75.  The  ground  was  measured  by  Henry 
Yohe,  J.  F.  Stephens,  and  myself.  The  corn  was  weighed  in  the  barrel,  with 
steelyards  drawing  162  pounds,  by  William  J.  Grover,  Louis  C.  Riley,  Henry 
Yohe,  and  myself,  making  103  bushels  and  12  pounds;  selecting  64  ears, 
which  weighed  70  pounds.  All  this  is  good,  honest  work. 

DANIEL  YOHE. 

The  average  yield  per  acre  of  the  nineteen  most  successful 
growers  was  a  fraction  over  ninety-seven  bushels.  If  you  will 
carefully  examine  these  reports  you  will  see  that,  in  most  cases, 
the  corn  was  planted  a  little  closer  than  four  feet  each  way,  and 
that  there  was  an  unusual  amount  of  work  done  in  the  way  of 
harrowing  and  rolling  before  the  corn  was  planted.  The  reports 
of  the  cost  of  growing  these  crops  are  imperfect,  as  some  seem 
to  adopt  one  standard  of  wages  and  some  another;  but,  taking 
them  as  they  are  given,  they  average  a  little  less  than  nine  dol- 
lars per  acre,  and,  if  we  allow  five  dollars  per  acre  for  rent  of 
land,  it  shows  the  cost  of  the  corn  to  be  less  than  fifteen  cents 
per  bushel.  It  will  also  be  noticed  that  but  two  of  those  re- 
porting used  manure  of  any  kind,  but  a  majority  planted  on  sod 
land.  In  the  one  case  where  the  grower  foots  up  a  loss  on  his 
crop,  he  has  charged  all  the  manure  ($14)  to  the  crop,  which  is 
obviously  unfair,  for  this  manure  will  benefit  several  succeeding 
crops.  The  facts  suggested  by  these  reports  show  that  the 
adoption  of  a  rotation  which  would  give  a  clover  sod  for  corn, 
on  which  there  had  been  a  liberal  application  of  manure  for 
a  previous  wheat  crop,  together  with  thorough  preparation 
of  the  soil,  would  often  enable  us  to  double  the  yield  of  our 
corn  crop. 

Seed-corn. — We  can  not  expect  a  good  crop  of  corn  with- 
out a  good  stand,  and  our  chances  for  a  heavy  crop  are  increased 
if  the  seed  is  not  only  certain  to  sprout,  but  also  to  make  a 
strong  growth. 


CORN.  149 

I  have  for  many  years  believed  that  we  could  add  twenty  per 
cent  to  the  yield  of  our  corn  by  attention  to  the  matter  of  selec- 
tion of  seed.  I  like  the  term  used  by  Dr.  Sturdevant,  "  Pedi- 
gree seed-corn,"  and  I  believe  that  pedigree  is  just  as  valuable 
in  corn  as  in  live  stock.  The  cost  of  seed-corn  is  so  small  per 
acre  that  no  farmer  should  take  any  risk  in  the  matter ;  but  the 
fact  is  that,  once  in  every  three  or  four  years,  a  very  large  per 
cent  of  the  corn  must  be  replanted  from  the  sole  cause  that  the 
seed  was  poor.  I  think  nearly  half  the  farmers  in  Ohio  and 
adjoining  States  bought  seed-corn  in  the  spring  of  1883  at  from 
one  to  three  dollars  a  bushel,  when  from  one  to  ten  hours'  work 
would  have  secured  for  them  a  full  supply  of  which  there  would 
have  been  no  possible  doubt.  Many  farmers  learned,  also,  by 
dear  experience,  that  it  is  not  safe  to  plant  seed  brought  from  a 
different  climate.  Many  car-loads  of  seed-corn  were  shipped 
from  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  and  some  from  Kentucky,  and  sold 
through  the  Northern  States,  in  the  spring  of  1883,  and  it 
proved  to  be  too  late  for  these  localities,  and,  under  the  most 
favorable  circumstances,  the  corn  was  soft  and  poor,  and  in 
many  cases  it  proved  a  total  failure. 

Seed-corn  should  be  gathered  early,  and  thoroughly  dried 
before  winter  sets  in.  Many  of  our  best  farmers  have  adopted 
the  plan  of  putting  their  seed-corn  in  their  smoke-houses,  ar- 
ranging the  ears  on  slatted  racks,  so  as  to  give  a  free  circulation 
of  air,  and  then  smoking  it  until  thoroughly  cured.  I  have  tried 
this,  and  would  recommend  it,  as  I  never  had  corn  come  up 
stronger,  or  of  a  better  color.  It  is  claimed  that  the  corn  not 
only  grows  stronger,  but  is  less  liable  to  be  damaged  by  worms, 
as  the  smoke  not  only  fertilizes  the  young  germ,  but  makes  it 
distasteful  to  many  insects. 

My  own  experience  shows  that  we  need  not  fear  injuring 
seed-corn  by  too  much  drying.  In  the  fall  of  1882  I  put  my 
seed-corn  on  racks  surrounding  a  stove-pipe,  and  some  of  the 
oars  were  less  than  a  foot  from  the  pipe,  where  the  temperature 
all  day  was  so  high  as  to  make  it  uncomfortable  to  the  hand. 
Toward  spring  it  was  suggested  by  some  of  the  family  that, 
after  months  of  such  drying,  the  germ  of  that  corn  must  be 


150  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

killed,  but,  on  testing  it,  every  grain  sprouted  as  thriftily  as  any 
corn  I  ever  saw.  I  believe  that  every  farmer  should  each  year 
select  a  small  amount  of  the  very  finest  ears  of  corn  for  stock- 
seed.  Plant  from  them  a  small  field,  and  from  this  select  the 
stock-seed  for  the  coming  year,  and  also  the  seed  for  the  entire 
crop.  I  would  cut  this  corn  up  as  green  as  would  be  safe,  let 
it  partly  cure  in  small  shocks,  and  then  husk,  and  select  the 
seed-corn,  and  smoke  or  cure  by  fire  heat  before  cold  weather. 
The  farmer  who  will  adopt  this  rule,  and  stick  to  it,  will  not 
only  greatly  improve  his  corn,  but  will  avoid  the  annoyance  and 
loss  occasioned  by  the  failure  of  seed  to  grow. 

Let  your  seed-corn  be  saved  as  it  may,  I  advise  testing  it  a 
month  before  planting  time.  It  will  be  but  little  trouble,  and 
the  satisfaction  of  knowing  when  you  plant  that  there  is  no 
possible  danger  of  failure  is  worth  ten  times  the  trouble.  In 
the  spring  of  1883  thirty-five  bushels  of  corn  was  planted  in 
my  neighborhood  which  would  not  grow.  This  was  all  furnished 
by  one  man ;  and  yet  the  agricultural  papers  had  been  sounding 
the  warning  all  winter  that  the  farmers  would  have  trouble  with 
their  seed-corn,  as  but  a  very  small  per  cent  of  the  crop  of  1882 
would  grow.  This  lot  of  corn,  however,  was  of  the  growth  of 
1881,  and,  supposing  that  to  be  perfectly  good,  no  one  thought 
of  testing  it. 

I  am  convinced  that  seed-corn  grows  better  if  gathered  quite 
green,  and  cured  when  it  will  shrink  somewhat,  than  if  allowed 
to  fully  ripen  on  the  stalk.  I  should  have  dismissed  this  sub- 
ject of  seed-corn  with  a  paragraph  were  it  not  that  I  see  so- 
often  that  our  farmers  need  "  line  upon  line,  and  precept  upon 
precept,"  in  this  matter. 

Professor  Blount,  of  Colorado,  who  originated  the  variety  of 
corn  which  bears  his  name,  is  excellent  authority  on  the  matter 
of  saving  and  improving  seed-corn.  He  says :  "All  seed-corn 
should  be  selected  in  the  field,  because  there,  and  there  only,  is 
it  possible  to  obtain  the  seed  true  to  name  and  possessed  of  the 
desired  characteristics.  Only  in  the  field  can  perfected  ears  and 
perfected  stalks  be  found  together.  Seed-corn  should  always  be 
picked  from  those  stalks  that  bear  the  best  ears,  and  usually 


CORN.  151 

the  greatest  number  of  ears,  so  as  to  make  it  more  prolific. 
Seed-corn  should  always  be  selected  from  the  top  ear  of  those 
stalks  that  bear  the  largest  number,  because  on  the  top  ear  is 
always  found  the  genuine  typical  grain,  the  others  below  not 
having  developed  sufficiently  to  produce  good  seed,  on  account 
of  an  insufficient  amount  of  pollen.  Seed-corn  should  always 
be  saved  from  those  stalks  that  ripen  earliest,  to  make  the 
season  of  its  maturity  as  short  as  possible.  Seed-corn  should 
be  taken  from  well-formed  ears,  tapering  uniformly,  with  straight 
rows,  because  they  are  more  easily  and  better  protected  by 
the  husk,  and  bear  more  grain  in  regular  than  irregular  and 
crooked  rows." 

Another  matter  of  great  importance  is  to  plant  on 
Soil  Adapted  to  the  Crop. —  If  a  New  Englander  view- 
ing our  rich  western  lands  should  ask  me,  "  Why  is  your  aver- 
age so  much  below  ours  ?  "  I  should  say  one  great  reason  is  be- 
cause so  much  corn  is  planted  on  land  unsuited  to  it.  Corn 
delights  in  warm  black  and  sandy  lands,  and  you  will  notice  in 
the  reports  of  the  "Hundred  Bushel  Club,"  that  "sugar  tree 
land,"  "  burr  oak  land,"  "  drained  pond,"  and  "  black  swamp  "  lands 
are  mentioned.  A  large  per  cent  of  the  land  planted  in  corn  is 
unsuited  to  the  crop.  Land  which  is  undrained  and  so  full  of 
water  that  it  remains  cold  till  late  in  the  season,  or  land  which 
is  so  hilly  that  plowing  involves  great  loss  from  washing,  is 
planted  in  corn  year  after  year,  although  it  will  not  produce  a 
crop  that  will  pay  for  the  labor  expended  on  it,  and  might  be 
profitable  if  kept  in  grass 

Corn  is  not  an  exhaustive  crop,  and  it  will  pay  to  underdrain 
thoroughly  your  best  lands  and  keep  them  up  by  a  rotation 
which  will  give  clover  every  fourth  year,  and  by  applying  a 
liberal  dressing  of  manure  to  the  wheat  on  which  you  sow  the 
clover.  If  this  is  done,  and  the  clover  not  pastured  at  all  after 
harvest,  we  can  often  get  a  heavy  growth  to  plow  under  the 
following  spring,  and  grow  three  successive  crops  of  corn  in  the 
rotation.  There  are  some  lands  so  well  adapted  to  corn  as  to 
bear  continuous  cropping.  I  am  familiar  with  a  bottom  field  in 
Union  County,  Indiana,  which  my  grandfather  bought  in  1838, 


152  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

and  was  told  that  it  had  grown  twenty-five  consecutive  crops  of 
corn.  It  has  been  planted  in  corn  forty-four  out  of  the  forty- 
five  years  since — having  been  sown  in  wheat  once — it  has  never 
had  any  manure,  and  receives  no  benefit  from  an  overflow,  as 
there  is  always  a  swift  current  that  carries  off  more  soil  than  it 
leaves.  This  field  still  produces  profitable  crops,  and  I  believe 
that  if  put  in  clover  a  single  year  it  would  restore  it  to  its 
former  productiveness. 

Manures  for  Corn. — In  a  previous  chapter  I  have  said 
that  under  ordinary  circumstances  I  thought  the  farmer  could 
not  afford  to  apply  stable  manure  to  the  corn  crop  and  that  a 
sod  was  the  best  and  cheapest  manure  for  it.  I  believe,  how- 
ever, that  it  would  pay  to  apply  a  little  manure  in  the  hill  to  give 
the  corn  a  start,  as  the  plant-food  from  the  sod  is  not  available 
early  in  the  season,  and  such  a  manure  can  be  easily  and 
cheaply  prepared  as  I  describe.  Some  of  our  drills  and  planters 
already  have  fertilizer  attachments  and  our  manufacturers  will 
furnish  them  to  all  whenever  the  farmers  demand  them.  I 
should  expect  good  results  from  a  manure  composted  with  bran 
like  that  which  I  used  on  my  potato  crop  with  such  good  re- 
sults. It  will  be  easy  to  experiment  with  manures  in  the  hill, 
applied  by  hand,  to  determine  whether  it  will  pay,  and  if  it 
does,  the  fertilizer  attachment  to  the  planter  can  be  purchased. 
I  would  also  advise  that  experiments  be  made  with  plaster, 
used  after  the  corn  is  up  and  applied  to  the  plant  when  the 
dew  is  on. 

I  have  not  been  troubled  with  cut  worms  for  several  years, 
but  if  I  should  be  I  would  try  a  mixture  of  salt  and  plaster; 
two  parts  of  the  latter  to  one  of  the  salt.  At  a  meeting  of 
farmers  in  Logan  County,  Ohio,  I  heard  the  following  statement : 
"I  had  a  field  of  corn  on  sod  this  year,  and  found  soon  after  it 
came  up  that  the  cut  worms  were  destroying  it.  They  kept  it 
so  short  that  we  could  not  see  it  in  the  row  and  I  thought  I 
should  be  obliged  to  plant  it  over.  I  mixed  salt  and  plaster; 
two  parts  of  plaster  to  one  of  salt,  and  we  applied  it  at  the  rate 
of  a  barrel  of  the  mixture  to  eight  acres,  dropping  about  a  tea- 
spoonful  on  each  hill,  and  two  days  after,  on  careful  examina- 


CORN.  153 

tion,  I  failed  to  find  a  stalk  injured,  and  there  was  no  more  trou- 
ble. We  ran  out  of  the  mixture  and  left  a  half  acre  on  which 
we  did  not  apply  it.  On  this  the  worms  worked  for  some  time, 
and  the  crop  was  cut  short  fully  one-half."  The  gentleman  fur- 
ther stated  that  his  corn  was  some  days  earlier  on  the  part  to 
which  the  mixture  was  applied,  and  that  he  thought  it  paid 
largely  as  a  fertilizer  in  addition  to  saving  his  crop  from  the  cut 
worm.  The  remedy  is  so  cheap  and  easily  applied  that  I  would 
recommend  that  it  be  thoroughly  tested. 

Preparation  of  Soil. — I  believe  in  thorough  preparation  of 
the  soil  for  corn,  but  soils  and  seasons  vary  so  much  that 
there  are  no  rules  to  be  laid  down.  There  was  a  time  when 
the  motto 

"Plow  deep  while  sluggards  sleep, 

And  you  shall  have  corn  to  sell  and  keep," 

was  considered  profound  wisdom,  but  most  intelligent  farmers 
now  know  that  there  are  soils  which  would  be  permanently  in- 
jured by  deep  plowing,  and  that  good  judgment  must  be  used 
in  this  as  in  other  matters  pertaining  .to  the  farm.  I  advocate 
deep  plowing  on  soils  which  are  deep,  but  I  would  expect  a 
better  crop  from  six  inches  well  pulverized  than  from  eight  or 
ten  inches  imperfectly  prepared. 

Both  experience  and  observation  lead  me  to  favor  fall  plow- 
ing for  corn  on  a  well-drained  soil,  and  especially  where  there  is 
much  vegetable  matter  to  turn  under.  I  would  not  rebreak  this 
fall-plowed-land  in  the  spring,  even  though  it  becomes  packed 
so  as  to  be  quite  hard,  but  would  mellow  it  from  the  surface 
with  the  best  implements  I  could  command.  The  slicing  and  cut- 
ting harrows,  such  as  the  "  Randall  Disk,"  and  the  "  Acme,"  are 
admirable  for  this  purpose,  but  before  I  had  these  I  used  the  two- 
horse  cultivator  to  break  the  crust  and  loosen  the  surface,  and 
then  followed  with  the  heavy  Scotch  harrow.  If  I  do  not  plow 
in  the  fall  I  want  to  do  it  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the  land  is 
dry  enough.  I  can  make  a  seed  bed  for  corn  that  suits  me  much 
better  after  the  land  has  been  settled  by  rains  than  if  fresh 
plowed.  If  I  am  delayed  and  must  break  the  land  late  and 
plant  on  fresh  plowed  land,  I  never  allow  it  to  become  dry  and 


154  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

cloddy  after  plowing,  but  keep  a  roller  or  some  other  good  pulver- 
izing implement  in  the  field,  and  use  it  each  half  day  as  I  plow. 
It  is  a  matter  of  the  greatest  importance  in  all  operations  con- 
nected with  the  preparation  of  the  soil,  to  do  the  work  at  the 
right  time.  If  .the  roller  or  drag  is  kept  in  the  field  and  used 
on  the  fresh  plowed  land  it  will  always  pulverize  the  clods  and 
compact  the  soil  so  as  to  enable  it  to  retain  the  moisture,  while 
it  is  often  the  case  that  where  an  entire  field  is  plowed  and  left 
rough  and  cloddy  it  will  get  in  such  a  condition  that  the  farmer 
must  wait  for  heavy  rains  before  he  can  prepare  a  seed  bed.  A 
light  shower  will  moisten  the  smooth  mellow  surface  of  the 
field  that  was  rolled  or  dragged  at  the  proper  time,  but  will 
have  no  perceptible  effect  on  the  rough  field. 

I  have  spoken  of  dragging.  The  drag  is  a  substitute  for  the 
roller,  and  under  certain  conditions  of  soil  will  do  better  work. 
It  is  the  cheapest  implement  that  can  be  had  on  the  farm,  and 
no  farmer  should  be  without  it.  In  fact,  it  will  pay  to  have 
two  or  three  of  different  sizes.  I  always  keep  a  light  one  to  be 
used  with  one  horse  in  the  garden,  and  also  a  two-horse  one, 
and  the  farmer  who  runs  two  teams  should  have  one  large 
enough  for  four  horses.  There  are  two  ways  of  making  them, 

one  by  bolting  plank  to- 
gether as  shown  in  the 
illustration.  Here  we 
simply  take  two-inch 
planks  and  bolt  them 
together  with  strong 
carriage  bolts,  using 
washers  with  the  bolts.  I  find  that  four  plank,  ten  feet  long 
and  one  foot  wide,  and  two  inches  thick  makes  a  very  good 
size  for  two  horses.  We  lap  the  plank  on  to  each  other  four 
inches,  and  put  the  bolts  through  from  below  so  as  to  have 
the  smooth  head  run  on  the  ground  and  the  tap  above.  When 
this  is  completed  it  is  three  feet  wide,  and  if  it  is  not  heavy 
enough  it  can  be  weighted.  If  made  of  oak  and  the  driver 
rides,  it  will  be  about  right,  but  if  of  pine  or  other  light  wood, 
some  weight  will  need  to  be  added. 


BOLTKD  PLANK   DKAG. 


CORN. 


155 


SPIKED  PLANK   DRAG. 


The  other  plan  of  making  we  show  in  the  illustration.  In  this 
case,  instead  of  bolts  we  use  spikes,  and  fasten  the  plank  to  end 
pieces,  and  if  the  drag  is  long,  it  is  well  to  have  a  middle  piece. 
You  can  regulate  the  weight  of  your  drag  by  the  size  of  the 

pieces  to  which  you  attach  ^^^r-^><>^>^^-=^^>^.  ^  ^ 
the  plank.  It  is  advisable  ^^^^ 
to  have  a  box  on  the  drag 
into  which  you  can  drop 
stones  to  carry  them  from 
the  field.  This  drag  if  used 
at  the  proper  time,  either 
when  the  land  is  freshly  plowed,  or  as  soon  after  a  rain  as  it  will 
crumble,  will  put  the  land  in  fine  condition  for  the  sled  marker. 
The  sled  marker  is  another  cheap  and  valuable  implement 
which  the  farmer  can  make  himself.  I  think  it  a  great  advan- 
tage to  plant  corn  near  the  surface  instead  of  at  the  bottom  of 
a  furrow,  as  was  the  universal  practice  until  the  introduction 

of  machinery  for 
planting.  The 
corn  plant  de- 
lights in  heat, 
and  if  planted  in 
a  furrow  which 
is  filled  with 
water  by  every 
heavy  rain,  and 
where  the  roots 

are  not  in  soil  well  exposed  to  the  sun,  it  does  not  start  so 
quickly  into  rapid  growth  as  if  nearer  the  surface.  The  sled 
marker  has  runners  three  inches  thick,  beveled  on  both 
edges  so  as  to  make  a  V  shaped  mark  about  three  inches  deep. 
This  leaves  plenty  of  mellow  earth  under  the  corn,  and  when  it 
is  covered,  the  field  is  very  nearly  level.  A  shows  a  reversible 
marker  which  is  changed  from  side  to  side.  B  is  a  rope  by 
which  it  is  attached  to  the  hame  hook  on  the  horse.  This 
makes  a  mark  which  is  a  guide  in  returning,  and  saves  setting 
stakes,  as  by  keeping  the  tongue  over  this  mark  you  keep  the 


SLED  MARKER. 


156  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

right  distance  between  the  rows.  If  the  two-horse  lever  planter 
is  used,  you  drive  across  these  marks,  but  if  the  drill,  you 
run  the  wheel  of  the  drill  in  the  mark.  On  farms  where  there 
are  large  fields  clear  of  stumps,  the  two-horse  planter,  with  a 
check-rower,  can  be  used  without  marking  out  at  all,  and  will 
drop  the  corn  so  that  it  can  be  cultivated  both  ways. 

Both  hill  and  drill  culture  have  advantages.  It  is  easier  to 
keep  a  field  clean  in  a  wet  season  when  you  can  plow  both 
ways,  but  there  is  little  question  that  more  corn  can  be  grown 
by  the  more  equal  distribution  of  stalk  which  the  drill  gives. 
I  think  we  can  get  closer  to  the  corn  at  the  first  plowing  when 
drilled  than  when  in  hills,  for  the  grains  in  the  hill  are,  or 
should  be,  scattered  a  little.  With  suitable  implements  for  culti- 
vating, such  as  are  now  easily  obtained,  there  is  little  difficulty  in 
keeping  drilled  corn  clean,  but  if  the  land  is  foul,  or  the  farmer 
has  not  the  right  implements,  I  would  advise  hilling.  I  think 
that  under  ordinary  circumstances  about  one  and  a  half  inches 
is  the  best  depth  to  cover  corn.  It  is  a  fact,  perhaps  not  gen- 
erally known  to  farmers,  that  the  young  plant  can  receive  no 
nutriment  from  the  soil  till  the  leaves  reach  the  surface,  and  ex- 
pand in  the  light  and  air,  but  is  nourished  by  the  plant  food 
stored  in  the  grain,  and  if  planted  too  deeply  this  will  be  ex- 
hausted, and  the  plant  enfeebled  before  it  comes  up.  We  usu- 
ally begin  the  cultivation  of  corn  before  it  is  up,  and  the  condi- 
tion of  the  soil  and  the  weather  will  determine  what  we  shall  do. 
If  the  land  is  in  good  condition,  not  packed  by  heavy  rains,  and 
warm,  so  that  the  corn  will  come  up  quickly,  and  start  at  once 
into  a  thrifty  growth,  the  plank  drag  run  over  it  a  few  days 
after  planting  will  put  it  in  excellent  condition  for  the  plow. 
This  must  be  used  before  the  plumule  is  near  the  surface,  or 
some  of  the  stalks  will  be  broken.  If  a  rain  falls,  and  you  are 
not  able  to  get  on  to  the  field  until  too  late  to  use  the  drag,  the 
harrow  should  be  used,  and  for  this  I  prefer  a  sloping  tooth  har- 
row, as  the  teeth  may  be  run  directly  through  the  rows  or  hills 
without  damage.  If,  however,  the  soil  has  been  made  very  com- 
pact by  heavy  rains,  a  heavy  straight  tooth  harrow  will  be  needed. 

For  the  first  plowing,  after  careful  experiment  and  observa- 


CORN.  15T 

tion,  I  have  adopted  the  bar  plow  with  fender;  and  after  try- 
ing several  forms  of  fenders,  I  give  preference  to  the  rolling  cut- 
ter. With  this  plow  you  may  run  as  close  as  you  wish  to  the 
corn  without  covering  a  stalk.  The  great  advantage  of  plow- 
ing corn  in  this  way,  however,  is  that  it  leaves  it  on  a  narrow 
ridge,  which  warms  through  readily  and  starts  the  corn  at  once 
into  a  vigorous  growth.  When  corn  is  plowed  in  this  way  the 
earth  is  ridged  up  between  the  rows  like  a  sweet  potato  ridge, 
and  it  not  only  kills  all  the  weeds,  but  this  ridge  soon  warms  up, 
and  when  a  week  or  two  later  it  is  leveled  down  and  brought 
back  to  the  corn  rows,  it  is  mellow  arid  fine,  and  of  necessity 
free  from  weeds.  I  tested  this  matter  two  years  in  succession. 
A  strip  was  plowed  with  the  bar  plow,  as  above  described,  and 
an  adjoining  strip  cultivated  level  with  the  bull-tongue  cultiva- 
tor. In  both  instances  in  a  single  week  the  difference  was  plain, 
the  corn  plowed  with  the  bar  plow  being  darker  in  color  and  a 
much  more  vigorous  growth.  We  plow  with  the  bar  plow  about 
four  inches  deep,  and  run  so  close  to  the  corn  that  you  can  often 
notice  the  fibrous  roots  left  bare. 

The  double  bar  plow  is  now  largely  used  for  the  first 
plowing,  and  is  growing  in  favor.  The  plows  can  be  easily  sep- 
arated and  used  singly,  as 
they  are  light  and  easily 
guided,  so  that  they  can  be 
used  with  but  one  handle. 
With  this  plow  properly  ad- 
justed, and  a  little  experi- 
ence in  handling  it,  you  can 
plow  in  corn  two  inches 
high  and  not  cover  up  a 
single  stalk.  Our  cut  of 
the  double  bar  plow  shows  it  without  fenders,  but  they  should 
always  be  attached  to  all  plows  which  are  used  when  the  corn 
is  small.  I  think  the  rolling  cutter  the  best  form  of  fender,  as 
it  loosens  and  cracks  the  little  ridge  on  which  the  corn  is  left 
standing.  At  the  second  plowing  we  use  the  bull-tongues  on 
the  double  cultivator,  so  as  to  level  down  the  ridges  between 


DOUBLE   BAK  PLOW. 


158  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

the  rows  and  get  the  earth  back  to  the  roots  of  the  corn.  I  do 
not  think  any  rule  can  be  laid  down  as  to  how  many  times  corn 
should  be  cultivated.  In  some  seasons  three  workings  would 
give  better  results  than  six  in  others.  I  believe  that  as  a  rule 
we  give  too  little  work,  and  that  the  majority  of  farmers  stop 
the  plows  too  soon.  There  are  many  farmers  who  think  that  it 
injures  corn  to  plow  it  after  the  tassels  show,  but  if  it  has  not 
been  neglected,  and  the  land  allowed  to  become  hard  and  weedy, 
I  think  late  cultivation  beneficial.  Mr.  L.  1ST.  Bonham,  a  well 
known  agricultural  writer,  has  experimented  in  this  matter,  and 
states  that  he  has  found  plowing  beneficial,  even  when  the  pollen 
was  formed  and  falling  from  the  tassels. 

Corn-fodder  and  Fodder-corn. — There  is  no  one  point 
in  which  the  opinions  of  farmers,  East  and  West,  vary  more 
than  in  the  estimate  they  put  on  corn-fodder.  In  estimating  the 
Talue  of  his  corn  crop  the  New  England  farmer  always  takes  the 
fodder  into  consideration,  and  values  it  often  at  fifteen  or  twenty 
dollars  an  acre — sometimes  more ;  while  in  the  West  but  little 
value  is  attached  to  it,  and,  as  often  managed,  the  farmer  dam- 
ages his  land  more  by  getting  what  he  does  from  it  than  it  is 
worth  to  his  stock.  I  have,  for  many  years,  been  a  firm  be- 
liever in  the  value  of  corn-fodder.  I  have  often,  for  several 
years  in  succession,  wintered  my  horses  and  cattle  without  any 
hay.  I  have  always  found  my  stock  to  relish  the  fodder  better 
than  hay,  and  to  eat  it  with  less  waste ;  and,  after  over  twenty 
years'  experience,  I  have  decided  that  the  fodder  from  an  acre 
of  corn,  if  properly  saved,  is  worth  as  much  as  all  the  timothy- 
hay  would  be  that  would  grow  on  that  acre.  I  have  been  con- 
firmed in  this  opinion  by  many  practical  farmers  who  have  had 
large  experience  in  feeding  corn-fodder. 

The  average  yield  of  hay  per  acre  in  the  United  States  is 
but  little  above  one  ton,  and  rarely,  if  ever,  reaches  one  and  a 
quarter  tons. 

I  have  before  me  a  table  giving  the  result  of  fifteen  trial 
plots  of  corn,  from  each  of  which  the  product  was  weighed,  the 
grain  and  stalks  separately,  and  the  result  shows  an  average  of 
a  little  over  104  pounds  of  fodder  to  each  100  pounds  of  corn, 


CORN.  159 

and  an  average  yield  of  fodder  per  acre  of  4,229  pounds.  The 
average  yield  of  corn  on  the  fifteen  plots  was  58  bushels  per 
acre.  I  have  made  quite  a  number  of  experiments  in  feeding 
corn-fodder,  which  show  that  two-thirds  of  good,  dry  corn-fodder 
is  eaten  by  the  stock.  Now,  if  we  grow  fifty-five  bushels  of 
corn  to  the  acre,  it  will  give  us  a  little  over  two  tons  of  fodder 
to  the  acre ;  deduct  for  the  waste  one-third,  and  it  leaves  us,  in 
round  numbers,  2,600  pounds  net  of  fodder  from  our  acre  of 
corn.  It  is  very  probable  that  the  chemist  would  tell  us  that 
this  was  worth  much  less  than  hay,  but  I  have  always  found  it 
more  palatable  to  the  stock,  and  that  they  would  thrive  as 
well  on  it. 

The  question  to  be  decided,  however,  seems  to  me,  not  "Is 
an  acre  of  corn-fodder  worth  as  much  as  an  acre  of  hay?"  but, 
"Is  it  worth  saving?"  The  cost  of  securing  the  acre  of  hay, 
counting  the  rent  of  land,  will  be  not  less  than  eight  dollars,  as 
the  work  must  be  done  at  a  busy,  pushing  time,  when  wages  are 
high.  This  is  allowing  three  dollars  for  cutting,  curing,  and 
hauling  to  barn  or  stack,  and  five  dollars  per  acre  for  rent  of 
land  and  taxes.  I  can  secure  an  average  acre  of  fodder  in  barn 
or  stack  for  three  dollars.  If  we  put  one  hundred  hills  in  a 
shock  it  gives  twenty-seven  to  thirty  shocks  to  the  acre,  and, 
unless  the  corn  is  very  heavy,  I  can  get  it  cut  for  four  cents  a 
shock,  and  have  never  paid  more  than  five  cents  for  this  sized 
shock.  At  these  prices  our  cutters  will  average  two  dollars  a 
day.  We  can  get  the  corn  husked  and  the  fodder  bound  in 
bundles  for  from  one  to  two  cents  more  a  shock  than  we  pay 
for  cutting,  or  an  average  of  six  cents  for  a  hundred  hills,  and 
certainly  not  more  than  one-third  of  this  should  be  charged  to 
the  fodder,  as  it  would  cost  two-thirds  as  much  to  husk  the 
corn  if  left  standing  on  the  stalk.  The  cost  of  hauling,  which 
will  depend  somewhat  on  the  distance  from  the  barn  or  stack- 
yard, does  not  average  above  fifty  cents  a  load,  or  one  dollar 
per  acre. 

I  think  the  great  trouble  with  farmers  in  securing  their  corn- 
fodder  is  that  it  is  a  job  that  can  be  postponed.  They  know 
that  the  hay  crop  must  be  secured,  and  they  engage  plenty  of 


160  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

help  and  finish  it  at  once.  But,  because  corn-fodder  can  usually 
stand  out  several  weeks  without  damage,  the  farmer  puts  off 
securing  it,  and  works  along,  with  insufficient  help,  till  finally 
winter  catches  him  with  half  his  crop  out,  and  gives  him  double 
work  to  secure  an  inferior  article.  Often  the  deterioration  in 
quality  is  more  than  would  have  paid  the  entire  expense  of 
husking  and  putting  in  barn  or  stack.  I  believe  that  no  farmer 
can  afford  to  leave  an  acre  of  corn-stalks  in  the  field ;  the  waste 
alone  in  the  barn-yard  is  worth  half  the  cost  of  saving  the  fod- 
der, as  there  are  few  better  absorbents  than  corn-stalks.  My 
plan  is  to  hire  a  gang  of  men,  and  put  the  work  through  as 
quickly  as  possible  after  the  corn  is  in  a  condition  to  crib. 

I  spoke  of  binding  with  rye-straw.  We  grow  a  small  piece 
of  rye  each  season  for  this  express  purpose,  and  cut  it  when  in 
blossom,  as  this  gives  us  a  tough,  elastic  band,  and  we  do  not 
scatter  rye  over  our  fields,  as  we  are  sure  to  do  if  the  grain  has 
been  allowed  to  ripen;  and,  as  we  usually  seed  with  wheat  on 
the  land  where  corn  has  been  cut  up,  we  do  not  want  a  mix- 
ture of  rye. 

There  is  no  point  that  needs  more  careful  watching  than  the 
binding  of  fodder,  and  it  is  wise  to  select  one  of  your  best  and 
most  careful  hands  for  this  part  of  the  work  rather  than  to  have 
the  huskers  do  it.  The  bundles  should  be  medium-sized,  and 
bound  near  the  middle.  Rye-straw  is  long  enough,  so  that  a 
single  band  will  make  as  large  a  bundle  as  is  convenient  to 
handle ;  but  I  prefer  to  turn  half  the  straw  of  which  the  band 
is  made,  so  as  to  have  the  band  of  equal  size  throughout.  A 
band  made  in  this  way  is  much  less  likely  to  break  than  if  the 
heads  are  all  one  way. 

There  is  no  product  of  the  farm  that  can  be  so  easily  stacked 
to  turn  water  as  corn-fodder.  I  prefer  to  put  up  medium-sized 
stacks,  from  seventy-five  to  one  hundred  shocks  to  a  stack,  so 
as  not  to  expose  much  fodder  to  the  weather  in  feeding.  It  can 
be  fed  directly  from  the  stack,  or  a  stack  can  be  moved  into  the 
barn.  All  that  is  necessary  to  make  it  turn  water  is  to  keep  the 
middle  full,  so  that  the  bundles  will  have  a  good  slope  to  the  out- 
side of  the  stack,  and  take  pains  in  topping  out. 


CORN. 


161 


While  I  am  an  advocate  of  corn-fodder,  I  have  never  liked 
sowed  corn  for  winter  feeding.  It  is  difficult  to  cure  so  as  to 
keep  when  stored  away,  and  seems  to  be  deficient  both  in  nutri- 
ment and  flavor.  My  stock  do  not  eat  it  well,  or  appear  to 
thrive  as  well  on  it  as  on  fodder  from  corn  which  has  matured 
a  crop  of  grain.  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  the  best  way  to  grow 
corn  for  cuttle  feeding  is  by  thick  planting,  so  that  there  will  be 
a  large  growth  of  fodder  and  small  ears — this  to  be  fed  without 
husking.  Some  years  ago,  in  visiting  Mr.  Chauncy  Hills,  a 
prominent  short-horn  breeder,  of  Delaware,  0.,  he  told  me  that 
he  found  it  his  most  profitable  crop.  My  recollection  is  that  he 
planted  this  corn  about  twice  as  thick  as  is  usually  done,  having 
the  rows  the  usual  width  apart,  and  the  hills  from  eighteen 
inches  to  two  feet  apart  in  the  row. 

In  the  experimental  work  at  our  agricultural  colleges  careful 
tests  are  being  made  to  determine  the  most  profitable  distance 
apart  to  plant  corn.  At  the  Ohio  experiment  station  this  work 
was  begun  in  1882,  and  I  give  entire  the  tables,  which  show 
the  results  of  planting  at  different  distances  apart  for  the 
years  1882-83. 

EXPERIMENTAL.  CORN  PLOTS  FOR  1882. 
Table   1. 


3 

^ 

g 

w 

to 

H 

y 

^ 

3 

c 
B 

s| 

sll 

<t>3! 

3  E 

S| 

»aT 

_oa 

S21 

=3 

-I 

^2  ** 

|i& 

si 

8§ 

0  o 

rio 

g. 

•  2. 

~?" 

SS§ 

?  s 

3  g. 

pi 

Sf"* 

"E. 
o 

:   a 
:   g 

S-f 

||| 

s| 

o. 

a 

5=1 

sl 

jjr 

'       W 

c  o 

j    •• 

w  -2 

•      OB 

S  I* 

:    w 

•    "* 

•    .- 

• 

1 

i 

6 

54.2 

9.7 

63.9 

15.1 

5,309 

120. 

2 

i 

9 

53.1 

9.3 

62.4 

14.8 

4,375 

100.1 

3 

i 

12 

56.4 

5.6 

62. 

9. 

3,906 

94.3 

4 

i 

15 

53.6 

6.7 

60.3 

11.1 

3,874 

91. 

5 

i 

18 

49.1 

5.4 

54.5 

9.9 

3,282 

86. 

6 

i 

21 

46.5 

7.8 

54.3 

14.3 

3,419 

89.9 

7 

i 

24 

37.1 

4.7 

41.8 

11.2 

3,185 

108.8 

8 

o 

12 

58.4 

8.3 

60.7 

12.4 

4,996 

107. 

9 

2 

18 

56.3 

7.2 

63.5 

11.3 

5,021 

112.9 

10 

2 

24 

56.7 

6.3 

63. 

10. 

4,:508 

99. 

11 

2 

30 

53.3 

4.7 

58. 

8.1 

3,822 

94.1 

12 

3 

18 

50.3 

11.7 

62. 

18.8 

5,499 

126.7 

13 

3 

24 

46.8 

9. 

55.8 

Ki.l 

4,303 

110.1 

14 

3 

30 

45.1 

10.1 

55.2 

18.2 

4  251 

110. 

15 

3 

36 

39.1 

8.2 

47.3 

17.3 

3,770 

113.8 

11 


162 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


EXPERIMENTAL  CORN  PLOTS  FOR  1883. 
Table  2. 


„ 

H 

M 

H 

y 

Hj 

H 

H 

H 

. 

. 

9 

2. 

o  c 

O  j£. 

ils 

o 
| 

re 
i? 

eg. 

3  g 

01  2. 

3$ 

!« 

O  GQ 

£2. 

fff 

m  O 

|| 

o 

<p 

o 

Bg 

&3 

5F3 
g 

^1 

§2. 

|o 

~ 

HOW  PLANTED. 

•    co 

rt  O 

p-8 

sl 

re 

Per 

re 

1 

1 

**§; 

£,| 

p 

r? 

o  ^ 

P 

c 

Q 

o 

o 

0 

S  s? 

8 

3  """ 

y 

*••  ^ 

• 

g 

a. 

s 

8 

'.    G 

a 

3 

\  8 

1 

1  kernel,     6  in. 

55.09 

5.8 

60.89 

6.37 

93.63 

14,048 

24,368 

10,208 

.17 

240 

2 

1        "          9 

86.6 

2.3 

88.9 

33.77 

66.23 

12,176 

14,096 

7,360 

.44 

118 

3 

1        "         12 

85.3 

0.7 

86.0 

50.4 

49.6 

9,808 

11,120 

7,104 

.54 

118 

4 

1        "         15 

80.0 

0.9 

80.9 

61.1 

38.9 

8,352 

8,768 

6,368 

.64 

112 

5 

1        "         18 

71.6 

0.0 

71.6 

70.0 

30.0 

6,560 

6,912 

5,088 

.73 

101 

6 

1        "         21 

67.0 

0.0 

67.0 

73.1 

26.9 

6,368 

5,984 

4,800 

.78 

102 

7 

1        "         24 

72.9 

0.0 

72.9 

76.6 

23.4 

6,496 

6,272 

5,184 

.81 

101 

8 

2  kernels,  12  in. 

77.5 

5.5 

83.0 

17.7 

82.3 

14,464 

23,648 

7,744 

.25 

133 

9 

2        "         15 

87.8 

4.3 

92.1 

34.3 

65.7 

13,232 

20,480 

6,528 

.31 

101 

10 

2        "         18 

84.8 

2.3 

87.1 

40.8 

59.2 

11,904 

17,248 

7,008 

.35 

115 

11 

2        "         21 

77.3 

1.4 

78.7 

45.2 

54.8 

11,424 

14,816 

5,728 

.37 

104 

12 

2        "         24 

78.0 

1.4 

79.4 

55.2 

44.8 

10,144 

12,832 

5,184 

.43 

93 

13 

2        "         27 

66.8 

0.7 

67.5 

58.8 

41.2 

9,120 

11,488 

4,480 

.41 

95 

14 

2         '         30 

76.6 

0.0 

76.6 

66.6 

33.4 

8,624 

10,272 

5,024 

.52 

94 

15 

3         '         18 

59.7 

3.4 

63.1 

142 

85.8 

12,960 

25,296 

7,104 

.17 

161 

16 

3         '         24 

59.9 

0.0 

59.9 

29.3 

70.7 

11,680 

19,104 

5,760 

.22 

137 

17 

3         '         30 

62.9 

0.5 

63.4 

57.2 

42.8 

10,208 

15,456 

5,024 

.29 

113 

18 

3         '         36 

76.1 

0.5 

76.6 

68.3 

31.7 

9,664 

12,624 

5,024 

.42 

94 

These  tables  should  be  carefully  studied.  It  will  be 
noticed  that  more  details  are  given  in  the  table  for  1883  than 
for  the  previous  year.  It  is  the  intention  of  the  manager  of 
the  station,  "  Professor  Lazenby,"  to  continue  these  experiments 
for  a  long  series  of  years.  The  experiments  are  conducted  with 
the  utmost  care.  The  land  was  carefully  selected  and  all  pre- 
pared in  one  day,  and  the  planting  and  cultivation  was  exactly 
the  same  for  all  the  plots.  The  rows  were  three  and  a  half  feet 
apart.  In  the  table  for  1882,  in  every  case  you  will  notice  that 
close  planting  gave  the  heaviest  yields  of  grain,  the  lightest 
yield  being  from  one  grain  twenty-four  inches  apart,  which 
yielded  forty-one  bushels  of  corn  per  acre,  and  3,185  pounds  of 
stalk,  or  a  total  weight  of  corn  and  stalk  of  6,055  pounds  per 
acre.  Plots  1,  8,  9,  and  12,  all  of  which  were  much  closer  than 
farmers  usually  plant,  yielded  respectively  of  grain,  63+,  66+, 
63+,  and  62  bushels  per  acre,  and  a  total  weight — cured — of  corn 
and  fodder  of  9,779,  9,616,  9,431,  and  9,839  pounds  per  acre. 
The  year  1882,  in  which  this  experiment  was  made,  was  unfavor- 


CORN.  163 

able  for  the  growth  of  corn  in  the  earlier  part,  but  was  very 
favorable  at  earing  time. 

Table  No.  2  shows  some  remarkable  yields  both  of  corn  and 
fodder ;  but  as  this  season  dry  weather  prevailed  at  earing  time, 
the  largest  yields  of  grain  are  not  from  the  thickest  planting,  as 
was  the  case  the  previous  year.  Five  of  the  plots,  Nos.  1,  2, 
3,  8,  and  10,  yielded  of  corn  and  fodder  over  six  tons  each  per 
acre. ;  No.  1  producing  over  seven  tons.  The  five  plots  referred 
to  averaged  about  eighty  bushels  of  corn  per  acre,  about  seventy 
per  cent  of  which  was  nubbins,  which  makes  it  very  suitable 
for  feeding  to  cattle  without  husking,  I  am  fully  convinced 
that  no  crop  the  farmer  can  grow  will  afford  so  much  and  so 
good  cattle  feed  as  this  closely  planted  corn,  and  in  looking  at 
the  figures  given  in  these  tables  the  question  naturally  arises: 
"Why  should  farmers  winter  their  cattle  on  an  exclusive 
hay  diet,  which  has  been  grown  at  the  rate  of  one  ton  per 
acre,  when  from  three  to  seven  tons  of  better  food  can  be  so 
easily  produced  " — for  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  corn  and  fodder 
fed  together  will  give  better  results  than  feeding  hay.  Even  if 
one-third  of  the  weight  of  this  crop  goes  into  the  waste,  it 
would  still  leave  from  two  to  four  times  as  much  food  as  the 
same  land  in  hay  would  produce,  and  if  run  through  a  cutter  be- 
fore feeding,  this  waste  would  make  excellent  bedding  and  one 
of  the  very  best  absorbents. 

Probably  there  is  no  question  connected  with  stock-feeding 
that  will  pay  so  well  for  careful  experiment,  as  that  of  growing 
and  feeding  of  corn  and  fodder,  and  I  believe  that  careful  ex- 
periment would  show  that  a  single  acre  of  this  crop  rightly 
managed  would  furnish  food  to  winter  two  cattle  of  one  thou- 
sand pounds  each,  while  under  the  hay  feeding  system  it  will 
take  about  two  acres  to  winter  one.  I  can  not  give  better  advice 
to  farmers  than  that  they  experiment  with  thickly  planted  corn 
to  determine  how  much  food  can  be  produced  per  acre  and  the 
relative  value  of  that  food.  It  should  be  remembered,  however, 
that  the  planting  should  always  be  thin  enough  so  that  the  corn 
will  produce  ears,  as  this  not  only  furnishes  grain  for  feed,  but 
also  improves  the  quality  of  the  fodder. 


164 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


CORN-CRIB. 


Disposing  of  the  Crop. — I  think  that  too  many  farmers 
sell  their  corn.  If  the  crop  is  fed  to  scrub  cattle,  "  Elm-peeler  " 

hogs,  or  old  horses,  it  will,  no 
doubt,  fail  to  be  profitable.  But 
the  farmer  who  keeps  good 
stock,  and  manages  well,  will 
certainly  realize  a  greater  profit 
from  his  corn  by  feeding  than 
by  selling  it,  and 
will  at  the  same  time 
keep  his  farm  in  bet- 
ter condition.  The 
cost  of  taking  a  thou- 
sand bushels  of  corn 
to  market  even  a  few 

miles  is  considerable,  while  the  beef  or  pork  which 
it  represents  can  be  driven  the  same  distance  in  a 
few  hours. 

It  is  best  that  the  corn  should  be  stored  in  a 
separate  building,  as  it  needs  thorough  ventilation, 
and  it  is  much  easier  to  protect  it  from  rats  than 
when  the  crib  is  connected  with  the  barn.  The  crib 
shown  in  the  illustration  is  probably  the  best  and 
most  convenient  that  can  be  made,  and  it  can  be 
utilized  for  a  wagon-shed  as  well  as  a  corn-crib.  It 
is  easy  to  make  such  a  crib  rat-proof,  as  it  will  be 
impossible  for  a  rat  to  hold  on  to  the  outside  of  the 
crib  long  enough  to  gnaw  into  it.  The  foundation 
may  be  of  stone  or  brick;  or  posts  of  durable  wood 
like  locust,  if  set  below  frost,  will  answer  the  pur- 
pose. The  building  should  project  a  little  beyond 
the  foundation,  so  that  a  rat,  even  if  it  climbed  up  to 
the  crib,  would  then  find  it  impossible  to  get  to 
the  slats. 

As  in  some  seasons  we  are  obliged  to  crib  corn  damp,  it 
will  be  wise  to  arrange  for  extra  ventilation  in  such  seasons. 
This  can  be  done  by  making  trap-doors,  eight  inches  square,  in 


VENTIL.ATOB 
FOH  CRIB. 


CORN.  165 

the  center  of  the  floor,  and  above  these  place  ventilators,  extend- 
ing up  to  the  top  of  the  crib.  These  ventilators  can  be  made  by 
first  putting  together  some  small  square  frames  of  two  by  four 
studding,  so  that  they  will  measure  nine  inches  outside  measure, 
and  nailing  two  strips,  three  inches  wide,  of  inch  boards  to  each 
of  the  four  sides.  Probably  four  of  these  frames  would  be 
needed  for  each  ventilator  ten  feet  long,  as  the  pressure  of  the 
corn  would  crush  them  if  the  space  between  frames  was  too 
great.  With  a  row  of  these  ventilators  placed  five  or  six  feet 
apart  dong  the  center  of  the  crib,  such  thorough  ventilation 
would  be  secured  that  the  risk  of  damage  would  be  greatly  re- 
duced. About  thirty  feet  of  lumber  would  be  required  for 
each  ventilator  ten  feet  long,  and  when  once  made  they  would 
last  for  many  years.  When  not  in  use  they  could  be  stored 
.overhead. 

Our  engraving  on  page  164  shows  how  the  frames  should 
be  made,  and  also  a  ventilator  complete. 


166  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


VIII. 

WHEAT. 

IN  many  parts  of  our  country  wheat  is  the  most  important  crop 
the  farmers  grow.     Its  importance  is   due  to  the   following 

facts : 

1st.  It  is  a  crop  which  always  commands  the  cash,  and  is 
always  in  demand. 

2d.  It  divides  the  work  so  that  a  single  team  can  do  much 
more  work  on  a  farm  where  wheat  and  corn  are  grown  in  about 
equal  proportions  than  where  corn  is  the  sole  or  principal  crop. 

3d.  It  can  be  successfully  grown  on  rolling  lands,  which,  if 
continuously  cultivated  in  corn,  would  soon  be  ruined  by 
washing. 

4th.  It  gives  an  opportunity  to  start  clover  to  occupy  the 
land,  and  furnish  plant  food  for  succeeding  crops,  and  is,  there- 
fore, an  almost  essential  crop  in  any  good  rotation. 

5th.  It  can  be  easily  stored ;  there  is  little  risk  of  injury 
from  dampness,  and,  almost  no  loss  from  shrinkage,  and  at  the 
usual  prices,  a  team  can  take  to  market  four  or  five  times  as 
many  dollars  worth  of  wheat  as  of  corn. 

6th.  Probably  no  farm  crop  grown  gives  such  certain  and 
large  returns  for  manure  as  this,  and  at  the  same  time,  under 
proper  treatment,  leaves  the  land  in  good  condition  for  a  suc- 
ceeding crop. 

7th.  It  furnishes  the  farmer  with  a  large  bulk  of  straw, 
which  can  be  utilized  for  food,  bedding,  shelter,  and  as  an  ab- 
sorbent for  liquids,  which  would,  without  it,  on  many  farms,  be 
wasted. 

8th.  As  wheat  is  exported  to  a  large  extent,  and  can  be 
held  for  one  or  more  years,  if  desired,  it  is  less  subject  to  flue- 


WHEAT. 


167 


tuations  in  price  than  many  other  farm  products,  and  is  not  so 
likely  to  be  depressed  by  an  unusually  heavy  crop. 

The  aggregate  production  of  wheat  in  the  United  States  has 
rapidly  increased  during  the  last  ten  years. 

The  following  table  shows  the  total  production,  value,  and 
area  of  the  wheat  crop  of  the  United  States  from  1871  to  1880, 
inclusive : 


Year. 

Bushels. 

Dollars. 

Acres. 

Value 
per  bush, 
cents. 

Value 
per  acre, 
dollars. 

Yield 
per  acre, 
oushels. 

1871 

230,722,400 

290,411,820 

19,943,893 

125.8 

14  56 

11.5 

1872 

249,997,100 

310,180,375 

20,858,359 

124.0 

14  87 

11.9 

1873 

281,254,700 

323,594,805 

22,171,676 

115.0 

14  59 

12.7 

1874 

308,102,700 

291,107,895 

24,967,027 

94.4 

11  66 

12.3 

1875 

292.136,000 

294,580,990 

26,381,512 

100.0 

11  16 

11.0 

1876 

289,356,500 

300,259,300 

27,627,021 

103.7 

10  86 

10.4 

1877 

364,194,146 

394,695,779 

26,277,548 

108.2 

15  08 

19.9 

1878 

420,122,400 

326,346,424 

32,108,560 

77.2 

10  16 

13.1 

1879 

448,756,600 

497,030,100 

32,545,950 

110.8 

15  27 

13.8 

1880 

480,849,723 

460,597,000 

36,037,000 

95.8 

12  74 

13.3 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  average  price  for  the  entire  period 
of  ten  years  is  $1.05i  per  bushel;  the  average  yield  per  acre,  13 
bushels ;  the  acreage  nearly  doubled  during  the  ten  years ;  and 
the  average  per  acre  for  the  last  four  years  is  15  bushels  against 
12  for  the  first  four  years,  and  13  for  the  entire  period. 

This  increase  in  the  amount  of  wheat  grown  is  due  to  several 
causes,  among  which  are  the  opening  up  of  new  and  fertile  wheat 
lands  in  Minnesota,  Dakota,  etc.;  the  introduction  of  new  and 
greatly  improved  machinery  for  handling  the  crop ;  the  stimula- 
tion of  good  prices  consequent  upon  a  heavy  foreign  demand; 
the  introduction  of  better  modes  of  cultivation,  and  the  use  of 
more  fertilizers,  both  home-made  and  commercial. 

One  gratifying  feature  of  this  increase  in  wheat  production 
is  that  it  is  not  due  merely  to  the  opening  of  new  and  fertile 
lands  in  the  West,  but  in  the  States  which  have  been  longest 
under  cultivation,  the  improvement  has  been  striking.  Take, 
for  example,  the  statistics  of  Ohio,  the  leading  wheat  growing 
State  of  the  Union.  Dividing  the  thirty-three  years,  from  1850 
to  1882,  inclusive,  into  three  periods  of  nine  years  each,  and  one 


168  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

period  of  six  years,  we  get  the  following  table  of  average  yield 
per  acre,  and  average  annual  aggregate  production  of  the  State  : 


Years. 

Average  yield 
per  acre. 

Average  an- 
nual crop. 

From  1850  to  1858          .... 
From  1859  to  1867 
From  1868  to  1876 
From  1877  to  1882         .... 

12.89 
9.86 
12.11 
16.25 

21,000,000 
17,000,000 
20,000,000 
39,000,000 

The  favorable  showing  of  the  first  nine  years  is  probably  to 
be  accounted  for  in  part  by  the  larger  proportion  of  virgin  soil 
at  that  time,  and  partly  by  the  fact  that  statistics  had  not  then 
been  reduced  to  as  complete  a  science  as  since. 

Two  causes  account  for  the  extremely  unfavorable  showing 
of  the  second  period ;  the  absence  of  a  large  part  of  the  agri- 
cultural class  in  the  army  reduced  the  number  of  acres  under 
cultivation,  and  the  disastrous  crop  failures  of  1865  arid  1866 
reduced  the  average  per  acre,  which  in  1865  was  but  nine,  and 
in  1866  but  four  and  a  half  bushels.  The  wet  season  of  1875 
explains  why  the  third  period  did  not  quite  equal  the  first  one. 
The  fourth  period  of  six  years  marks  apparently  a  new  era  in 
wheat  growing,  the  annual  aggregate  production  being  doubled, 
and  the  average  yield  per  acre  being  increased  forty  per  cent. 
This  greatly  increased  yield  was  doubtless  due  to  better  drainage, 
better  preparation  of  the  soil,  better  fertilization,  including  a 
larger  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  and  the  introduction  of  new 
and  improved  varieties. 

Soil. — Wheat  flourishes  on  a  great  variety  of  soils,  the  es- 
sential conditions  being  good  natural  or  artificial  drainage,  as  it 
is  easily  injured  by  excess  of  water  in  the  soil,  and  a  supply 
of  available  plant  food.  A  limestone  clay,  under  favorable  con- 
ditions, is  probably  one  of  the  safest  soils  for  the  crop,  but  it  is 
grown  with  success  even  on  rich  black  bottom  soils. 

Drainage. — There  is  no  crop  which  is  more  benefited  by 
drainage  than  this;  in  fact,  it  is  scarcely  wise  to  attempt  the  cul- 
tivation of  wheat  on  a  soil  that  is  not  drained,  either  naturally 
or  artificially,  as  a  profitable  crop  can  only  be  grown  on  such 


WHEAT.  1G9 

land  in  exceptionally  favorable  seasons.  If  the  surface  soil  is 
filled  with  water  during  the  winter  and  spring,  the  freezing  and 
thawing  will  heave  out  the  young  plants,  and  if  water  remains 
upon  the  surface,  the  result  will  be  even  more  disastrous. 

Where  the  surroundings  or  the  circumstances  of  the  farmer 
are  such  as  to  make  thorough  underdrainage  impracticable,  very 
good  crops  may  often  be  secured  by  plowing  in  narrow  lands 
and  opening  out  the  dead  furrows,  making  provisions  for  a  clear 
outlet,  so  that  the  water  will  never  stand  in  these  furrows.  It 
will  be  sufficient  for  this  purpose  that  the  furrows  be  opened 
without  rounding  the  lands.  The  latter  practice,  by  giving  a 
greater  depth  of  soil  in  the  center  of  the  land,  is  liable  to  cause 
the  crop  to  mature  unevenly.  An  outlet  should  be  opened  with 
the  plow  to  every  low  place  in  the  field,  so  as  to  prevent  the 
water  from  standing  on  any  portion  of  it.  Of  course,  these 
open  furrows  across  a  wheat  field  are  objectionable,  and  greatly 
interfere  with  the  convenient  use  of  machinery;  but  they  are 
less  objectionable  than  the  loss  of  a  crop  from  excess  of  water. 
As  soon  as  thorough  underdraining  can  be  accomplished,  these 
open  furrows  may  be  dispensed  with. 

Preparation  of  the  Seed  Bed. — I  believe  that  the  in- 
creased yield  of  wheat  during  the  last  few  years  is  due  more  to 
the  care  and  intelligence  in  this  matter  than  to  any  other  one 
cause.  One  important  point  is  early  plowing.  This  is  espe- 
cially true  on  the  clay  lands  of  which  I  have  spoken  as  particu- 
larly adapted  to  wheat.  Our  farmers  have  found  that  wheat 
does  best  on  a  seed  bed  that  is  compacted  with  a  few  inches  of 
mellow  soil  at  the  surface,  and  that  this  can  be  secured  best 
after  the  land  has  been  plowed  for  some  time  and  has  been 
settled  by  rains. 

I  have  often  had  an  opportunity  to  notice  the  difference  be- 
tween early  and  late  plowing,  where  a  farmer  began  plowing 
a  field  in  July,  and  stopped  when  the  ground  became  hard  and 
was  unable  to  finish  until  September.  In  such  instances  I  have 
seen  in  the  same  field  a  difference  of  ten  bushels  to  the  acre  in 
favor  of  the  part  which  was  plowed  early.  I  do  not  think  the 
farmer  ever  likely  to  make  a  mistake  by  putting  too  much  work 


170  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

on  his  wheat  land  in  the  way  of  mellowing  and  fining.  The  best 
yield  I  ever  secured  was  on  a  field  that  I  harrowed,  rolled,  and 
dragged  six  times  between  breaking  and  seeding.  I  fully  believe 
in  the  truth  of  the  maxim,  "  Tillage  is  manure,"  and  that  a  soil 
which  is  kept  mellow  and  fine  for  six  weeks  or  two  months 
during  the  heat  of  summer,  becomes  vitalized  and  enriched  so  as 
to  give  the  young  plant  a  thrifty  start. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  in  all  the  work  of  preparing 
the  seed-bed  for  wheat  to  so  arrange  that  the  work  can  be  done 
at  the  right  time.  During  the  heat  of  summer  we  usually  have 
after  each  rain,  one  or  two  cool,  cloudy  days.  This  is  the  time 
when  the  teams  should  be  kept  at  work  early  and  late.  The 
land  is  moist  and  turns  up  easily,  and  the  team  will  do  twelve  or 
even  fourteen  hours  of  work  with  less  strain  and  worry  than 
they  will  do  eight  a  week  later,  when  the  ground  has  become 
dry  and  the  mercury  is  up  in  the  nineties.  It  is  the  same  with 
the  work  of  pulverizing.  There  are  times  when  one  day's  work 
will  accomplish  more  than  three  a  little  later.  There  is  a  time 
after  a  rain  when  the  ground  will  crumble  at  a  touch,  and  if  the 
farmer  can  go  on  his  fields  then  with  a  harrow  that  will  take  a 
wide  sweep  he  can  mellow  a  large  amount  in  a  day,  and  leave 
it  in  a  condition  to  be  benefited  by  sun  and  air,  while  if  neg- 
lected a  few  days,  till  a  crust  forms,  it  will  be  impossible  to 
get  it  in  good  order  till  another  rain  falls. 

My  advice  in  preparing  land  for  wheat  is  to  roll  as  soon  as 
plowed.  At  the  first  plowing  after  a  rain  it  will  do  to  plow 
a  day  or  sometimes  two  days  before  rolling,  but  as  the  weather 
gets  hot  and  the  land  begins  to  dry,  roll  each  half  day,  and 
under  some  circumstances  it  will  pay  to  unhitch  from  the  plow 
and  hitch  to  the  roller  as  soon  as  a  sufficient  number  of  furrows 
are  plowed  to  make  a  round  for  the  latter.  I  think  that  any 
farmer  who  will  give  this  plan  a  fair  test  will  never  abandon  it. 
It  is  wonderful  what  power  of  retaining  moisture  a  fine  soil  has. 
A  field  that  is  at  once  made  fine  and  compact  with  the  roller  will 
be  put  in  excellent  condition  for  seeding  by  a  shower  which  would 
not  make  any  impression  on  a  field  that  had  been  left  rough  and 
cloddy.  I  think  there  can  be  no  beneficial  chemical  action  in 


WHEAT.  171 

the  soil  without  moisture,  and  the  field  which  is  allowed  to  be 
baked  and  hard  for  some  weeks  previous  to  seeding  time,  loses 
the  cheapest  and  best  source  of  fertility  which  is  at  the  com- 
mand of  the  farmer. 

If  any  of  my  readers  think  I  am  giving  undue  promi- 
nence to  this  matter  of  pulverization,  I  would  recommend  that 
they  test  it  on  a  strip  in  the  field,  and  continue  the  experiment 
for  a  series  of  years  that  they  may  hit  both  dry  and  wet  seasons. 
I  am  sure  that  the  experiment  will  result  in  convincing  them  that 
thorough  preparation  of  the  seed-bed  is  one  of  the  most  import- 
ant points  connected  with  the  crop. 

There  are  seasons  when  it  is  impossible  on  account  of  dry 
weather  to  plow  early  for  wheat;  and  when  the  plowing  must  be 
done  just  before  sowing,  I  would  recommend  that  it  be  shallow, 
four  or  at  most  five  inches.  A  deep,  loose  seed  bed  holds  too 
much  water,  and  if  we  can  not  have  our  land  settled  and  compact 
it  is  best  to  plow  only  what  we  can  thoroughly  pulverize,  and 
I  think  that  four  inches  of  soil  made  fine  and  mellow  is  better 
than  eight  less  thoroughly  fined.  The  seed  is  also  likely  to  be 
covered  too  deeply  on  the  loose  soil. 

Wheat  on  Corn  Lands. — There  are  many  farmers  who 
think  it  slipshod  farming  to  sow  wheat  on  corn  land ;  but  on  a 
farm  where  a  large  breadth  of  land  is  devoted  to  corn,  and  in  a 
locality  too  far  south  to  find  oats  reliable  or  profitable,  it  be- 
comes a  necessity  in  our  rotation  to  seed  corn-land  to  wheat.  I 
seed  more  or  less  in  this  way  each  year,  and  grow  full  average 
crops,  frequently  obtaining  twenty-five  to  thirty  bushels  to  the 
acre  in  this  manner;  and  my  neighbor,  L.  N.  Bonham,  grew 
on  corn-land  a  crop  that  averaged  thirty-eight  bushels.  I  do 
not  sow  in  the  standing  corn,  but  cut  and  shock  the  corn  before 
seeding.  Mr.  Bonham,  whom  I  have  just  mentioned,  one  year 
seeded  a  corn-field  to  wheat,  sowing  one-half  of  the  field  in  the 
standing  corn,  and  cutting  off  the  corn  on  the  other  half.  Equal 
care  was  taken  in  the  preparation  of  the  land  in  each  case  and 
the  wheat  put  in  with  a  one-horse  drill,  but  the  yield  on  the 
portion  where  the  corn  was  cut  up  before  seeding  was  more  than 
double  that  on  the  other  half. 


172  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

I  never  plow  the  land  where  corn  has  been  cut  off,  but  work 
it  mellow  with  cultivators  and  harrows.  The  first  thing  to  be 
attended  to  is  to  keep  the  corn  clean,  plow  as  late  as  you  can, 
and  then  if  necessary  go  through  with  hoes.  I  prefer  putting 
twenty  rows  of  corn  in  a  shock  row,  setting  the  shocks  close,  and 
do  not  try  to  seed  between  them.  Then  with  the  best  imple- 
ments at  command,  go  to  work  and  mellow  three  inches  of 
the  surface  of  the  field.  Sometimes  this  can  be  done  with  a 
common  harrow,  followed  by  the  roller  or  plank  drag,  but  if  the 
ground  has  been  compacted  by  heavy  rains  the  cultivators  or 
one  of  the  improved  cutting  harrows  will  do  the  best  work,  and 
should  be  used  if  practicable. 

Whatever  implements  are  used  the  land  should  be  in  fine 
order  before  starting  the  drill.  It  is  better  to  be  a  week  or  two 
later  with  the  ground  in  good  condition  than  to  secure  earliness 
by  imperfect  preparation. 

Fertilizers. — The  cheapest  wheat  I  have  ever  grown  was 
on  a  clover  sod,  turned  under  early  and  given  time  to  thoroughly 
decompose;  and  when  I  do  not  put  wheat  on  corn  land,  my 
preference  is  to  so  arrange  a  rotation  as  to  have  a  crop  of 
clover  followed  by  two  crops  of  wheat,  applying  fertilizers  to 
the  second  wheat  crop. 

I  regard  stable  manure  as  the  best  and  most  reliable  fertil- 
izer for  wheat,  and  have  never  been  disappointed  in  its  effects. 
I  think  universal  experience  shows  it  to  furnish  all  the  elements 
needed  by  the  plant.  From  the  records  of  work  at  the  experi- 
ment stations,  and  from  my  own  observation  when  I  have 
visited  them,  I  see  stable  manure  is  always  the  standard,  and 
nearly  always  gives  the  largest  yield.  In  my  own  experience  I 
have  rarely  failed  to  get  an  extra  bushel  of  wheat  for  every 
two-horse  load  of  manure  applied,  and  think  I  have  sometimes 
obtained  twice  this  amount.  If  I  had  an  unlimited  supply  of 
stable  manure,  I  would  apply  twelve  loads  to  each  acre ;  but  as 
I  never  have  enough  for  all  my  wheat  land,  I  prefer  to  spend 
more  time  and  labor  in  fining  it,  and  make  eight  loads  cover 
an  acre.  I  would  always  apply  manure  to  wheat  as  a  top 
dressing,  spreading  it  after  the  ground  has  been  plowed 


WHEAT.  173 

and  rolled,  and  thoroughly  mixing  it  with  the  surface  soil  by 
harrowing. 

Bone-ineal  and  superphosphate  have  at  times  given  me  ex- 
cellent results  on  wheat;  at  other  times  I  have  received  no 
benefit.  When  I  use  them  alone  I  apply  two  hundred  pounds 
of  either  to  the  acre,  but  prefer  to  apply  one  hundred  pounds 
to  the  acre,  and  four  loads  of  stable  manure.  The  use  of 
stable  manure  in  connection  with  the  commercial  fertilizers  is 
more  particularly  important  when  bone-meal  is  used,  as  the  lat- 
ter is  so  slow  to  decompose  that  it  gives  the  plant  but  little 
aid  in  making  a  start  in  the  fall.  Superphosphate  has  not  this 
disadvantage.  We  begin  in  May  or  June  the  work  of  getting 
ready  the  stable  manure  we  intend  to  use  on  the  wheat,  and 
endeavor  to  have  it  in  such  condition  that  it  can  be  handled 
without  loss  of  time,  for  where  we  have  to  put  wheat  on  corn- 
land  every  day  is  precious. 

How  and  "When  to  Sow  are  questions  of  importance. 
In  answer  to  the  first,  I  say  emphatically  with  the  drill.  There 
seems  occasionally  a  disposition  to  go  back  to  the  old  methods, 
and  because  during  some  of  the  years  of  bountiful  yields  when 
every  thing  was  favorable  there  have  been  heavy  crops  grown  by 
broadcast  sowing,  some  farmers  are  advocating  that  we  throw 
aside  the  drill  and  go  back  to  the  old  method.  Should  any  do 
so,  I  think  a  little  experience  in  bad  seasons  would  convince 
them  of  their  mistake.  In  the  fall  of  1882  I  drilled  in  a  field 
and  left  a  strip  two  rods  wide  at  one  side  with  which  to  ex- 
periment with  different  amounts  of  seed  per  acre,  and  these  ex- 
perimental plots  I  sowed  broadcast.  The  winter  proved  a  very 
hard  one,  the  cold  being  excessive,  and  March  gave  cold  nights  and 
thawing  days,  and  my  broadcast  wheat  was  entirely  killed,  while 
the  drilled  wheat  made  a  half  crop.  The  advantages  of  drill- 
ing are,  even  seeding  at  uniform  depth,  and  the  protection 
afforded  the  plant  by  the  ridges  between  the  rows,  which  not 
only  protect  from  the  wind,  but  also  crumble  and  protect  the 
roots  during  the  freezing  and  thawing  of  winter.  I  sometimes 
see  a  recommendation  to  roll  wheat  after  drilling.  I  think  that 
rolling  would  largely  defeat  one  object  of  drilling  and  that  the 


174  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

wheat  would  be  much  more  liable  to  be  frozen  out  than  if  the 
land  was  left  in  ridges  by  the  drill. 

I  am  in  favor  of  early  sowing,  and  prefer  the  first  half  of 
September  if  the  weather  is  suitable.  It  is  wise  to  have  the 
land  in  order  the  first  of  September,  and  then  take  advantage  of 
the  first  favorable  weather.  I  find  it  much  better  to  seed  after 
a  rain  than  before,  as  a  heavy  rain  after  seeding  packs  the 
ground  and  the  wheat  does  not  make  a  thrifty  start.  If  one  has 
a  large  crop  to  sow  he  can  not  wait,  but  must  take  his  chance ; 
but  with  only  two  or  three  days',  work  to  do,  advantage  can  be 
taken  of  weather  and  the  crop  put  in  at  the  best  time.  I  have 
grown  excellent  crops  of  wheat  sown  as  late  as  the  10th  of 
October.  The  time  to  sow  will  depend  much  on  the  season  as 
well  as  latitude.  I  would  not  usually  sow  wheat  while  the 
weather  is  very  warm,  as  there  is  more  danger  of  injury  from 
insects ;  nor  do  I  like  to  sow  when  the  ground  is  too  dry  to  give 
the  wheat  a  prompt  and  uniform  start.  The  best  time  to  sow 
wheat  is  one  of  those  questions  which  can  not  be  definitely  set- 
tled, but  on  which  the  farmer  must  use  his  own  judgment.  In 
seasons  or  localities  when  the  fly  works  on  the  crop,  early  seed- 
ing will  sometimes  fail  entirely,  while  wheat  sown  a  month  or  even 
six  weeks  later  will  make  a  good  crop.  In  very  dry  seasons  it 
is  usually  wiser  to  wait  for  rain  and  sow  later  than  to  run  the 
risk  of  putting  the  seed  in  dry  soil. 

Thick  or  Thin  Seeding  is  a  matter  in  which  I  havo 
felt  a  deep  interest  and  have  experimented  on  to  some  extent. 
My  experiments  have  all  been  with  Fultz  wheat  (which  is  a 
small-grained  variety),  and  have  led  me  to  believe  that  three 
pecks  of  seed  will  produce  all  the  wheat  the  land  is  capable  of 
bearing.  In  1877  I  sowed  two  adjoining  acres  in  wheat,  using  a 
half  bushel  of  seed  on  one  acre  and  a  bushel  on  the  other. 
There  was  a  perceptible  difference  in  the  appearance  of  the  two 
plots  during  the  first  two  or  three  weeks,  but  less  as  the  wheat 
bogan  to  stool,  and  in  the  spring  I  could  see  no  difference. 
At  harvest  there  were  fifty- two  shocks  on  one  acre,  and 
fifty-three  on  the  other,  and  the  product  was  seventy  bushels 
from  the  two  acres.  In  1878  I  sowed  six  acres  with  three 


WHEAT.  175 

pecks  of  seed  to  the  acre,  and  harvested  thirty  bushels 
to  the  acre.  Careful  experiments  at  the  experimental  farm  at 
Columbus  have  shown,  however,  the  largest  yield  from  compara- 
tively heavy  seeding. 

Depth. — Many  experiments  have  shown  that  the  best  re- 
sults are  obtained  from  shallow  planting.  I  would  recommend 
from  an  inch  to  one  and  a  half  inches.  Below  I  give  a  table 
showing  the  results  of  experiments  made  at  the  Agricultural 
College,  at  Lansing,  Mich.  The  first  column  shows  the  depth 
of  planting,  the  second  the  time  that  elapsed  between  planting 
and  the  appearance  of  the  plant  above  the  soil,  and  the  third 
the  proportion  of  the  seed  that  grew. 

Proportion  of  seed 
Depth.  Time  incoming  up.  that  grew. 


inch 11  days  £ 

12  all 

18 
20 

21 


22 
23 


It  was  also  noticeable  that  the  plants  from  the  deep  sown 
wheat  were  weak  and  lacked  vigor. 

Varieties. — I  do  not  propose  to  recommend  any  variety 
above  all  others,  for  diiferent  localities  undoubtedly  require  dif- 
ferent varieties.  I  have  found,  however,  in  an  experience  of 
thirty-five  years  as  a  wheat  grower,  that  there  is  a  tendency 
with  most  varieties  to  deteriorate  or,  as  the  farmer  usually  ex- 
presses it,  to  "  run  out,"  when  long  sown  on  the  same  soil.  I  have 
found  it  of  so  much  advantage  to  change  varieties  occasionally, 
that  I  rarely  allow  a  year  to  pass  without  testing  some  new  kind, 
and  I  heartily  recommend  farmers  to  adopt  this  plan.  There  is 
not  now  a  single  variety  of  wheat  growing  in  my  neighborhood 
that  was  grown  here  twenty  years  ago.  I  have  no  doubt  but 
that  the  introduction  of  the  Fultz  wheat  in  Ohio  added  millions 
of  dollars  to  the  wealth  of  the  farmers,  but  after  growing  it  for 
nearly  ten  years  on  my  farm,  it  is  beginning  to  show  signs  of 
deterioration,  and  I  am  testing  other  varieties  to  supersede  it. 

In  trying  a  new  variety,  unless  it  has  already  been  tested  in 
your  own  locality,  I  would  advise  that  but  a  single  bushel  be 


176  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

sown.  This  is  more  than  enough,  if  it  proves  a  failure,  and  if 
it  does  well  will  furnish  seed  for  a  large  field  the  following 
year.  Never  discard  a  tried  variety  that  is  giving  good  satis- 
faction till  you  have  thoroughly  tested  another  and  are  sure  it  is 
better.  In  choosing  a  variety  of  wheat,  it  is  wise  to  grow  one 
that  suits  the  market.  A  quarter  of  a  century  ago  white  wheat 
was  worth  ten  or  twelve  cents  a  bushel  more  than  red.  Now, 
this  is  changed,  white  wheat  is  not  wanted,  and  can  only  be  sold 
at  a  discount. 

There  are  other  points  to  be  considered  in  selecting  a  variety. 
One  that  ripens  early  is  less  likely  to  be  damaged  by  storms  or 
rust  than  a  late  kind.  Some  have  soft  straw,  and  are  conse- 
quently liable  to  lodge;  while  still  others  have  a  soft  grain  which 
sprouts  easily,  causing  liability  to  damage  in  a  wet  season.  I 
discarded  the  Clawson  for  this  reason  after  two  years'  trial,  for 
I  found  it  would  grow  badly  in  the  shock,  when  the  Fultz  and 
other  hard  varieties  showed  no  signs  of  sprouting.  The  smooth 
varieties  have  nearly  superseded  the  bearded  as  far  as  I  know, 
and  I  greatly  prefer  them,  as  they  are  pleasanter  to  handle  and 
not  inferior  in  yield  or  quality. 

The  following  description  of  different  varieties,  taken  from 
the  report  of  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station,  will  be  useful  in  en- 
abling a  farmer  to  make  a  selection  for  experimenting : 

BRIEF  NOTES  DESCRIPTIVE  OF  STANDARD  VARIETIES. 

CLAWSON. — A  smooth  white  wheat  with  soft  grain.  This  va- 
riety has  been  grown  for  several  years  upon  the  farm  of  the  Ohio 
State  University.  Although  it  continues  to  yield  fairly  good 
crops,  it  shows  some  signs  of  deterioration.  It  has  a  tendency 
to  lodge,  and  the  straw  is  very  brittle  when  ripe.  The  grain  is 
frequently  more  or  less  shrunken.  Among  its  qualities  are  har- 
diness, and  a  freedom  from  rust  and  smut ;  although  less  produc- 
tive than  some  other  varieties,  it  is  still  worthy  of  cultivation. 

FULTZ. — This  variety  is  sometimes  called  the  Red  Clawson. 
Few  sorts  cultivated  in  Ohio  have  given  uniformly  better  results ; 
it  is  early,  has  large,  smooth  heads,  and  strong  straw  of  medium 
height.  For  the  past  two  or  or  three  years  it  has  shown  a  ten- 


WHEAT.  177 

dency  to  rust,  and  is  also  affected  more  or  less  with  smut.  It 
is  the  leading  variety  in  many  parts  of  the  State.  It  appears 
to  do  better,  in  comparison  with  other  varieties,  upon  high 
grounds  and  light  soils  than  on  bottom  lands  or  heavy  clays. 

SILVER  CHAFF. — This  is  now  quite  widely  disseminated  through- 
out the  State,  and,  under  favorable  conditions,  is  one  of  the  most 
productive  varieties.  It  is  a  white,  bald  wheat,  with  a  rather 
coarse  straw  of  medium  strength.  It  is  not  troubled  with  rust, 
ripens  a  few  days  later  than  the  Fultz,  about  the  same  time  as 
the  Clawson. 

VELVET  CHAFF. — This  variety  continues  to  grow  in  popular 
favor.  Although  less  productive  than  some  other  kinds  it  main- 
tains a  good  average.  It  has  rather  short,  but  well  filled  heads ; 
straw  erect  and  moderately  strong.  It  is  sometimes  troubled 
with  smut,  though  not  often  seriously  affected.  Like  nearly  all 
red,  bearded  varieties,  it  is  very  hardy,  good  to  sow  in  exposed 
situations.  It  ripens  about  the  time,  or  a  little  earlier  than  the 
Fultz.  Its  milling  qualities  are  good. 

ARNOLD'S  GOLD  MEDAL. — A  bald,  white  wheat,  with  large, 
compact  heads;  somewhat  variable  as  to  yield  and  quality  of 
grain.  Very  productive  under  favorable  conditions.  It  ripens 
late,  and  shatters  badly,  unless  promptly  harvested;  was  for- 
merly much  prized  by  millers,  but  is  not  now  so  highly  regarded. 

GOLDEN  STRAW. — A  red  wheat,  which  ripens  early,  and  is 
fairly  productive.  The  heads  are  bald,  small,  compact,  and  well 
filled.  Grains  of  small  size,  usually  plump.  Straw  short,  of 
medium  strength,  not  perfectly  hardy,  and  often  suffers  from 
winter  killing;  is  worthy  of  trial,  but  should  be  experimented 
with  carefully. 

MEDITERRANEAN. — An  old  standard  sort.  Heads  small,  loose, 
and  heavily  bearded  ;  not  very  productive,  but  sure.  Straw  tall, 
rather  weak,  and  inclined  to  lodge  on  rich  ground.  Yield  and 
quality  of  grain  quite  variable.  One  of  the  hardiest  varieties, 
but  is  being  rapidly  superseded  by  more  productive  sorts.  Its 
milling  qualities  are  good. 

LANCASTER. — A  variety  resembling  the  Mediterranean,  but 
more  productive.  Heads  large,  and  usually  well  filled.  Straw 

12 


178  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

long  and  rather  weak,  not  much  troubled  with  rust;  milling 
qualities  excellent. 

ZIMMERMAN. — A  smooth,  red  wheat,  ripening  early.  Heads 
rather  small,  compact,  and  well  filled.  Straw  short  and  strong ; 
it  is  somewhat  variable  as  to  yield.  In  Central  Ohio,  it  is 
among  the  more  productive  sorts.  It  is  a  variety  worthy  of 
trial,  and  worthy  of  a  systematic  effort  to  improve  it.  Its  mill- 
ing qualities  are  unsurpassed. 

SANDOMIRKA. — A  bald  wheat  with  white  grains  and  red  chaff; 
introduced  from  Poland.  Heads  medium  size,  compact.  Straw 
long  and  stout,  inclined  to  rust.  It  ripens  late  ;  one  of  our  most 
productive  varieties;  not  perfectly  hardy,  though  it  usually 
stands  the  winters  well  in  Central  Ohio. 

RICKENBRODE. — A  white  wheat.  Smooth,  rather  short,  com- 
pact heads.  Straw  medium  length  and  strong.  Quite  variable 
as  to  yield ;  does  not  appear  to  be  a  very  profitable  variety  for 
Central  Ohio.  There  are  good  reports  from  it  from  Michigan 
and  elsewhere.  It  is  liked  by  millers. 

GERMAN  AMBER. — A  variety  worthy  of  more  extended  culti- 
vation. It  is  a  bald  wheat,  with  large  compact  heads.  Grains 
large,  plump,  and  heavy.  Straw  rather  tall  and  weak.  Yield 
uniformly  good ;  ripens  with  the  earliest ;  inclined  to  rust. 

HEIGE'S  PROLIFIC. — This  variety  has  only  given  a  moderate 
yield,  but  should  be  tested  farther.  It  is  a  red  wheat.  Heads 
smooth,  large  and  compact.  Straw  moderately  tall  and  strong. 
It  ripens  early.  Grain  rather  small,  but  plump  and  heavy. 

THEISS. — A  red,  bearded  wheat.  Heads  variable  in  size. 
Straw  of  medium  length  and  rather  weak.  Yield  and  quality 
of  grain  variable.  Winter  kills  badly  at  times.  Should  be  ex- 
perimented with  cautiously. 

YORK  WHITE  CHAFF. — A  very  promising  variety  of  white 
wheat  for  the  Western  States.  It  is  bald.  Heads  large,  quite 
compact,  and  well  filled.  Quality  of  grain  excellent,  yield  usu- 
ally large.  Straw  tall  and  long;  but  little  tendency  to  rust. 
Milling  qualities  reported  as  pretty  good. 

RICE. — A  smooth,  white  wheat.  Heads  rather  large  and 
compact.  Kernels  medium  sized  and  heavy.  Straw  very  tall, 


WHEAT.  179 

weak,  and  much  inclined  to  lodge;  slightly  rusted.  Probably 
of  less  value  than  many  others,  but  worthy  of  a  thorough  trial. 

McGnEE's  RED. — A  bald,  red  variety,  very  productive.  Heads 
large  and  fairly  well-filled.  Straw  of  medium  height  and  rather 
weak ;  somewhat  rusted.  A  very  productive  wheat  of  good 
milling  qualities;  well  worthy  of  an  extended  trial. 

TAPPAHANOCK. — A  white  wheat;  moderately  productive. 
Heads  smooth  and  rather  small.  Kernels  small,  but  hard. 
Milling  qualities  excellent.  Straw  of  medium  length,  and  not 
very  strong;  inclined  to  rust.  Yield  variable.  Of  doubtful 
value. 

TREADWELL. — A  white  wheat  of  uncertain  value.  Heads 
about  medium  size,  not  bearded.  Kernels  large  and  of  good 
weight.  Straw  of  good  height  and  strong.  Milling  qualities  good. 

SMITH'S  IMPROVED. — A  bearded,  red  wheat;  moderately  pro- 
ductive. Heads  of  fair  size  and  compact.  Straw  tall  and  of 
medium  strength;  apparently  hardy,  with  no  tendency  to  rust. 

RUSSIAN  No.  2. — A  smooth,  white  wheat.  Heads  large  and 
compact.  Straw  short  and  strong;  inclined  to  rust.  Kernels 
good  size  and  heavy.  Excellent  milling  qualities.  Ripens 
early,  and  is  proving  a  valuable  wheat. 

RED  AMBER. — A  red  wheat,  with  large  bearded  heads. 
Straw  tall  and  moderately  strong ;  no  rust.  Kernels  large, 
plump,  and  heavy.  Good  milling  qualities.  A  reliable  and 
profitable  variety. 

CHAMPION  AMBER. — A  red  wheat  with  smaller  heads  than  the 
preceding.  Straw  medium  length  and  quite  strong.  A  produc- 
tive variety,  distinguished  by  its  short,  compact  heads. 

FINLEV. — A  red  wheat,  slightly  bearded.  Heads  small  and 
not  very  compact.  Straw  medium  height  and  strong.  Only 
moderately  productive;  should  be  tested  further. 

Harvesting. — I  have  but  one  or  two  suggestions  to  make 
about  harvesting,  as  there  is  no  work  for  which  farmers  are 
usually  so  well  prepared  and  do  so  promptly  on  time.  I  be- 
lieve, however,  in  cutting  wheat  greener  than  most  farmers 
practice.  I  have  never  yet  lost  a  bushel  by  early  cutting,  but 
have  often  escaped  storms  that  blew  down  my  neighbors'  grain. 


180  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

I  prefer  to  cut  while  the  grain  is  still  soft,  so  that  it  can  be 
crushed  between  the  thumb  and  finger,  and  while  there  is  con- 
siderable sap  in  the  straw.  In  1878,  I  cut  six  acres  of  wheat 
so  green  that  the  neighbors  reported  it  ruined ;  but  my  miller 
stated  at  a  meeting  of  our  Farmers'  Club  that  it  was  the  best 
sample  of  wheat  brought  to  his  mill  that  year.  The  advantages 
of  early  cutting  are  greater  value  of  straw  and,  as  mentioned 
above,  less  risk  of  loss  from  storms.  There  is  also  less  waste 
from  shattering,  and  the  sheaves  are  pleasanter  to  handle  than 
if  left  to  stand  until  the  straw  is  dead  and  brittle.  There  is 
also  less  liability  to  injury  in  the  shock,  as  the  sheaves  bind 
together  closer,  giving  less  opportunity  for  water  to  gain  admit- 
tance. A  much  larger  amount  of  wheat  can  also  be  stored  in  a 
given  space  if  cut  moderately  green.  Shocks  made  of  early-cut 
wheat  will  stand  better. 

Another  suggestion  is,  that  the  best  hands  be  put  to  shock- 
ing, and  that  the  greatest  possible  pains  be  taken  to  do  this 
part  of  the  work  well.  A  shock  well  set  up  and  capped  will 
stand  out  through  a  long  wet  spell  without  damage,  when  one 
that  is  twisted  and  misshapen  will  be  badly  injured.  For  some 
years  past  I  have  used  but  one  bundle  for  a  header  or  cap 
sheaf,  and  find  it  much  better  than  two.  In  a  heavy  rain  some 
water  will  penetrate  the  shock  under  the  cap,  and  with  two 
sheaves  used  for  this  purpose,  it  does  not  dry  out  readily,  and 
the  wheat  begins  to  sprout  or  mould  sooner  there  than  anywhere 
else.  Besides,  two  sheaves  when  soaked  with  rain  make  too 
great  a  weight  on  the  shock,  and  are  likely  to  cause  it  to  twist. 
Still  another  objection  to  two-cap  sheaves  is  that  the  second  cap 
sheaf  is  very  likely  to  be  blown  off  in  a  wind,  and  very  often 
will,  in  falling,  carry  the  other  one  with  it.  I  think  a  single  cap, 
if  well  broken  and  properly  placed,  will  keep  out  as  much  rain 
as  two,  and,  for  the  reasons  given  above,  be  much  better.  In 
putting  on  the  cap  sheaf,  always  put  the  head  in  the  direction  of 
the  prevailing  winds,  as  the  sheaf  will  be  much  less  likely  to  be 
blown  off.  In  my  locality,  our  winds  are  nearly  always  west  or 
north-west,  and  in  capping  the  shock  I  place  the  heads  in  this- 
direction. 


WHEAT.  181 

If  you  do  not  use  the  self-binder  and  expect  to  glean  the 
field,  or  the  wheat  is  to  be  divided  in  the  shock,  it  will  pay  to 
provide  extra  help,  and  carry  the  sheaves  so  as  to  shock  in 
straight  rows,  with  a  wide  space  between,  as  it  is  difficult  to 
glean,  or  to  divide  without  making  mistakes,  if  the  shocks  are 
set  up  without  order.  If  the  farmer  has  not  barn-room  for  his 
grain,  and  can  get  the  machine  and  necessary  help,  it  is  better,  I 
think,  to  thresh  from  the  field  than  to  stack.  He  saves  labor, 
waste,  and  risk  by  so  doing.  It  is  a  serious  matter  to  get  a  stack 
wet  either  while  building  it  or  while  taking  it  down.  While,  if 
the  wheat  gets  wet  in  the  shock,  a  few  hours  of  sun  and  wind 
will  dry  it  out. 

Where  the  size  or  location  of  the  barn  prevents  using  it  for 
the  purpose  of  storing  the  crop,  I  would  recommend  the  con- 
struction of  barracks  for  the  purpose,  and  believe  it  would  pay 
the  farmer  to  borrow  money,  if  necessary,  to  put  up  a  cheap 
building  of  this  kind.  A  light  frame  would  do,  or  it  could  even 
be  made  by  setting  rows  of  posts  of  lasting  timber,  such  as  oak 
or  locust,  and  bracing  them  to  support  the  roof.  If  the  roof 
projected  considerably,  it  is  not  absolutely  necessary  to  board 
up  the  sides;  but  I  would  recommend  that  they  be  boarded  on 
the  north  and  west  at  least,  and  think  it  would  pay  in  the  long 
run  to  board  up  the  entire  building.  If  the  posts  were  sixteen 
feet  high,  and  the  building  twenty-five  by  fifty  feet,  it  would 
take  less  than  three  thousand  feet  of  boards  to  inclose  it,  and 
this  would  in  most  localities  cost  but  little  above  fifty  dollars. 
A  building  for  this  purpose  could  be  made  with  a  light  frame, 
as  all  the  weight  of  the  grain  would  rest  on  the  ground.  It 
could  be  used  with  an  earth  floor,  or  if  a  board  floor  was 
wanted,  it  should  be  laid  on  mud  sills  resting  on  the  ground. 
This  building  should  be  made  adjoining  the  barn-yard,  so  that 
the  machine  would  deliver  the  straw  where  it  wrould  be  wanted, 
and  after  the  wheat  was  threshed,  the  building  could  be  filled 
with  corn  fodder.  It  could  also  be  used  for  curing  beans,  broom- 
corn,  or  any  special  crop  which  ripened  between  threshing-time 
and  corn-gathering.  A  part  of  the  building  could  be  used  for 
wintering  calves,  then  carefully  cleaned  out  in  the  spring,  and 


182  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

a  temporary  floor  laid  before  filling  again  with  wheat.  In  the 
chapter  on  the  "The  Barn  and  Barn-yard"  you  will  find  an  en- 
graving of  such  a  building,  with  a  bill  of  lumber  and  approxi- 
mate estimate  of  the  cost. 

There  is  a  kind  of  barracks  recommended  and  illustrated  in 
some  of  our  agricultural  books,  so  arranged  that  the  roof  may 
be  raised  or  lowered,  to  suit  a  light  or  heavy  crop  of  wheat; 
but  when  fifty  dollars  will  pay  for  lumber  to  inclose  a  building 
the  size  I  describe,  I  think  most  of  our  readers  will  agree  that 
it  is  better  to  inclose  it  than  to  be  at  the  trouble  and  expense 
of  raising  and  lowering  a  roof. 

I  predict  that  in  the  future  there  will  be  more  small  barn 
threshers  used  than  at  present.  There  is  always  more  or  less 
waste,  and  a  great  amount  of  discomfort  both  in  doors  and  out, 
when  threshing  is  done  with  the  large  machines.  Feeding  the 
large  gang  of  men,  and  caring  for  so  large  an  amount  of  grain 
and  straw  at  once,  in  many  cases  involves  disadvantage  and  loss. 
There  are  now  excellent  machines  which  the  farmer  can  operate 
with  one  or  two  horses  and  four  hands,  that  will  thresh  and  clean 
from  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  three  hundred  bushels  a  day,  and 
with  these  machines  the  work  can  be  done  much  cheaper  and 
with  less  waste  and  worry,  and  the  straw  can  be  better  taken 
care  of,  than  when  all  must  be  done  at  once.  I  think  there  are 
many  of  our  farmers  who  have  good  barns  and  a  convenient 
place  for  a  machine,  who  would  find  it  an  excellent  investment. 
I  remember  when  I  was  a  boy  that  for  many  years  we  used  one 
which  threshed,  but  did  not  clean  the  wheat,  and  even  this 
greatly  reduced  the  expense  of  getting  it  ready  for  market. 
But  the  machines  which  can  be  bought  now  are  much  superior 
to  those  of  that  day.  At  a  small  expense  a  suction  fan  and 
dust  shaft  can  be  attached  to  one  of  these  stationary  ma- 
chines, so  that  the  dust  will  be  carried  outside  of  the  building. 

The  Value  of  Straw  is  a  matter  on  which  many  of  our 
farmers  need  to  be  educated.  In  many  localities  it  is  sold  for  a 
pittance  to  the  paper  mills;  thousands  of  tons  are  stacked  in 
wood  lots  or  the  corners  of  fields,  and,  for  all  the  benefit  the 
farmer  receives  from  it,  might  almost  as  well  be  burned.  I 


WHEAT.  183 

think,  ordinarily,  every  pound  of  straw  should  be  utilized  in 
some  way  on  the  farm.  The  manurial  value  of  a  ton  of  straw 
is  given  in  the  books  on  agricultural  chemistry  as  two  dollars 
and  forty-four  cents,  but,  as  an  absorbent  by  which  valuable 
liquid  manure  is  saved,  it  is  worth  much  more  than  this. 

The  question  in  which  farmers  are  most  interested  is  the 
feeding  value  of  straw.  Scientific  experiments  have  determined 
the  feeding  value  of  good  straw — when  a  part  of  a  suitably  com- 
bined ration — as  compared  with  corn,  to  be  that  of  47  to  100. 
But  it  is  neither  economical  nor  wise  to  feed  straw  alone.  This 
subject,  however,  will  be  discussed  in  its  proper  place  in  this 
volume. 

The  proportion  of  straw  to  grain  varies  in  different  seasons 
and  with  different  varieties  of  wheat,  but  will  average  about  two 
pounds  of  straw  to  one  of  wheat.  So  the  farmer  has  about  six 
tons  of  straw  for  each  hundred  bushels  of  wheat  he  grows,  and 
if  this  straw,  used  intelligently,  possesses  a  feeding  value  of  five 
dollars  or  more  a  ton,  farmers  should  know  it,  and  make  a  better 
use  of  it  than  most  of  them  do.  There  is  no  other  country 
where  the  grains  and  richer  elements  of  food  are  so  cheap  as  in 
ours,  and  this  fact  ought  to  enable  us  to  use  our  straw  to  better 
advantage ;  but  the  fact  of  cheap  grain  seems  to  have  led  us  to 
be  wasteful  of  our  abundant  supply  of  cheaper  material. 

Cost  of  Wheat  Growing. — I  have  for  a  number  of  years 
kept  an  account  with  each  separate  wheat  field,  charging  the  dif- 
ferent items  of  labor,  seed,  manure,  rent  of  land,  etc.  In  these 
accounts  I  charge,  under  the  head  of  rent,  eight  per  cent  interest 
on  the  valuation  of  the  particular  field  where  the  crop  grows. 
When  manure  is  applied,  I  charge  the  crop  with  fifty  cents  per 
two-horse  load,  and  when  I  use  commercial  fertilizers  I  charge 
actual  cost.  I  charge  one  dollar  per  day  for  each  man  and  horse, 
or  three  dollars  for  a  man  and  team,  and  actual  cost  of  harvest- 
ing, including  board  of  hands.  In  estimating  the  cost  of  wheat 
I  do  not  include  hauling  from  the  field  and  threshing,  but  allow 
the  straw  to  balance  this  expense.  I  copy  from  my  book  the 
accounts  kept  with  some  of  my  fields,  beginning  with  a  six-acre 
field  grown  in  1877.  Two  acres  of  this  field  was  wheat-stubble; 


184  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

the  other  four  was  corn  land.    No  manure  was  used  on  the  field. 
The  account  stands  as  follows : 

Breaking  two  acres,         .......  $3  00 

Working  four  acres  twice  with  double  cultivator,  at  50  cents 

per  acre  each  time,      .         .         .         .         .         .  4  00 

Harrowing  and  rolling,            ......  6  00 

Cutting  and  picking  off  corn-butts,     .         .         .         .  5  00 

Four  and  a  half  bushels  seed,  at  $1.00,             ...  4  50 

Drilling  six  acres,  at  40  cents  per  acre,         .         .         .  2  40 

Kent  of  land, 36  00 

Harvesting, .    12  10 

Total, $73  00 

Cost  per  acre,  $12.16§  ;  yield,  30  bushels  per  acre,  or  180 
bushels. 

This  wheat  was  sold  from  the  machine  at  95  cents  per 
bushel,  bringing  $171.00,  and  gave  a  profit  of  $98.00,  or  $16.33i 
net  profit  per  acre.  The  cost  per  bushel  was  a  fraction  over 
forty  cents. 

In  1878  I  sowed  eleven  acres  of  wheat  on  a  piece  of  land 
that  I  had  recently  bought  at  a  very  low  price.  It  had  never 
been  manured,  and  was  in  a  run-down  condition.  I  do  not  think 
it  had  grown  an  average  of  twelve  bushels  of  wheat  or  thirty  of 
corn  for  twenty  years.  In  my  account  I  value  the  land  at  thirty 
dollars  per  acre,  which  is  more  than  it  cost  me.  The  land  was 
in  corn,  potatoes,  sorghum,  and  beans  the  previous  season,  so 
that  we  did  not  break  it,  but  only  stirred,  harrowed,  and  rolled, 
to  get  it  in  condition  for  the  drill.  The  account  stands : 

For  preparing  seed-bed, $22  00 

Seed  wheat,  ten  bushels  at  95  cents,        .         .         .  .          9  50 

Drilling, 4  00 

Fifty  loads  of  manure,             .         .         .         .         .  25  00 

Bone-meal,           ........  6  00 

Rent  of  land,  8  per  cent,  valuation  at  $30.00  per  acre,  .        26  40 

Harvesting,  actual  cost,       ......  17  10 

Total, $110  00 

The  yield  was  241  bushels,  a  fraction  less  than  twenty-two 
bushels  per  acre. 

I  sold  from  machine  at  95  cents  per  bushel,  and  the  crop 
brought  $228.95,  which,  after  deducting  cost,  left  a  profit 


WHEAT.  185 

$118.95.     The   cost  of  this  wheat  per  bushel  was   a  fraction 
above  45  cents. 

The  same  fall  I  plowed  ten  acres  of  the  same  field,  as  the 
clover  failed  on  it,  and  the  account  stands  as  follows  : 

Breaking,             $15  00 

Thirty-eight  loads  manure,       .....  19  00 

Bone-meal,                    ...                  ...  12  00 

Harrowing,  rolling,  and  stirring,       ...  13  00 

Nine  bushels  of  seed  wheat, 9  00 

Drilling,          .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  4  00 

Rent  of  land,  eight  per  cent  on  valuation,  $30.00,  per  acre,  24  00 

Harvesting,  actual  cost, 16  15 

Total, $112  15 

The  field  averaged  fifteen  bushels  per  acre,  and  cost  75  cents 
per  bushel.  The  crop  was  sold  at  $1.05  from  the  machine.  The 
reader  will  notice  that  less  than  one  bushel  of  seed  to  the  acre 
was  used  on  all  these  fields,  and  that  the  heaviest  yield  was  from 
three  pecks  of  seed.  I  do  not  mention  this  as  an  argument  for 
thin  seeding,  for  the  experiments  elsewhere  referred  to  seem  to 
show  that  thick  seeding  gives  the  best  results,  but  to  show  that, 
in  some  seasons  and  with  some  varieties,  heavy  crops  are  cer- 
tainly grown  from  thin  seeding.  The  greatest  benefit  I  have  de- 
rived from  keeping  accounts  with  my  wheat  crop  has  been  in 
noticing  the  sure  decrease  in  cost  per  bushel  as  the  yield  per 
acre  increased,  and  that  the  extra  work  and  fertilizers  were  what 
gave  the  greatest  profit.  I  believe  that,  if  we  could  induce  our 
wheat-growers  to  spend  one  dollar  an  acre  in  extra  work  on 
their  wheat  land  in  the  way  of  pulverizing,  it  would  add  from 
three  to  ten  bushels  per  acre  to  the  crop,  and  largely  reduce  the 
cost  per  bushel. 

I  have  spoken  of  the  value  of  clover  as  a  fertilizer  to  the 
wheat  crop,  and  recommended  that  it  always  be  sown  with  it. 
Clover,  under  certain  circumstances,  benefits  wheat  in  another 
way.  We  occasionally  have  a  bad  wheat  season  when  the  fall 
is  unfavorable  and  the  crop  makes  a  poor  start,  and  much  of  it 
winter  kills,  and  spring  finds  the  wheat  very  thin  on  the  ground. 
Under  these  circumstances  I  have  often  known  the  crop  to  ripen 
prematurely,  and  shrink  so  as  to  be  scarcely  worth  gathering, 


186  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

caused  from  the  fact  that  the  land  was  not  shaded  sufficiently, 
and  a  few  days  of  hot  sun  killed  the  wheat  before  it  was  filled. 
Under  such  circumstances  a  good  growth  of  clover  will  often 
save  the  crop  by  protecting  the  soil  from  the  heat  until  the 
wheat  fills. 

The  best  remedy  for  most  enemies  of  the  crop  is  a  thrifty 
plant.  I  have  little  fear  of  fly,  chinch  bug,  or  winter  kill- 
ing on  a  manured  soil  or  with  a  plant  that  gets  a  thrifty  start 
in  the  fall.  While  there  will  come  an  occasional  season  of 
short  crops,  and  circumstances  beyond  our  control  will  perhaps 
bring  a  failure ;  yet  he  who  farms  well  will  often  escape,  when 
his  careless  neighbor  loses  his  crop.  In  the  locality  where  I 
live  we  are  not  troubled  with  weeds  in  the  wheat  field,  but  I 
know  that  in  other  places  there  are  pests  which  give  the  farmer 
great  trouble  and  often  reduce  the  yield  of  his  crop.  The 
remedies  are :  first,  early  plowing  and  thorough  preparation  of 
the  seed-bed,  and  this  has  already  been  shown  to  be  the  best 
way  to  insure  a  good  crop ;  and  second,  the  sowing  of  clover, 
which  occupies  the  land  so  completely  that  other  plants  can  not 
thrive,  and  this  also  is  of  benefit  to  the  land.  So  we  see  that 
clean  farming  is  good  farming,  and  that  only  good  farming  is 
profitable  farming. 


MISCELLANEOUS  CROPS.  187 


IX. 

MISCELLANEOUS    CROPS. 

AS  a  general  rule  it  is  wise  for  the  farmer  to  depend  for  the 
bulk  of  his  income  on  those  staple  crops  to  which  his 
farm  is  best  adapted.  There  are,  however,  other  crops, 
one  or  more  of  which  may  often  be  grown  to  advantage,  and 
these  will  be  the  subject  of  consideration  in  this  chapter. 

Oats. — While  in  some  parts  of  the  country  oats  are  a 
staple  crop,  it  is  usually  found  in  our  best  corn  growing  local- 
ities that  they  do  not  produce  a  profitable  yield  with  as  much 
certainty  as  corn  and  wheat,  being  liable  to  damage  from 
drought  and  rust,  and  in  wet  seasons,  on  account  of  soft  straw, 
by  lodging.  In  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois,  there  is  produced 
from  four  to  six  times  as  much  corn  as  oats.  I  think  it  might 
be  made  a  much  more  profitable  crop  than  now,  in  some  portions 
of  the  country  that  are  usually  supposed  to  be  south  of  the  oat 
belt,  if  more  intelligence  were  shown  in  their  cultivation. 

In  all  the  corn-growing  regions  with  which  I  am  familiar  it 
is  the  almost  universal  practice  to  sow  oats  on  the  poorest 
soil,  and  manure  or  fertilizers  of  any  kind  are  seldom  if 
ever  used.  Besides  this,  no  other  farm  crop  is  usually  put  in 
with  so  little  care.  I  think  it  will  pay  farmers  to  improve  their 
practice  and  pay  more  attention  to  this  crop  for  the  following 
reasons  :  First,  it  is  an  excellent  crop  in  a  rotation,  enabling  the 
farmer  to  change  from  corn  to  wheat  without  seeding  wheat  on 
corn  land,  which  is  considered  objectionable  by  many  farmers; 
second,  it  is  an  excellent  crop  with  which  to  seed  land  to  clover 
or  orchard  grass,  as  the  early  seeding  and  mellow  seed-bed  ren- 
der a  stand  more  certain  than  when  these  are  sown  with 
a  wheat  crop;  third,  it  furnishes  a  much  better  food  than  corn 


188  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

for  working  stock,  or  growing  animals  possessing  more  of  the 
flesh  formers  and  less  of  the  fat  producing  elements.  It  also 
gives  a  pleasant  variety  of  food  for  our  domestic  animals. 

Oats  can  be  grown  on  most  soils  adapted  to  corn  and  wheat. 
Early  sowing  gives  the  best  results,  and  they  should  be  put  in 
as  soon  as  the  land  can  be  worked.  I  have  sown  oats  in  Feb- 
ruary, when  the  March  following  gave  a  temperature  of  eight 
degrees,  and  nearly  the  entire  month  was  cold  and  snowy;  but 
with  the  first  warm  days  of  April,  and  before  the  land  was  dry 
enough  to  work,  these  early  sown  oats  were  up  and  made  an 
excellent  crop.  The  amount  of  seed  used  varies  from  two  to 
four  bushels  per  acre;  but  I  regard  the  smaller  quantity  as 
sufficient  if  the  ground  is  in  good  order.  They  can  be  sown 
with  the  wheat  drill;  but  I  decidedly  prefer  sowing  broadcast, 
as  when  drilled  the  weeds  are  liable  to  start  between  the 
drill  rows. 

If  oats  are  to  follow  corn,  do  not  plow  the  land,  and  if  to 
be  sown  on  wheat  stubble,  plow  in  the  fall.  Then  in  the  spring 
work  the  surface  mellow  to  the  depth  of  three  inches,  and  finish 
with  the  plank  drag,  and  you  will  have  the  best  possible  seed 
bed  both  for  oats  and  grass.  If  your  land  is  level,  the  oats  may 
be  sown  before  any  work  is  done ;  but  if  it  is  uneven,  give  it  one 
working  before  sowing.  The  Randall  'harrow  is  the  best  imple- 
ment I  ever  used  for  this  purpose;  but  a  good  seed  bed  can  be 
made  by  the  use  of  the  double  or  single  cultivators,  and  by 
cross-harrowing  with  a  heavy  harrow,  always  finishing  with  the 
plank  drag. 

The  advantages  of  this  plan  are,  1st,  that  it  is  rapid.  I  can, 
with  a  Randall  harrow  and  plank  drag,  put  in  well  from  three 
to  four  acres  a  day  with  one  team,  while,  if  the  land  must  be 
plowed,  it  would  take  more  than  two  days.  2d.  You  can  work 
the  surface  of  a  field  a  day  or  two  sooner  than  you  can  break 
it,  as  it  is  dryer  at  the  surface  than  a  few  inches  lower.  3d. 
And  most  important  of  all,  it  gives  a  better  start  and  crop  than 
to  break  the  land.  Probably  my  statement  will  be  received  with 
incredulity  by  many  of  our  readers,  and  it  is  possible  that  the 
same  results  would  not  follow  on  all  soils ;  but  it  is  a  matter  that 


MISCELLANEOUS  CROPS.  189 

each  farmer  can  easily  test  for  himself  by  seeding  a  land  as  I 
recommend,  and  comparing  it  with  the  remainder  of  the  field. 
But  if  you  do  this,  do  not  omit  the  use  of  the  plank  drag,  for 
I  think  the  advantage  of  this  method  is  due  largely  to  the  fact 
that  we  get  the  surface  mellower  than  when  the  land  is  plowed. 

Barley. — Less  than  one-eighth  as  many  acres  of  barley  are 
grown  in  the  United  States  as  of  oats;  fourteen  States  do  riot 
report  any.  The  general  treatment  of  the  crop  is  the  same  as  for 
wheat.  Two  bushels  per  acre  is  the  amount  of  seed  usually  sown. 
Fall  or  winter  barley  is  generally  sown  in  August  or  early  Sep- 
tember, and  spring  barley  as  soon  as  the  land  can  be  worked. 
To  grow  a  profitable  crop  and  good  quality  of  barley,  requires 
rich  land,  and  good  corn  land  is  also  good  barley  land.  The 
most  profitable  crops  are  grown  on  bottom  lands  and  under- 
drained  black  land,  and  occasional  yields  of  from  thirty-five  to 
fifty  bushels  per  acre  are  obtained  on  such  lands,  and  when 
high  prices  prevail,  these  crops  are  exceedingly  profitable.  The 
average  yield  of  barley  is,  however,  only  about  fifty  per  cent 
above  that  of  wheat,  and  although  there  are  occasional  years  of 
high  prices,  I  think  the  average  price  is  considerably  less  than 
that  of  wheat. 

There  are  some  disadvantages  connected  with  the  barley  crop, 
which  should  be  considered  in  deciding  whether  to  grow  it. 
1st.  It  requires  the  best  land.  2d.  It  fluctuates  more  in  price 
than  other  grains,  the  demand  being  limited  to  what  is  needed 
for  brewing,  no  other  use  to  any  extent  being  made  of  it  in 
this  country,  and  a  good  yield  often  brings  down  the  price,  so 
that  it  is  not  as  profitable  as  wheat.  3d.  The  crop  is  easily 
damaged,  and  greatly  reduced  in  value  when  in  shock,  by  a  rain 
which  would  not  injure  a  wheat  crop  at  all.  4th.  It  has  more 
enemies  to  contend  with  than  the  wheat  crop.  Being  sown 
earlier,  it  is  often  injured  by  the  Hessian  fly,  and  of  late  years 
large  breadths  of  it  have  been  destroyed  by  a  worm,  which 
climbs  the  straw  and  eats  off  blades  and  beards  before  the  crop 
has  matured.  5th.  The  crop  being  used  almost  exclusively  for 
the  production  of  intoxicating  liquors,  its  production  involves  a 
question  of  morals. 


190  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Rye. — I  have  not  ordinarily  found  it  profitable  to  grow  rye 
for  the  grain,  yet  I  place  a  high  value  on  the  plant,  and  recom- 
mend that  it  be  grown  for  some  purpose  on  every  farm.  Under 
the  head  of  "  Green  Manures "  I  have  treated  of  it  as  a  fertil- 
izer. I  can  also  heartily  recommend  it  for  pasture.  From 
causes  beyond  his  control,  the  farmer  often  fails  to  get  a  stand 
of  grass  or  clover  in  the  spring,  and  his  rotation  is  broken  up, 
and  perhaps,  unless  he  can  find  some  substitute  for  clover,  he  would 
be  obliged  to  sell  stock  which  he  would  gladly  keep.  By  seed- 
ing a  field  with  rye  and  timothy  in  September,  he  is  sure  of 
early  and  profitable  pasture  the  ensuing  season.  The  rye  will 
be  ready  to  turn  on,  earlier  even  than  blue-grass,  and  will  pro- 
duce a  large  amount  of  palatable  and  nutritious  pasture,  and  by 
the  time  the  rye  begins  to  fail,  the  timothy  will  take  its  place. 
Until  I  had  tested  the  matter,  I  supposed  the  young  grass  would 
be  much  injured  by  tramping  while  feeding  off  the  rye,  but  I 
find  that  it  is  not.  Nearly  or  quite  a  month  can  be  added  to 
the  grazing  season  by  the  use  of  rye  for  pasture,  and  that  at 
a  season  when  stock  are  hardest  to  keep  in  flesh.  The 
farmer  who  has  a  rye  field  for  early  pasture  is  not  tempted  to 
turn  his  stock  out  so  early  on  the  clover  or  other  pastures,  and 
is  likely  to  have  better  pasture  all  summer  on  account  of  it.  If 
it  is  the  intention  to  leave  the  field  on  which  rye  is  sown  for 
pasture  another  year,  I  would  recommend  that  clover  also  be 
sown  in  the  spring.  Turn  the  stock  on  this  as  soon  as  the 
growth  is  sufficient,  and  keep  them  there  till  the  middle  of  May 
or  till  the  clover  begins  to  show  the  blossoms ;  then  take  off  the 
stock  and  allow  the  rye  to  grow,  and  it  will  make  a  light  crop  of 
grain,  and  the  grass  will  come  on  for  good  late  pasture. 

Rye  straw  may  be  grown  for  sale  with  great  profit  by  farm- 
ers living  so  near  a  city  that  they  can  wagon  it  to  market,  or 
those  living  remote  might  grow  it  in  such  quantities  as  would 
justify  them  in  baling  it,  for  the  railroads  will  not  transport  it 
in  bundles.  I  have  watched  the  market  reports  for  several  years, 
and  often  find  it  quoted  as  high  as  the  best  qualities  of  hay.  I 
have  grown  rye  for  the  straw  alone  for  some  years,  cutting  it 
when  in  blossom,  but  have  never  weighed  it  to  see  what  the  yield 


MISCELLANEOUS  CROPS.  191 

was  per  acre.  In  response  to  an  inquiry  of  mine  in  the  Country 
Gentleman,  a  gentleman  from  Pittsfield,  Massachusetts,  reported 
that  he  grew  two  crops  in  1874  and  1875  for  the  purpose  of  test- 
ing this  matter.  With  both  these  crops  the  grain  was  allowed  to 
ripen.  The  yield  of  clean  straw  was  four  tons  to  the  acre  in  the 
first  case,  and  four  tons  and  five  hundred  and  forty-eight  pounds 
in  the  second.  If  I  were  growing  the  crop  for  the  straw,  I 
would  not  allow  the  grain  to  ripen,  but  cut  as  soon  as  the  blos- 
som fell.  By  this  means  we  save  the  expense  of  hand-threshing, 
and  get  a  heavier  and  better  article  of  straw — advantages  which 
fully  compensate  for  the  loss  of  the  grain. 

Besides,  in  removing  the  crop  so  early,  a  good  growth  of 
grass  or  clover  will  be  made  if  it  was  seeded  down ;  or  if  other- 
wise, the  stubble  can  be  plowed  and  another  crop  grown.  I  see 
by  my  diary  that  I  have  generally  cut  my  rye  for  straw  in  May, 
and  in  early  seasons  as  early  as  the  19th.  This  early-cut  straw 
is  an  excellent  substitute  for  sheaf-oats,  to  cut  up  for  chop  for 
horses,  as  it  is  soft,  clean,  and  free  from  dust. 

I  think  a  piece  of  poor  land  could  be  made  to  yield  a  good 
profit,  and  be  very  rapidly  improved  in  this  way,  if  clover  was 
sown  with  the  rye,  for  cutting  the  crop  so  early  would  give  the 
clover  time  to  develop,  so  that  when  plowed  down  it  would 
greatly  benefit  the  land.  I  find  no  trouble  in  curing  this  green- 
cut  straw.  We  bind  in  small  bundles,  and  shock  loosely  in 
moderate-sized  shocks,  and  when  partly  cured,  put  two  shocks 
together.  I  should  confidently  expect  over  a  ton  to  the  acre  the 
first  season  on  land  so  poor  that  it  would  not  pay  to  cultivate  in 
corn  or  wheat,  and  this  ought  to  be  at  least  doubled  after  plow- 
ing down  a  clover  crop  or  two. 

Another  purpose  for  which  I  greatly  value  rye  is  to  prevent 
washing.  On  our  rolling  lands  we  must  continually  guard  against 
this,  and  when  once  a  rivulet  is  started,  it  is  very  difficult  to 
stop  the  cutting  down  into  the  subsoil.  If  we  seed  with  grass 
alone,  it  comes 'Up  weak,  and  is  likely  to  be  washed  out;  but  if 
rye  is  sown  with  the  grass,  it  strikes  root  quickly,  and  protects 
the  young  grass  and  holds  the  soil  till  a  sod  is  formed.  When 
rolling  fields  are  planted  in  corn,  it  is  an  excellent  plan  to  sow 


192  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

rye  among  the  corn  early  in  the  fall,  to  prevent  washing  during 
the  ensuing  winter.  There  are  often  barren  spots  in  pastures 
which  do  not  readily  take  grass,  and  remain  bare  and  unpro- 
ductive. If  rye  and  grass  are  sown  together  on  these  spots  in 
September,  and  a  heavy  harrow  run  over  the  land  till  the  sur- 
face is  a  little  mellowed,  the  rye  will  strike  root  and  protect  the 
grass,  and  enable  the  farmer  to  make  these  unsightly  spots 
disappear. 

There  is  no  other  farm  crop  grown  that  will  flourish  so  well 
on  exhausted  land,  and  none  that  will  bear  so  late  seeding.  I 
have  known  rye  to  make  a  good  crop  when  sown  so-  late  that  it 
did  not  come  up  till  spring.  I  think  it  does  best  when  covered 
lightly,  and  would  always  get  the  land  fine  and  smooth  before 
seeding,  and  cover  with  a  light  harrow  or  plank  drag.  When 
sown  for  grain,  the  usual  amount  of  seed  used  is  from  three  to 
five  pecks  to  the  acre.  On  rich  land,  in  good  condition,  I  think 
three  pecks  will  bring  a  heavy  crop.  When  sown  for  pasture 
at  least  two  bushels  of  seed  will  be  required,  and  when  sown  for 
the  purpose  of  plowing  under,  as  a  fertilizer,  even  double  this 
amount  is  often  employed.  The  farmer  who  begins  growing 
this  crop  will,  as  he  learns  its  value  and  the  many  uses  to  which 
it  can  be  put,  be  likely  to  continue  its  growth,  and  increase  the 
breadth  of  land  devoted  to  it. 

Beans. — An  important  supplementary  crop,  and  one  which 
is  often  quite  profitable,  is  beans.  The  varieties  are  numerous, 
and  in  deciding  what  to  grow  the  farmer  must  be  governed 
somewhat  by  soil  and  location. 

One  advantage  of  the  small  white  bush  beans  is  that  they, 
like  rye,  will  make  a  profitable  crop  on  an  exhausted  soil,  which 
would  not  pay  for  cultivation  in  corn  or  wheat.  The  crop  is 
one  which  matures  quickly,  and  is  well  adapted  for  planting  on 
land  where  a  crop  of  rye  has  been  grown  for  green  manure,  as 
the  rye  can  be  allowed  to  complete  its  growth  and  be  turned 
under,  and  the  land  to  become  settled  before  the  beans  need  to 
be  planted.  I  have  found  beans  an  admirable  crop  to  precede 
wheat,  and  would  rather  a  crop  of  them  should  be  grown  on  the 
land  I  intend  to  seed  to  wheat  than  that  it  should  be  summer 


MISCELLANEOUS  CROPS.  193 

fallowed.  The  navy  bean  is  the  most  salable,  and  with  me  has 
proved  best  for  the  main  crop.  The  land  should  be  plowed  at 
least  two  weeks  before  planting,  and  three  or  four  weeks  is  bet- 
ter, as  it  will  be  cleaner  and  mellower.  Plant  as  near  the  10th 
of  June  as  you  can,  but  it  is  well  to  have  the  land  ready,  so  as 
to  be  able  to  bike  advantage  of  good  weather  if  it  comes  a  week 
sooner.  Harrow  and  drag  so  as  to  have  the  land  smooth  and 
fine,  and  try  and  plant  as  soon  after  a  rain  as  the  land  will  work 
nicely.  Beans  do  not  come  up  well  in  heavy,  wet  land,  or 
through  a  hard  crust,  or  even  if  you  succeed  in  getting  a  stand 
when  a  heavy  rain  falls  soon  after  planting;  there  is  likely  to  be 
a  crop  of  weeds  come  up  with  them,  which  makes  them  more  diffi- 
cult to  keep  clean.  I  prefer  to  sow  with  the  force  feed  wheat 
drill,  using  every  third  tube,  which  makes  the  rows  two  feet 
apart.  Use  about  three  pecks  of  seed  per  acre,  or  if  the  land 
is  rich,  two  pecks  will  be  sufficient.  I  have  grown  profi bible 
crops  without  cultivation,  but  unless  the  weather  remains  dry 
for  some  weeks  after  planting,  the  weeds  and  grass  are  likely  to 
start  and  smother  the  crop  if  not  cultivated.  Begin  the  cultiva- 
tion soon,  and  let  it  be  shallow,  so  as  to  keep  the  land  level,  as 
earth  thrown  to  the  plants  will  be  likely  to  injure  the  beans  in 
the  lower  pods  and  reduce  their  market  value.  Keep  them 
clean,  and  they  will  ripen  more  regularly.  Besides,  if  you  in- 
tend to  follow  the  beans  with  wheat,  it  will  be  better  to  sow  the 
wheat  without  plowing,  and  you  can  not  do  this  if  you  allow 
the  field  to  become  foul.  The  crop  will  be  found  an  easy  one 
to  cultivate,  as  it  will  soon  shade  the  land  and  prevent  the  growth 
of  weeds. 

The  critical  time  with  a  bean  crop  is  the  harvesting,  as  if 
wet  weather  causes  some  of  them  to  turn  black,  the  whole  crop 
will  need  to  be  picked  over  by  hand  before  they  can  be  sold, 
and  this  is  a  tedious  and  expensive  job.  It  is  best  to  pull  them 
before  the  pods  are  dry,  as  if  too  ripe  they  are  likely  to  shatter 
and  waste.  The  best  time  to  pull  them  is  when  half  the  pods 
are  yellow;  but  when  there  is  danger  of  heavy  frost,  they  may 
be  pulled  perfectly  green  and  cured  in  the  barn.  If  thus  gath- 
ered and  spread  thinly  on  open  floors,  they  will  make  the  bright- 

13 


194  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

est  and  handsomest  quality,  even  though  pulled  before  the 
beans  are  fully  grown,  as  the  sap  in  the  stalk  will  fill  out  and 
perfect  them. 

When  you  pull  the  beans  lay  several  rows  together  so  as  to 
leave  room  to  drive  between  with  the  wagon  to  gather  them  up; 
lay  them  roots  up,  as  lightly  as  possible,  so  that  the  air  can  circu- 
late through  them,  and  in  a  day  or  two  carefully  turn  them  with 
a  four-tined  fork.  As  soon  as  dry  enough,  mow  them,  and  if 
they  can  be  put  on  temporary  scaffolds,  with  rail  or  pole  floors, 
it  is  better,  as  this  gives  a  circulation  of  air,  and  enables  you  to 
safely  put  a  larger  bulk  together.  I  think  it  will  pay  on  farms 
where  beans  are  grown  regularly,  to  provide  some  stakes  for  stack- 
ing the  beans,  so  as  to  cure  them  in  this  way,  as  it  is  much  safer 
than  to  leave  them  on  the  ground.  The  stakes  should  be  smooth 
and  sharpened  at  both  ends,  the  lower  end  so  as  to  set  them  in 
the  ground,  and  the  upper  end  so  that  the  beans  can  be  slipped 
down  from  the  top,  and  they  should  not,  when  set,  be  over  six 
feet  high,  or  it  will  be  difficult  to  reach  the  top  to  put  the  beans 
on.  Four  sticks  of  stove  wood  laid  across  each  other  on  the 
ground  will  keep  the  vines  from  the  damp,  and  a  large  amount 
of  beans  can  be  crowded  into  a  stack  two  feet  in  diameter  and 
six  feet  high,  and  by  a  little  care  in  arranging  the  top  no 
water  can  penetrate  it.  I  think  there  is  no  way  in  which  beans 
can  be  cured  so  safely  in  a  wet  season.  The  stakes  must  be  set 
deeply,  with  a  good  crowbar. 

The  best  way  to  thresh  beans  is  to  tramp  with  horses,  and 
the  best  time  is  in  very  cold  weather,  as  they  then  become  very 
dry,  and  a  few  minutes  will  tramp  out  a  flooring.  The  one 
point  to  be  carefully  guarded  against  is  thin  places,  or  bare  spots 
on  the  floor,  or  the  horses  will  split  some  of  the  beans,  injuring 
their  appearance  and  sale. 

Broom-corn. — To  the  farmer  who  has  a  soil  well  suited  to 
the  crop,  who  understands  how  to  manage  it,  and  who  grows  it 
regularly,  broom-corn  Avill  generally  prove  profitable,  particularly 
if  he  is  "  fore-handed  "  so  that  he  can  hold  the  crop  over  in 
years  of  low  prices;  but  the  man  with  a  heavy  clay  soil,  or  foul 
land,  and  without  experience  in  handling  the  crop,  who  is  tempted 


MISCELLANEOUS  CROPS.  195 

to  plant  it  by  the  success  of  a  neighbor  differently  situated,  usu- 
ally pays  dearly  for  a  little  experience,  and  abandons  it  in  dis- 
gust after  growing  one  crop.  It  is  a  crop  requiring  a  great 
amount  of  labor,  and  one  which  fluctuates  so  much  in  price  that 
if  you  must  sell  each  year,  you  can  never  calculate  with  cer- 
tainty as  to  whether  it  will  be  profitable  or  not.  I  have  before 
me  the  prices  at  which  the  brush  sold  in  New  York,  extending 
over  a  period  of  five  years,  and  the  range  is  from  $40  to  $300 
per  ton.  About  six  hundred  pounds  per  acre  is  an  average  crop, 
and  I  should  put  the  minimum  cost  of  growing  and  preparing  for 
market  at  $15  per  acre,  including  rent  of  land,  and  probably  the 
average  would  be  $20,  so  that  it  is  easy  to  see  that  at  the  low- 
est named  price  it  would  be  a  losing  crop.  These  low  prices  are 
always,  however,  for  poor  brush,  that  on  which  the  seed  has  been 
allowed  to  ripen,  or  which  has  lain  out  in  rains,  or  been  put 
in  the  barn  too  green  and  allowed  to  heat  in  the  mow.  In  proof 
of  this,  I  will  state  that  in  the  same  years  that  brush  was  sold 
at  $40  per  ton,  the  lowest  price  paid  for  good  green  brush  was 
$200,  and  the  average  price  for  this  quality  of  brush  for  the  five 
years  was  $224  per  ton.  These  prices  show  how  important  it 
is  that  the  farmer  who  grows  broom-corn  should  understand  the 
business  and  be  prepared  to  take  proper  care  of  the  crop.  While 
the  seed  has  considerable  value  as  food  for  stock,  it  does  not 
pay  to  allow  it  to  ripen,  as  the  value  of  the  brush  will  be  re- 
duced far  more  than  the  seed  is  worth. 

There  are  not  many  varieties  of  broom-corn.  The  dwarf 
grows  but  three  or  four  feet  high,  and  produces  a  fine  brush,  but 
it  is  difficult  to  harvest,  and  as  the  brush  does  not  grow  out  of 
the  sheath  of  the  upper  leaf,  but  is  partly  inclosed,  it  is  often,  in 
wet  seasons,  damaged  by  the  water  running  down  in  the  sheath 
and  rotting  the  brush.  This  variety  is  but  little  cultivated  now, 
and  only  for  the  purpose  of  making  small  brooms,  whisks,  and 
brushes  for  clothes.  The  common  variety  is  locally  known  by 
different  names,  as  early  Mohawk,  Shaker,  and  early  York.  It 
is  a  good  variety,  but  if  not  cut  early,  before  the  seed  begins  to 
ripen,  it  turns  red,  which  greatly  reduces  its  market  value. 
The  Evergreen,  called  Missouri,  and  also  Tennessee,  is  the 


196  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

standard  variety.  It  is  of  large  growth,  on  rich  land  often  at- 
taining a  height  of  twelve  to  fifteen  feet,  and  yielding  a  long, 
fine  brush,  which  retains  its  green  color  till  the  seed  ripens. 

Broom-corn  will  do  best  on  a  warm  soil,  either  sandy  or  a 
black  loam,  for  it  is  of  very  slow  and  feeble  growth  early  in  the 
season,  and  on  wet,  cold  land  it  will  require  a  great  deal  of  labor 
to  keep  it  clean.  For  the  same  reason  I  recommend  that  plant- 
ing be  deferred  till  the  land  and  weather  are  warm  enough  to 
give  it  a  good  start.  I  advise,  however,  that  the  land  be  plowed 
either  in  the  fall  or  early  in  the  spring,  as  this  will  enable  you 
to  get  it  clean  and  mellow  before  planting  time.  Great  care 
should  be  exercised  to  get  good  seed,  and  have  it  in  perfect 
condition.  To  secure  good  seed  select  a  spot  in  the  field  on 
which  the  brush  is  of  the  best  quality ;  leave  this  until  the  seed 
is  thoroughly  ripe,  then  cut;  carefully  select  the  finest  brush, 
which  tie  in  bunches,  and  hang  in  an  airy  place  to  cure.  Just 
before  planting  swim  the  seed,  and  reject  all  that  floats.  In 
this  way  good,  heavy  seed  that  will  start  strong  and  grow  vigor- 
ously can  be  obtained.  I  have  often  secured  less  than  a  gallon 
of  such  seed  from  a  bushel  of  the  ordinary  sort. 

Broom-corn  will  bear  much  closer  planting  than  Indian  corn. 
If  the  land  is  very  clean  the  crop  may  be  drilled,  but  otherwise 
I  would  recommend  hilling.  The  rows  should  be  about  three 
feet  apart,  and  the  hills  not  more  than  two  feet  in  the  row,  with 
from  six  to  ten  stalks  to  a  hill.  In  dropping  use  only  the  thumb 
and  forefinger,  and  you  will  soon  learn  how  to  drop  the  right 
amount.  This  matter  of  seed,  and  taking  pains  to  drop  just  the 
right  amount,  is  one  of  great  importance,  as  thinning  is  one  of 
the  slowest  and  hardest  jobs  connected  with  the  management  of 
broom-corn.  Some  writers  recommend  a  teaspoonful  to  the  hill, 
to  allow  for  bad  seed.  It  would  be  cheaper  to  pay  ten  dollars  a 
bushel  for  such  seed  as  I  recommend,  as  two  quarts  of  it  will  be 
sufficient  for  an  acre,  and  no  thinning  will  be  necessary.  If  the 
land  is  in  such  condition  as  it  ought  to  be  the  seed  can  be  cov- 
ered with  a  light  harrow  or  plank  drag,  but  the  covering  should 
be  light — not  to  exceed  an  inch. 

One  favorable  quality  of  this  crop  is  that  it  may  be  grown 


MISCELLANEOUS  CROPS.  197 

for  many  years  on  the  same  land  without  change,  and,  with 
proper  care,  the  land  can  be  so  thoroughly  cleansed  that  the 
labor  of  cultivating  will  be  greatly  lessened,  as  the  crop  soon 
shades  the  soil  so  that  weeds  have  but  little  chance  to  grow. 
The  double  cultivators,  with  fenders,  are  used  in  its  cultivation, 
and  by  means  of  these  we  can  cultivate  it  when  quite  small, 
and  get  close  to  it  without  danger  of  covering  it  up.  Unless 
the  land  is  very  clean,  and  the  season  unusually  favorable,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  hoe  it,  and  this  should  be  done  thoroughly, 
putting  enough  fresh,  mellow  earth  round  each  hill  to  smother 
out  any  weeds  or  grass  that  are  starting. 

Harvesting. — If  you  expect  to  produce  brush  that  will 
bring  the  highest  price  in  the  market  your  help  must  be  engaged 
both  for  cutting  and  scraping,  and  your  racks  prepared  in  barn 
or  shed  for  curing  the  brush,  for  a  delay  of  a  week  may  reduce 
the  price  so  as  to  cause  a  loss  far  greater  than  the  entire  ex- 
pense of  cutting  and  preparing  for  market. 

The  most  successful  growers  recommend  that  the  cutting  be- 
gin as  soon  as  the  blossom  falls,  as  the  brush  at  this  time  will 
not  only  have  the  best  color,  but  also  the  greatest  weight.  The 
first  operation  in  harvesting  is  to  "  table  "  it,  by  which  is  meant 
the  breaking  of  two  rows  at  about  two  feet  above  the  ground, 
and  laying  them  across  each  other  at  such  an  angle  that  all  the 
brush  shall  project  into  the  spaces  between  the  tables  far  enough 
so  that  when  cut  the  "  table  "  will  stand,  and  be  strong  enough 
to  bear  the  weight  of  the  brush.  In  tabling  the  man  walks  back- 
wards, breaking  two  rows  at  a  time,  and  the  angle  at  which  the 
stalks  are  laid  down  will  depend  somewhat  on  the  height  of  the 
stalk — the  longer  the  stalk  the  greater  the  angle.  A  little  ex- 
perience will  enable  any  one  to  make  a  good  table  if  he  will 
keep  in  mind  the  two  points  that  the  brush  should  all  be  in  the 
spaces  at  the  side  of  the  table,  and  the  table  so  that  it  will 
stand  firm  after  the  brush  is  cut.  In  cutting  grasp  the  brush 
with  the  left  hand,  taking  care  not  to  catch  the  leaf;  place  the 
knife  against  the  stalk,  about  eight  inches  from  the  brush,  and 
draw  with  the  left  hand,  the  object  being  to  sever  the  stalk  and 
draw  it  out  of  the  sheath  without  removing  the  blade.  If  a 


198  THE  PEOPLE'S  FA  RM  AND  STOCK  C  YCL  OPEDL I . 

blade  occasionally  comes  off  with  the  brush  it  must  be  taken 
off,  as  it  would  be  likely  to  cause  the  one  who  holds  it  on  the 
cylinder  in  scraping  to  lose  his  handful.  A  little  experience 
will  soon  enable  one  to  know  at  what  angle  to  hold  the  knife, 
and  how  to  manage  that  he  may  do  the  work  properly  and 
rapidly. 

The  brush  from  two  or  more  tables  can  be  laid  on  one,  so  as 
to  leave  room  for  the  wagon  to  pass  through  to  take  it  to  the 
scraper.  The  scraping  is  usually  done  with  small  machines  run 
by  one  or  two  horse  power,  either  tread  or  sweep.  A  small  cyl- 
inder like  that  of  a  threshing-machine  is  used,  but  the  concave 
is  removed,  and  it  is  run  from  the  operator  instead  of  towards 
him,  as  in  threshing.  A  board  eight  or  ten  inches  wide,  with 
circular  notches  cut  in  it  to  protect  the  hands  and  keep  them 
from  being  drawn  on  to  the  cylinder,  is  placed  within  a  few 
inches  of  it,  and  leaning  slightly  towards  it.  One  or  two  boys 
gather  up  the  brush  in  handfuls  of  the  proper  size,  and  hand 
them  to  the  man  who  scrapes.  He  holds  these  bunches  on  the 
cylinder,  resting  his  hands  against  the  board,  turning  the  brush 
until  all  parts  are  freed  from  seed.  It  is  a  matter  of  considera- 
ble importance  to  keep  the  brush  straight  in  bringing  it  from 
the  field,  and  I  usually  bind  with  rye  straw,  as  it  can  be  han- 
dled much  more  rapidly  than  when  taken  in  loose. 

If  the  farmer  expects  to  make  a  business  of  broom-corn  grow- 
ing it  will  pay  him  to  build  a  shed  for  the  purpose  of  curing  it, 
and  one  similar  to  that  described  in  the  wheat  chapter  will 
answer,  and  could  be  used  for  both  purposes,  as  the  wheat  can 
be  threshed  before  the  broom-corn  is  cut.  A  building  the  size 
that  I  suggested  (twenty-five  by  forty-eight  feet,  with  posts  six- 
teen feet  high)  would  furnish  room  for  thirty-five  to  forty  acres 
of  broom-corn.  A  building  for  this  purpose  should  be  provided 
with  ample  ventilation  by  hanging  every  fifth  or  sixth  board 
with  hinges,  so  they  can  be  opened  in  good  weather  and  closed 
during  stormy  weather.  Racks  must  be  provided  for  curing  the 
brush,  so  arranged  as  to  allow  a  free  circulation  of  air,  and  at 
the  same  time  to^illow  access  to  all  parts  of  the  building  to -ex- 
amine and  turn  the  brush.  When  green  it  is  advisable  to  only 


MISCELLANEOUS  CROl'S.  1<J9 

put  it  two  or  three  inches  deep,  and  as  it  becomes  partly  dried 
it  can  be  condensed,  and  the  racks  filled  to  a  greater  depth. 

In  scraping  the  crooked  brush  should  be  separated  from  the 
remainder,  as  if  it  is  mixed  through  with  the  good  the  price  of 
the  entire  lot  will  be  decreased.  If  one  is  growing  but  a  few 
tons  it  can  be  marketed  in  bundles,  but  it  is  a  decided  advantage 
to  bale  it.  Any  hay  or  cotton-press  can  be  used  for  the  purpose, 
and,  where  the  crop  is  small,  any  one  with  mechanical  skill  can 
devise  a  press  that  will  answer. .  The  standard  size  for  a  bale  is 
three  feet  ten  inches  long,  two  feet  wide,  and  thirty  inches  deep. 
The  bale  is  secured  with  four  or  five  wires,  that  known  as  No.  9 
fence-wire  being  suitable  for  the  purpose.  Such  a  bale  will 
weigh  about  three  hundred  pounds.  All  crooked  brush  should 
be  baled  by  itself,  and  pains  should  be  taken  to  have  the  bales 
present  a  good  appearance,  with  the  butts  even,  and  nice  straight 
brush  used  for  the  outside.  Above  all,  have  the  bale  strong  and 
well  secured,  so  that  it  will  not  become  rickety  in  handling.  It 
will  pay  to  secure  the  services  of  an  expert  till  you  learn  how 
it  is  done. 

I  would  advise  that  the  inexperienced  farmer  who  wishes  to 
grow  broom-corn  begin  on  a  small  scale  till  he  gains  some  knowl- 
edge of  the  business.  A  crop  of  say  ten  acres  can  be  cured  in 
an  ordinary  barn,  and,  after  learning  how  to  handle  the  crop,  a 
larger  area  can  be  devoted  to  it,  if  desirable.  I  would  not  burn 
the  stalks,  but  would  harrow  them  down  when  dry  with  a  heavy 
harrow,  and  turn  them  under  with  a  three-horse  plow,  with  a 
rolling  cutter  and  weed-hook.  It  will  often  pay  to  cut  and  draw 
several  acres  of  them  to  the  barn-yard.  They  can  be  cut  with 
the  mowing-machine  if  the  ground  is  level,  but,  even  if  cut  with 
u  brush-scythe,  it  is  not  expensive. 

Making  Brooms. — Although  the  manufacture  of  brooms 
is  a  separate  business  from  growing  the  crop,  it  is  largely  carried 
on  by  farmers,  and  as  it  does  not  require  expensive  machinery 
or  much  mechanical  skill,  and  furnishes  lucrative  employment 
in-doors  for  the  winter  season,  it  is  well  suited  to  small  farmers, 
who  keep  but  little  stock  and  so  have  some  months  in  winter 
that  can  be  spared  from  the  labor  of  the  farm.  All  the 


200  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

machinery  needed  for  the  business  can  ordinarily  be  had  for 
twenty-five  or  thirty  dollars,  and  a  very  short  apprenticeship 
will  enable  one  of  any  mechanical  skill,  to  learn  the  trade.  I 
think  that  in  a  month  one  ought  to  be  able  to  do  a  full  day's 
work  and  do  it  well.  Five  to  six  dozen  common-sized  brooms 
are  counted  a  day's  work.  When  brooms  are  made  by 
machinery  the  work  is  not  severe,  and  can  be  done  by  women, 
and  I  wonder  that  there  are  not  more  of  them  engaged  in  this 
work,  which  opens  to  them  an  avenue  to  an  independent  living, 
as  from  six  to  ten  dollars  a  week  can  be  made  at  it,  and  I  think 
the  labor  less  severe  than  bending  over  the  wash-tub. 

Buckwheat. — In  our  best  grain  growing  States  buckwheat 
holds  an  insignificant  place.  In  Ohio,  for  example,  we  grow 
more  than  three  hundred  dollars'  worth  of  wheat  for  each  dol- 
lar's worth  of  buckwheat,  and  the  average  yield  per  acre 
is  about  twelve  bushels.  The  Southern  States  do  not  grow  it  at 
all,  and  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  produce  nearly  two-thirds 
of  all  grown  in  the  United  States,  New  York  alone  producing  in 
1880  over  five  million  bushels  in  a  total  of  less  than  fifteen 
million.  I  find  that  buckwheat  will  not  fill  till  the  nights  are 
cool,  and  so  defer  sowing  as  late  as  is  prudent,  and  in  my  latitude 
I  have  grown  the  best  crops  when  sown  the  first  of  July.  The 
land  should  be  in  good  condition,  free  from  weeds,  and  mellow." 
From  two  to  three  pecks  of  seed  are  sown  to  the  acre,  covered 
lightly  and  rolled.  When  cut,  we  stand  it  up  in  small  bunches, 
with  the  tops  twisted  together,  and  do  not  bind  it.  We  thresh 
by  tramping  with  horses.  There  are  some  incidental  advantages 
connected  with  the  crop,  as  it  furnishes  bee  pasture  at  a  season 
when  other  bloom  is  scarce,  and  it  has  a  good  mechanical  effect 
on  stiff  soils,  and  like  clover,  by  its  dense  growth  and  shade, 
smothers  out  all  other  growth.  I  have  succeeded  in  getting 
a  good  stand  of  grass  when  sown  with  it  on  thin  soils,  but  on 
rich  land  it  grows  so  rank  as  to  smother  out  all  the  grasses. 
I  do  not  think  it  an  exhaustive  crop,  but  corn  usually  does  not 
succeed  well,  when  following  it. 

Pumpkins. — I  know  that  the  chemist  places  a  low  feeding 
value  on  pumpkins,  but  I  find  them  a  crop  of  considerable 


MISCELLANEOUS  CROPS.  201 

value  for  all  kinds  of  farm  stock.  Fattening  hogs  will  eat  a 
good-sized  pumpkin  each  per  day  and  thrive  better  than  if  on 
an  exclusive  corn  diet,  and  either  milch  or  fat  cows  thrive  well 
on  them.  Most  horses  will  eat  them  readily,  and  are  greatly 
benefited  by  them. 

There  is  a  popular  idea  that  it  is  necessary  to  remove  the 
seed  when  fed  to  milch  cows  or  the  flow  of  milk  will  be 
diminished.  After  careful  experiment  I  conclude  this  is  an 
error.  I  have  tried  feeding  both  with  and  without  the  seeds, 
and  could  see  no  difference,  and  I  once  had  a  cow  eat  a  half 
bushel  of  seeds  which  I  had  taken  out  and  left  in  a  tub,  and 
she  gave  for  the  next  two  milkings  an  unusually  large  mess,  and 
was  not  at  all  injured  by  the  feed.  I  prefer  to  grow  this  crop 
by  itself  rather  than  in  the  corn  field.  A  profitable  crop  can 
be  grown  bn  quite  poor  land,  if  manured  well  in  the  hill.  They 
may  also  be  grown  after  a  crop  of  clover  hay  has  been  cut, 
or  as  a  second  crop,  following  early  potatoes.  When  they  are 
to  be  grown  after  early  potatoes  it  is  best  to  omit  the  planting 
of  every  fourth  hill  in  each  third  row  of  the  potatoes,  and  then 
about  the  middle  of  June  plant  these  vacant  hills  with  pumpkins. 
The  potatoes  will  be  ready  to  dig  by  the  time  the  vines  need 
the  land.  I  prefer  the  Connecticut  field  or  Yankee  pumpkin  for 
stock,  as  they  are  softer  fleshed  and  can  be  eaten  readily 
by  cattle  without  chopping,  while  with  the  thick  fleshed,  solid 
varieties,  it  is  necessary  to  cut  them. 

Flax. — Flax  is  not  ordinarily  to  be  ranked  among  the 
profitable  crops  of  the  farm.  It  is  exhaustive,  ranking  in  this 
respect  next  to  tobacco,  and  farmers  who  have  had  large  experi- 
ence with  it  say  that  it  should  not  be  sown  on  the  same  field 
oftener  than  once  in  five  years,  and  that  eight  is  better.  The 
crop  will  rarely  pay,  unless  the  farmer  is  so  situated  as  to  have 
a  convenient  market  for  the  fiber,  as  well  as  the  seed.  The 
average  yield  of  seed  per  acre  is  probably  below  eight  bushels, 
and  the  land  must  be  both  rich  and  clean,  and  the  seed-bed 
thoroughly  prepared  if  the  crop  exceeds  twelve  bushels.  In 
very  rare  cases  fourteen  to  sixteen  bushels  have  been  grown. 
The  yield  of  fiber  is  from  eight  hundred  to  one  thousand  five 


202  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

hundred  pounds.  The  average  price  of  seed  is  from  one  dollar  to 
one  dollar  and  twenty-five  cents  per  bushel,  and  of  fiber  from 
six  to  thirteen  dollars  per  ton.  The  straw  is  of  little  value  on 
the  farm,  as  it  is  difficult  to  rot  it  for  manure,  and  it  is  not  safe 
cattle  food,  as  it  produces  abortion  if  fed  to  cows  in  calf.  Flax 
straw  is  excellent  for  making  temporary  shelters  for  hogs  or 
cattle,  or  for  stopping  washes  on  rolling  land,  as  it  is  very  last- 
ing. Grass  or  clover  may  be  sown  with  it,  and  will  do  well;  but 
as  a  flax  stubble  gives  an  easily  prepared  seed-bed  for  wheat, 
and  the  latter  crop  usually  does  well  when  sown  after  flax,  it  is 
best  to  plow  the  flax  stubble  for  wheat. 

CULTURE. — The  soil  for  flax  should  be  rich,  as  it  will  not  pay 
to  sow  on  thin  land.  It  should  also  be  clean,  as  weeds  among 
the  crop  make  it  hard  to  cure  and  also  reduce  the  yield.  The 
land  should  be  thoroughly  prepared  and  made  fine  and  smooth. 
It  is  useless  to  expect  a  profitable  crop  if  sown  on  a  rough,  cloddy 
surface.  The  land  should  be  harrowed  and  rolled  until  as  fine 
as  a  garden,  and  the  seed  should  be  covered  very  lightly.  It 
may  be  covered  with  a  brush  or  light  plank  drag,  or  a  sloping- 
tooth  harrow.  On  a  good  soil  well  prepared,  one-half  bushel  of 
seed  is  sufficient  when  seed  is  the  object  sought,  but  if  sown  with 
special  reference  to  growing  fiber,  from  one  to  two  bushels  is 
used.  If  the  day  is  windy  it  can  be  sown  with  the  drill,  but 
should  not  be  run  through  the  tubes,  as  this  would  not  scatter 
the  seed  enough,  and  would  cover  it  too  deep. 

The  best  directions  as  to  time  of  sowing,  is  that  it  be  put  in 
between  oats  and  corn.  If  sown  as  early  as  oats  are  usually  put 
in,  it  will  be  in  danger  of  being  killed  by  frost,  or  if  heavy  rains 
fall,  of  being  unable  to  come  up  through  the  crust,  or  if  it  came 
up,  weeds  would  start  with  it  and  damage  the  crop. 

The  crop  is  ready  to  harvest  when  a  majority  of  the  boles 
are  ripe.  It  can  be  cut  with  the  self-rake  reaper,  and  a  few  days 
curing  will  fit  it  to  be  threshed.  This  is  often  done  with 
machines,  but  usually  it  is  tramped  with  horses.  If  the  farmer 
has  room  to  store  it,  it  is  best  to  defer  threshing  until  cold 
weather,  as  it  is  a  dusty  disagreeable  job.  It  is  quite  common 
to  smooth  off  a  place  in  the  field  and  tramp  it  on  the  ground  and 


MISCELLANEOUS  CROPS.  203 

sometimes  a  common  field  roller  is  used  in  threshing  it,  the  cir- 
cle being  made  large  enough  so  that  the  horses  can  draw  the 
roller  over  it.  When  threshed  in  the  field  it  should  at  once  be 
cleaned  up,  or  if  left  over  night  should  be  piled  and  carefully 
protected  from  possible  rain. 

Cotton. — The  cotton  belt  of  the  United  States  extends  from 
the  Gulf  to  the  fortieth  parallel  of  latitude,  but  between  3C° 
and  40°  the  crop  is  often  cut  short  by  a  cold  wet  spring  or 
early  autumn  frosts.  There  are  three  classes  of  soil  on  which 
the  plant  flourishes.  First,  the  soft  limestone,  or  what  is  called 
the  rotten  limestone  and  red  lands,  which  are  found  in  Georgia, 
South  Carolina,  parts  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi,  and  a  small 
part  of  Texas.  Second,  the  rich,  black,  cane-break  lands  of  mid- 
dle Alabama,  and  the  black,  rolling  prairies  of  Texas.  These 
black  lands  can  not  be  surpassed  for  the  certainty  with  which 
they  produce  crops,  their  freedom  from  insect  enemies,  and 
natural  drainage.  The  third  and  most  valuable  class  of  lands 
are  the  river  bottoms,  as  they  possess  almost  unbounded  fer- 
tility, and  being  made  up  of  vegetable  mold  and  sand  are  easily 
worked  and  dry  off  quickly  after  heavy  rains. 

Mules  are  better  than  horses  for  working  the  crop,  as  they 
endure  the  heat  much  better.  The  usual  allowance  of  help  is 
one  mule  and  one  hand  for  each  ten  acres  of  cotton,  but  in  the 
picking  season,  extra  help  will  be  required.  Plowing  begins 
early  in  February,  and  the  land  is  plowed  into  beds  from  four 
and  a  half  to  seven  feet  wide,  the  richer  the  land  the  wider  the 
rows.  Many  careless  cultivators  simply  lap  the  furrows  to- 
gether, leaving  the  soil  unbroken  underneath,  but  the  bet- 
ter way  is  to  first  plow  out  a  furrow  and  then  turn  the 
soil  back  so  as  to  give  a  greater  depth  of  mellow  earth.  It 
is  desirable  that  this  plowing  should  be  done  several  weeks  be- 
fore planting,  so  as  to  give  time  for  the  weeds  to  start,  which 
will  then  be  destroyed  by  the  harrowing,  laying  off,  and  plant- 
ing, and  also  because  a  mellower  seed-bed  can  be  made  after 
the  land  has  been  settled  by  rains. 

The  planting  season  begins  the  middle  of  March  and  contin- 
ues till  past  the  middle  of  April,  but  the  chances  for  a  good 


204  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

crop  are  much  better  from  the  early  planting.  It  is  important 
that  the  rows  should  be  straight  and  narrow,  and  as  cotton  seed 
should  not  be  covered  deep,  the  furrows  should,  also,  be  shal- 
low. The  "  slod-marker "  which  you  will  find  illustrated  in  our 
chapter  on  corn  culture,  would  be  admirably  suited  for  the  cot- 
ton field.  It  is  customary  to  use  a  much  larger  quantity  of 
seed  than  is  necessary,  and  then  thin  the  plants,  as  it  is  cheaper 
and  better  to  do  this  than  to  run  the  risk  of  a  poor  stand. 

As  soon  as  the  plants  show  the  third  leaf,  cultivation  should 
begin.  A  light  plow  should  be  run  as  near  the  crop  as  possible, 
and  for  this  purpose  the  double  bar  plow,  with  rolling  cutters  for 
fenders,  can  not  be  excelled.  Then  the  hoe  gang  follows  and 
chops  out  the  surplus  plants  so  as  to  leave  bunches  from  twelve 
to  thirty  inches  apart,  according  to  the  condition  of  the  soil, 
and  later  these  bunches  are  thinned  by  hand  to  two  plants, 
the  wider  spaces  being  on  the  richer  land.  The  cultivation 
should  be  thorough  and  constant  till  the  plants  interlock  across 
the  rows. 

The  picking  season  begins  in  August  and  lasts  till  nearly 
Christmas.  The  work,  while  not  heavy,  is  exceedingly  monot- 
onous and  trying,  particularly  late  in  the  season.  Writers  on 
cotton  raising  say  that  this  work  can  not,  and  never  will  be  done 
other  than  by  hand,  but  during  the  autumn  of  1883  I  saw  the 
statement  that  the  first  bale  of  cotton  ever  picked  by  machinery 
had  just  been  sold  in  New  Orleans.  In  picking,  the  seed  cot- 
ton is  deposited  in  wide-mouthed  sacks  that  are  hung  around 
the  neck;  and  as  about  twenty-five  pounds  is  as  much  as  the 
picker  can  conveniently  carry,  it  is  best  to  have  drive-ways 
through  the  field  at  suitable  distances.  The  cotton  is  trans- 
ferred from  the  sacks  to  four-bushel  baskets.  During  the  pick- 
ing season,  and  especially  late  in  the  season  there  is  great 
danger  of  sickness  among  the  hands,  as  the  mornings  are  cold 
and  chilly,  and  humanity,  as  well  as  self-interest,  should  prompt 
kind  treatment  for  the  help.  It  will  be  found  a  good  invest- 
ment to  furnish  hot  coffee  and  quinine.  The  best  time  to  sort  and 
trash  the  cotton  is  before  storing  in  the  gin-house.  This  work 
can  be  done  by  hands  not  strong  enough  for  regular  field  work. 


MISCELLANEOUS  CROPS.  205 

The  cotton  is  assorted  into  four  grades  :  1st.  The  fine,  long- 
stapled  cotton,  clean,  dry,  and  silky.  Early  pickings  will  yield 
a  large  per  cent  of  this  quality  before  the  time  of  frost  and 
heavy  fall  rains.  2d.  Short,  kinky  bolls  that  have  been  bored 
by  the  boll  worm,  or  late  and  killed  by  the  frost,  or  that  which 
has  been  grown  with  excessive  or  irregular  moisture.  3d.  Trashy 
cotton,  mixed  with  broken  leaves  and  stems,  after  heavy  frosts. 
This  is  what  causes  the  black  specks  in  the  coarser  grades  of 
muslin.  4th.  Dirty  cotton  which  has  been  beaten  down  by  rain 
and  wind,  and  mixed  with  sand  and  earth. 

The  best  grade  should  never  be  allowed  to  become  damp  from 
dew,  and  should  lie  a  month  or  more  before  ginning,  as  the  oil  in 
the  seed  ascends  into  the  fiber,  increasing  the  weight  and  giving 
a  fine  pale  straw  color. 

The  less  cotton  is  handled  the  better,  and  a  wagon  should 
be  arranged  so  as  to  receive  the  baskets  instead  of  emptying 
them  into  the  wagon  bed. 

It  takes  over  four  pounds  of  seed  cotton  to  make  one  of 
ginned.  Ten  good  hands  can  pick  enough  to  make  one  bale  a 
day,  and  the  average  weight  of  a  bale  is  about  five  hundred 
pounds. 

GINNING. — The  plantation  gins  are  usually  run  by  horse- 
power, but  sometimes  by  steam.  The  principle  of  the  cotton  gin 
is  simple.  A  wooden  cylinder  four  feet  long,  and  five  inches  in 
diameter,  is  provided  with  circular  saws  nine  inches  in  diameter. 
These  saws  are  set  one-half  inch  apart,  and  project  two  inches 
from  the  cylinder,  which  revolves  from  the  operator.  The 
saws  revolve  between  steel  bars  set  so  close  as  not  to  nllow  the 
seed  to  pass,  but  the  teeth  carry  the  cotton  through.  Below 
the  saws  a  set  of  stiff  brushes  revolve  in  the  opposite  direction, 
and  brush  off  and  clear  away  the  lint  from  the  saw  teeth.  A 
fan  is  also  arranged  to  furnish  a  blast  of  air  to  carry  the  lint  to 
a  convenient  distance  from  the  machine.  These  are  the  three 
essential  points  of  the  cotton  gin. 

Cotton  must  be  dry  to  gin  well,  and  a  scaffold  should  be 
provided  for  drying  that  which  is  damp.  This  scaffold  should 
adjoin  the  gin-house,  and  should  have  a  canvas  roof  which  can 


206  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

be  rolled  up  so  as  to  admit  the  sun,  or  let  down  quickly  on  the 
approach  of  a  shower. 

The  baling  should  be  thoroughly  done.  There  is  great  loss 
every  year  from  bad  baling,  which  necessitates  rebaling  at  New 
Orleans  at  a  cost  of  one  to  two  dollars  a  bale,  and,  also,  largely 
increases  the  cost  of  transportation,  as  a  well  made  bale  will  oc- 
cupy from  one-third  to  one-half  less  space  than  when  badly 
done.  Hoop  iron  has  largely  taken  the  place  of  rope  for  hold- 
ing the  bales  together. 

From  the  brief  description  given,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  cot- 
ton crop  keeps  the  hands  busy  nearly  the  entire  year,  the  plow- 
ing beginning  in  February,  and  the  picking  ending  in  December, 
and  then  the  ginning  and  baling  must  be  done  before  plowing 
for  the  next  crop  is  begun. 

INSECT   ENEMIES   OF   THE   CROP. — These  are  the  Cotton  Louse, 
Cut-worm,  Cotton-worm,  or  Moth,  Army-worm,  and  Boll-worm. 

The  first  is  a  small,  gray  louse  that  attacks  the  plant,  and  is 
usually  found  on  cotton  growing  on  a  wet  or  unsuitable  soil. 
The  remedy  is,  first,  careful  culture,  which  will  give  a  thrifty 
plant,  and,  second,  dusting  with  ashes  and  plaster. 

The  cut-worm  is  familiar  to  all  farmers.  Ashes  or  lime 
around  the  roots  of  the  plant  is  found  to  be  a  good  preventive 
of  its  ravages. 

The  cotton-moth  appears  in  August,  and,  as  they  are  at  first 
few  in  number,  would  occasion  no  alarm  to  the  uninitiated ;  but 
it  sometimes  happens  that  the  worms  hatch  in  countless  millions, 
and  in  three  days  they  have  been  known  to  eat  every  leaf  from 
a  thousand  acres,  leaving  no  possibility  of  more  than  an  eighth 
or  tenth  of  a  crop.  If  the  crop  is  to  be  saved  there  must  be  no 
delay  in  fighting  this  enemy.  There  are  two  methods :  one  is 
to  make  war  on  the  moths,  and  destroy  as  many  as  possible  be- 
fore they  lay  their  eggs;  the  other  to  hunt  their  nests  on  the 
leaves,  and  destroy  them. 

For  the  first,  let  the  hands  go  out  early  in  the  morning  with 
paddles  made  from  wide  shingles,  and  as  the  moths  rise  strike 
them  down  and  destroy  them.  Another  method  is  to  trap  the 
moths  by  placing  plates  on  boards  secured  to  stakes,  on  which 


MISCELLANEOUS  CROPS.  207 

is  a  mixture  of  molasses,  vinegar,  and  cobalt.  This  attracts  the 
moths,  and  they  stick  in  it  and  perish.  White  cotton  flags,  a 
yard  square,  are  sometimes  used,  which  allure  the  moths,  and 
they  deposit  their  eggs  on  them.  The  nests  of  eggs  must  also 
be  destroyed,  and  fortunately  they  are  easily  found,  as  the  moth 
cuts  the  midrib  of  the  leaf,  and  ties  it  down  with  a  thread  to 
protect  the  eggs.  These  insects  eat  nothing  but  cotton,  and 
when  they  appear  in  countless  numbers  they  provide  for  their 
own  destruction,  for  they  consume  every  leaf  on  the  field,  and 
start  feebly  for  another,  but  they  can  not  surmount  ditches  and 
fences,  and  the  hot  sun  kills  them,  and  in  two  days  from  the  time 
the  crop  is  eaten  up  not  one  of  the  army  may  be  found  alive. 

THE  ARMY-WORM. — This  differs  from  the  cotton-moth  in  ap- 
pearance and  habits,  and  is  not  so  difficult  an  enemy  to  fight. 
Its  voracity  is  equal  to  that  of  the  cotton-worm,  and  it  consumes 
all  green  crops  that  come  in  its  way.  It  is  longer  lived  than 
the  cotton-worm,  can  travel  much  faster,  and  overcome  greater 
obstacles.  The  most  effective  obstacle  to  its  march  is  a  clean- 
cut  ditch,  which  need  not  be  deep,  but  should  have  a  perpendic- 
ular side  next  to  the  field  to  be  protected.  The  worm  travels 
from  south  to  north,  so  that  you  may  always  know  which  side 
of  the  field  to  begin  to  fortify.  As  a  rule,  the  planter  will  hear 
of  their  approach  in  time  to  open  the  ditch.  They  will  often 
come  in  such  numbers  as  to  fill  the  ditch  and  pass  over,  so  it 
will  be  necessary  to  be  ready  with  all  the  force  to  guard  the 
field.  A  log  dragged  back  and  forth  in  the  ditch  will  destroy 
them.  When  they  are  so  near,  or  approaching  so  rapidly,  that 
there  is  not  time  to  complete  the  ditch,  their  progress  may  be 
retarded  by  scattering  a  line  of  straw  and  setting  fire  to  it. 

THE  BOLL-WORM. — The-boll  worm  is  an  annual  pest.  It  be- 
gins work  as  soon  as  the  bolls  are  formed.  It  never  destroys 
the  crop,  but  pierces  three  or  four,  and  sometimes  as  many  as 
ten,  bolls,  nearly,  or  quite,  killing  them.  The  natural  food  of 
the  worm  is  corn.  The  moths  pair  early  in  July,  and  four  days 
later  the  female  deposits  on  the  silk  of  the  growing  corn  about 
seven  hundred  and  fifty  eggs.  The  worms  hatch  in  three  days, 
and  feed  for  two  weeks  on  the  corn  and  silk.  It  then  goes  into 


208  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

the  ground  to  the  depth  of  three  inches,  is  transformed  into  a 
chrysalis,  and  in  sixteen  days  reappears  us  a  moth.  By  this 
time  the  corn  silks  are  dead,  and  this  second  crop  of  moths  de- 
posit their  eggs  in  the  cotton  buds.  If  hot,  dry  we.-ither  follows 
most  of  the  eggs  perish;  but  if  cloudy,  moist  weather  prevails, 
they  will  be  more  numerous. 

The  remedies  suggested  are,  first,  having  no  corn  near  the 
cotton  field,  and  allowing  the  latter  to  lie  fallow  a  year,  which 
will  destroy  most  of  the  eggs ;  second,  planting  a  small  field  of 
late  corn  near  the  cotton,  or  a  row  every  thirty  feet  through  the 
cotton  field,  as  the  miller  will  not  deposit  its  eggs  on  the  cotton 
if  green  corn  is  convenient. 

DISEASES. — There  are  some  diseases  to  which  cotton  is  sub- 
ject, but  for  all  of  them  the  best  remedies  are  thorough  cultiva- 
tion, as  they  are  usually  caused  by  defective  drainage  or  culti- 
vation, or  an  exhausted  soil.  The  crop  is  rarely  destroyed  by 
any  of  them,  although  it  is  often  cut  short.  These  diseases  are 
called  the  "sore  shin,"  the  red  and  brown  rust,  the  dry  rot,  and 
the  "  cotton  blues,"  and  there  is  no  specific  remedy  for  any  of 
them.  None  of  them  are  feared  by  the  planter  with  a  good  soil 
which  is  well  cultivated. 

COTTON-SEED  AND  ITS  USES. — From  each  bale  of  cotton  there 
will  be  produced  about  fourteen  hundred  pounds  of  seed.  Until 
about  1850  this  was  considered  a  waste  product,  and  was  left 
to  accumulate  in  great  piles  about  the  gin-houses.  About  1855 
several  of  the  largest  linseed  oil  mills  of  the  country  were 
converted  into  cotton-seed  oil  mills.  The  first  oil  made  was  of 
a  dark-red  color,  and  was  used  for  burning  in  lamps;  but  the 
oil  refiners  soon  discovered  a  cheap  and  simple  process  of  refin- 
ing it  so  as  to  make  an  oil  of  a  rich  olive  color,  sweet  and  agree- 
able to  the  taste,  and  it  is  largely  used  as  a  substitute  for  olive 
oil  for  culinary  purposes.  The  oil  is  also  largely  used  for  the 
manufacture  of  soap,  although  the  first  experiments  were  not 
successful,  as  the  soap,  after  being  kept  a  few  weeks,  would 
exude  a  dark,  gummy  liquid,  which  rendered  it  unsalable. 
When  mixed  with  petroleum  it  makes  a  fair  lubricating  oil, 
and  painters  have  used  it  to  some  extent. 


MISCELLANEOUS  CROPS.  209 

COTTON-SEED  MEAL. — After  the  oil  has  been  expressed  the 
cake  is  ground  and  sold  for  stock  food,  under  the  name  of  cot- 
ton-seed meal.  Both  chemists  and  dairymen  claim  for  it  a 
superiority  over  linseed  meal.  The  great  bulk  of  it  is  exported 
to  England,  where  it  commands  good  prices — sometimes  above 
forty-five  dollars  per  ton — and  is  used  by  dairymen  and  stock- 
feeders.  Its  use  is  also  increasing  in  this  country,  so  that  what 
but  a  few  years  ago  was  considered  valueless  is  now  worth  to 
the  planter  several  millions  of  dollars  per  annum. 

To  show  the  value  of  cotton-seed  meal  as  compared  with  lin- 
seed, I  copy  the  following  from  Professor  Voelcker  as  his  opin- 
ion after  making  an  analysis  of  several  specimens  of  cotton- 
seed meal :  "  1st.  The  proportion  of  oil  in  all  the  specimens  is 
higher  than  in  the  best  linseed  cake,  in  which  it  is  rarely  moro 
than  twelve  per  cent,  and  ten  per  cent  may  be  taken  as  an 
average.  As  a  supplier  of  food  cotton-seed  is,  therefore,  superior 
to  linseed.  2d.  The  amount  of  oil  in  several  specimens  differs  to 
the  extent  of  5i  per  cent,  the  lowest  being  13.50  per  cent  and 
the  highest  19.19  per  cent.  3d.  Decorticated  cake  contains  a 
very  high  and  much  larger  percentage  of  flesh-forming  matters 
than  linseed  cake,  and  it  is,  therefore,  of  great  value  as  food  for 
young  stock  and  milch  cows.  The  dung  is  also  very  valuable. 
4th.  In  comparison  with  linseed  there  is  much  less  mucilage 
and  other  respiratory  matter  in  cotton  cake.  This  is  com- 
pensated by  a  larger  amount  of  oil.  5th.  The  proportion  of 
indigestible  woody  fiber  in  decorticated  cotton  cake  is  very 
small,  and  not  larger  than  in  the  best  linseed  cake.  6th.  It 
may  be  observed  that  the  ash  of  cotton  cake  is  rich  in  bony 
materials,  and  amounts  to  about  the  same  quantity  as  in  other 
oily  cakes." 

Sorghum. * — This  plant,  after  twenty  years  of  constant  cul- 
tivation in  this  country,  is  now  so  well  understood  by  all  scientific 
men  and  chemists,  it  hardly  seems  necessary  for  a  moment's  time 
to  be  spent  by  any  writer  in  giving  further  information  to  this 
class  of  men.  But  capitalists,  farmers,  and  laborers  should  be 

*  Contributed  by  HENRY  TALCOTT,  President  of  the  Ashtabula  County,  Ohio, 
Sorghum  Association. 


210  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

taught  its  value,  its  adaptability  to  our  soil  and  climate,  its 
strength  and  importance  as  one  of  the  factors  which  might  be 
used  to  help  increase  our  nation's  wealth.  And  he  who  can 
impart  information  that  will  help  to  quicken  this  grand  result, 
and  then  refuses  or  neglects  to  do  so,  is  a  debtor  to  his  fellow- 
men.  We  enjoy  the  watchful  care  of  a  good  government,  its 
constant  protection  to  life,  liberty,  and  property.  Its  prosperity 
as  a  nation  is  ours  as  individuals,  and  duty  bids  us  all  to  con- 
tribute according  to  our  ability  for  the  nation's  good. 

It  will  be  my  purpose  only  to  give  practical  information  to 
the  class  of  men  before  mentioned,  in  order  that  the  cultivation 
and  manufacture  of  sugar  and  molasses  from  sorghum  may  be- 
come one  of  the  main  industries  of  the  land.  Sugar  and  mo- 
lasses can  truly  be  called  the  staff  of  life,  for  with  our  American 
people  at  present  prices  it  costs  them  more  than  bread.  Our 
nation  pays  to  foreign  lands  over  one  hundred  million  dollars 
annually  for  the  sugars  we  import,  every  dollar's  worth  of 
which,  with  our  present  information,  should  be  made  at  home ; 
and  this  can  be  profitably  done,  providing  farmers  and  others 
will  give  heed  and  learn  the  business.  My  instruction  may  ap- 
pear to  some  too  complete  and  perhaps  superfluous;  but  you 
must  have  charity,  and  remember  all  are  not  profoundly  wise ; 
and  they  who  need  this  information  most  perhaps  may  not  belong 
to  the  fortunate  class. 

Sorghum  can  be  profitably  grown  in  any  climate  or  soil  that 
will  produce  good  Indian  corn,  and  it  will  stand  more  heat  and 
drought,  and  flourish  equally  well.  Its  cultivation  and  harvest- 
ing costs  no  more  when  properly  done.  Early  varieties  can  be 
selected  that,  in  the  Middle  and  Northern  States,  will  mature  in 
from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  days;  and  when 
the  seed  is  nearly  ripe  or  in  good  stiff  dough,  the  stalks  or 
canes  will  make  good  sugar,  and  will  continue  in  that  condi- 
tion many  weeks — from  six  to  eight  at  least.  Our  factory,  in 
1882,  worked,  from  the  same  field,  cane  from  the  3d  of  October 
until  the  llth  of  November,  and  it  would  have  been  equally 
good  both  earlier  and  later.  In  the  Southern  States,  a  number 
of  farmers  have  written  me  that  from  very  early  planting  they 


MISCELLANEOUS  CROPS.  211 

can  secure  two  cuttings  of  cane  from  once  planting;  and  if  so, 
this  must  certainly  be  a  very  important  item  for  any  thoughtful 
business  man  or  company  to  consider  before  embarking  in  the 
business,  unless  they  are  already  tied  to  some  particular  location. 
The  warm  soil  of  the  Southern  States  will,  no  doubt,  excel  the 
Northern  States  in  its  production  and  manufacture,  because  all 
sugar  mills  or  refineries  need  and  must  have  heat.  Hot  rooms 
for  granulation  of  sugar  are  indispensable.  Nothing  can  be 
done  without  them  but  make  molasses. 

Warm,  sandy  soils,  that  are  free  from  weeds,  are  good  for 
sorghum,  and  should  be  well  fertilized  to  produce  the  best 
results.  The  open  or  porous  soils  may  not  be  benefited  as 
much  with  commercial  fertilizers  as  with  clover  sod  or  stable 
manure;  but  every  farmer  should  find  out  by  careful  experiment 
what  kind  of  manure  will  produce  the  best  crops  on  his  own 
land.  On  our  clay  soils  we  can  get  the  best  growth  on  sod 
ground ;  but  if  the  land  is  old  or  poor,  we  add  superphosphates, 
about  one  ounce  to  the  hill,  or  from  one  hundred  and  fifty  to 
two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  to  the  acre. 

The  best  plan  for  its  cultivation  that  has  come  to  my  notice 
is  to  plant  in  check-rows,  three  feet  apart  each  way,  leaving 
six  to  eight  stalks  in  the  hill.  The  entire  cultivation  can  then 
be  done  with  single-horse  cultivators,  the  same  as  used  for  corn, 
or  with  the  expansive  two-horse  sulky  cultivators  that  are  made 
by  some  of  our  manufacturing  companies,  that  will  cultivate 
crops  equally  well  from  three  to  four  feet  apart,  as  they  expand 
or  contract  one  foot  or  any  fraction  thereof.  These  machines, 
when  kept  moving  through  the  canes  every  few  days,  will  keep 
the  ground  light  and  loose,  and  free  it  from  grass  or  weeds,  and 
the  hills,  when  this  distance  apart,  will  be  almost  entirely  free 
from  suckers.  But  if  you  plant  in  drills,  or  leave  but  few 
stalks  in  hill,  the  suckers  will  grow  profusely  and  rob  the 
soil  of  your  crop,  because  they  are  not  good  for  any  thing  but 
fodder  or  food  for  animals.  There  is  no  sugar  or  valuable  sweet 
in  them. 

Most  farmers  who  plant  but  very  little  of  it  usually  desire 
it  to  be  made  into  molasses,  and  if  so,  it  is  very  important  it  be 


212  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

as  thoroughly  defecated  and  freed  from  the  natural  raw  sorghum 
flavor  as  if  treated  £or  sugar.  And  it  also  pays  well  and  im- 
proves the  quality  of  it  to  strip  the  leaves  from  the  canes,  and 
cut  the  seed-tops  off  with  about  one  foot  of  the  cane.  The 
canes  will  then  make  the  best  and  purest  flavored  sugar  or 
molasses.  But  in  our  large  sugar  mills,  with  the  almighty  dollar 
before  our  minds,  we  can  not  be  so  nice  about  it.  But  many 
things  go  through  the  crushers  that  neither  add  to  its  quality  or 
quantity  when  boiled  to  sugar.  . 

An  acre  of  land  should  produce  from  eight  to  fifteen  tons 
of  the  green  canes ;  and  farmers  should  not  stop  experimenting 
until  they  produce  this  or  greater  results.  The  later  and  larger 
varieties  will  produce  over  twenty  tons  per  acre,  but  in  our  north- 
ern climates  may  not  mature.  The  Early  Amber  cane  is  sure  for 
all  climates,  and  is  the  best  for  main  crop.  A  ton  of  green  canes 
should  yield  from  ten  to  twelve  gallons  of  molasses,  or  about 
sixty  pounds  of  dry  sugar,  and  from  five  to  six  gallons  of  drain- 
age molasses.  The  average  yield  from  all  parts  of  the  United 
States  seems  to  be  above  one  hundred  gallons  per  acre,  and, 
therefore,  should  be  worth  fifty  dollars  or  more  per  acre  for  the 
sugar  or  molasses,  besides  the  feed  and  cane  seed.  The  usual 
yield  of  cane  seed  is  about  twenty  bushels  per  acre,  and  when 
cured,  and  threshed  in  a  common  threshing  machine  the  same 
as  wheat,  it  is  always  more  valuable  than  corn  for  feed  to  ani- 
mals, and  also  good  for  human  food  if  ground  and  bolted  the 
same  as  buckwheat. 

If  you  do  n't  stop  to  strip  the  leaves  from  the  canes,  it  is  no- 
more  work  to  cultivate  and  harvest  a  crop  of  cane  than  it  is  of 
corn,  and  it  will  return  twice  as  many  dollars  per  acre  for  the  use 
of  the  land.  Mine  has  more  than  done  that  for  two  years  past. 

The  disastrous  frosts  of  1883  ruined  thousands  of  acres, 
and  remind  us  that  of  the  affairs  of  this  world  nothing  can  be 
counted  as  absolutely  certain.  Our  Jefferson  Sugar  Factory 
suffers  the  most  in  proportion  of  any  that  I  have  reports  from. 
Three-quarters  of  our  entire  crop  perished  the  9th  of  September. 
My  own  withstood  that  shock ;  but  the  cold,  wet,  and  backward 
season  retarded  its  growth  so  that  none  of  it  could  get  ripe, 


MISCELLANEOUS  CROPS.  213 

and  I  shall  now  be  forced  to  make  it  up  into  molasses.  But  the 
cane  is  better  and  worth  more  than  my  corn.  It  hardly  seems 
possible  that  there  will  be  a  repetition  of  the  past  season  for 
many  years  to  come.  But  this  should  be  a  reminder  to  all  large 
sugar  companies  that  it  is  possible,  and  in  choice  of  location 
should  have  its  full  force. 

There  is  no  doubt  but  what  large  sugar  plantations  in 
Southern  Illinois,  Missouri,  Kansas  and  all  Southern  States 
will  prove  more  profitable  than  in  the  Northern  States,  but  up 
here  it  does  pay  well.  There  is  no  arbitrary  rule  to  be  laid 
down  for  its  cultivation,  and  the  suggestions  here  made  are  in- 
tended to  apply  only  where  farmers  have  no  better  way.  The 
farm  tools  you  now  have  on  hand  to  work  with,  as  well  as  the 
surrounding  circumstances,  must  determine  the  best  method  for 
you  to  pursue,  but  the  main  thing  is  to  cause  it  to  be  done,  no 
matter  how. 

ITS  MANUFACTURE. — It  is  almost  incredible  that  after  twenty 
years  of  steady  cultivation  of  this  plant  in  our  Yankee  nation, 
it  should  not  have  been  utilized  for  sugar  before  1881.  But 
such  is  the  fact,  and  with  all  the  wisdom  of  our  agricultural  de- 
partment in  Washington,  it  could  not  then  be  placed  upon  an 
economical  or  living  basis,  while  at  the  present  hour  the  Rio 
Grande  Company,  in  Cape  May  County,  New  Jersey,  are  manu- 
facturing over  ten  thousand  pounds  of  dry  sugar  each  day,  be- 
sides from  one  thousand  to  two  thousand  gallons  of  molasses. 
The  Champaign  Sugar  Company,  in  Champaign,  Illinois,  and  the 
Sterling  Sugar  Company,  in  Sterling,  Kansas,  are  each  making 
about  half  the  amount  of  the  Rio  Grande  Company,  and  in  ad- 
dition to  these  is  the  Kansas  Sugar  Company,  of  Hutchinson, 
Kansas,  that  produces  daily  from  twenty  to  thirty  thousand 
pounds  of  dry  sugar,  besides  a  corresponding  amount  of  drain- 
age molasses.  This  latter  company  have  now  in  employ  one 
hundred  and  fifty-three  men  in  the  factory,  forty-five  teams 
hauling  the  canes  from  the  fields  to  the  mill,  using  up  daily 
about  two  hundred  tons  of  the  stalks. 

This  business  is  no  longer  an  experiment,  but  an  absolute 
success,  and  only  awaits  for  its  development  a  flow  of  capital. 


214  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

The  companies  I  have  just  mentioned  are  all  stock  companies, 
employing  from  fifty  thousand  to  two  hundred  and  fifty  thou- 
sand dollars  in  capital  stock,  and  the  sugar  is  all  boiled  in 
vacuum  pans,  the  same  as  is  used  in  our  sugar  refineries,  and 
no  one  should  engage  in  the  business  without  visiting  them  to 
get  well  posted. 

I  will  describe  the  Stewart  process  for  the  manufacture  of 
sugar  in  all  small  mills  or  by  single  farmers — which  is  the  plan 
adopted  by  the  Jefferson  Sugar  Manufacturing  Company  of 
Jefferson,  Ohio, — and  this  can  be  made  universal  and  profitable 
on  a  small  or  large  scale,  but  for  extensive  works  we  advise  the 
use  of  vacuum  pans,  for  it  is  a  safer  process  and  less  expensive. 
The  heat  then  never  needs  to  rise  above  one  hundred  and  sixty 
degrees,  but  to  finish  for  sugar  in  open  steam  pans  or  by  direct 
fire  heat  it  must  go  nearly  to  two  hundred  and  forty  degrees 
before  it  is  finished,  and  consequently  is  more  liable  to  get 
scorched,  and  the  higher  heat  will  injure  the  color  of  both  sugar 
and  molasses.  Neither  can  it  be  evaporated  as  dry  in  open 
pans,  but  must  be  allowed  to  stand  in  hot  rooms  when  cooked 
as  hard  as  we  dare  do  it,  sometimes  for  many  days  before 
granulation  becomes  complete,  while  with  a  vacuum  pan  it  can 
often  be  cooked  dry  enough  and  crystalization  complete  so  it 
can  go  directly  into  centrifugal  machines,  for  separation  and 
final  finish;  but  usually,  they  draw  from  the  vacuum  pans  into 
little  iron  wagons,  holding  nearly  1,000  pounds  apiece,  and  roll 
them  into  a  hot  room  and  then  let  them  stand  from  twenty- 
four  to  forty-eight  hours  to  complete  the  granulation.  The  only 
hindrance  to  granulation  of  the  sugar  in  the  sorghum  plant  is 
the  natural  acid  in  the  juice,  and  as  this  is  in  no  regular 
amount,  110  fixed  rule  could  ever  be  adopted,  but  the  juice 
must  be  brought  to  proper  condition  by  a  chemical  test. 

The  crushers  to  be  used  in  any  mill  must  be  determined  by 
the  amount  of  work  you  desire  to  do,  but  all  kinds  used  should 
press  the  canes  dry  enough  so  they  will  be  fit  to  burn  for  fuel 
direct  from  the  machine,  and  if  this  is  not  accomplished  with 
once  running  through  the  crusher,  it  should  be  done  the  second 
time  and  made  to  do  it,  or  else  you  may  rest  assured  you  are 


MISCELLANEOUS  CROPS.  215 

wasting  juice.  You  will  need  in  addition  to  the  waste  cane 
bagasse,  about  one-third  or  one-half  as  much  fuel  as  you  would 
naturally  use  to  keep  up  steam  without  them.  But  your  fire- 
man will  object  to  the  use  of  them,  for  it  is  a  little  harder  work 
and  requires  considerable  muscle  as  well  as  grit  in  the  operator 
to  do  the  job  and  not  grumble. 

Arrange  the  juice  pipe  from  your  crusher  so  you  can  let  it 
run  into  two  different  vessels  or  cisterns  at  will,  for  if  you  do  a 
custom  work  in  the  factory  you  will  desire  to  know  the  value 
of  each  man's  cane  delivered  to  the  mill,  which  can  be  best 
done  by  testing  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  juice ;  there- 
fore if  you  have  two  cisterns  to  catch  the  juice,  when  one 
batch  of  cane  is  pressed,  gauge  the  vessel  so  you  will  know 
the  exact  number  of  gallons  of  the  juice.  Then  with  a  saccha- 
rometer  ascertain  its  density,  take  the  degree  murk  on  the  sac- 
charometer  for  a  divisor,  and  divide  sixty  by  that  number,  and 
the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  gallons  of  that  juice  it  will 
take  to  make  a  gallon  of  eleven-pound  molasses.  You  can  then 
mix  all  your  cane  juice  together,  and  be  sure  that  upon  this 
basis,  you  can  regulate  the  exact  worth  of  each  man's  cane,  he 
can  not  cheat  you  if  you  buy  upon  this  test  alone,  and  it  is  the 
only  sure  plan,  or  truly  correct  one,  for  every  man  should  be 
paid  according  to  the  true  merit  of  his  produce.  The  juice 
should  be  received  through  some  kind  of  a  strainer  to  free  it 
from  any  substance  that  will  prevent  its  passage  through  a  steam 
or  common  pump,  and  then  for  convenience  and  profit,  it  should 
be  elevated  to  a  reservoir  high  enough  that  all  the  changes  and 
transfers  made  during  the  manufacturing  process  afterwards  may 
finally  land  the  sugar  and  molasses  directly  where  you  wish  to 
pack  and  ship  the  goods. 

We  draw  from  our  reservoir  three  hundred  gallons  at  a 
time,  into  a  defecating  pan,  made  of  pine  plank,  eight  feet 
long,  forty  inches  wide,  and  fourteen  inches  deep  with  a  skim- 
ming arrangement  at  one  end  of  the  pan.  This  is  heated  by 
eight  lengths  of  a  three-quarter-inch  gas  pipe,  running  length- 
wise on  the  bottom  of  the  pan  inside,  and  the  steam  let  on  or 
shut  off  with  a  common  globe  steam  valve.  We  allow  the  heat 


216  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

to  raise  the  juice  to  one  hundred  and  eighty  degrees,  then  add 
lime  water  or  milk  of  lime  until  it  will  turn  a  red  litmus  paper 
blue  very  promptly.  We  then  know  by  this  chemical  test  that 
every  particle  of  the  acid  in  the  juice  is  absorbed,  and  noth- 
ing in  it  to  prevent  granulation  of  all  the  crystallizable  portion 
of  the  juice. 

We  let  the  heat  continue  until  the  juice  boils  at  two  hun- 
dred and  twelve  degrees,  then  shut  off  the  steam,  and  by  this 
time  there  will  be  a  very  thick  blanket  scum  all  over  the  top  of 
the  juice,  which  we  immediately  scrape  off  at  one  end  of  the  pan, 
made  a  little  the  lowest  for  that  purpose.  All  heavy  impurities 
that  are  heavier  than  the  juice  will  soon  settle  to  the  bottom  of 
the  pan,  and  the  clear  juice  can  then  be  drawn  out  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  pan  by  means  of  a  swing  pipe,  receiving  the  juice  at 
the  top  and  lowering  it  steadily  with  the  flow  of  juice  clear 
to  the  bottom,  or  as  long  as  it  will  run  off  clear.  When  it  be- 
comes roily,  and  you  get  to  the  muddy  sediment,  remove  that 
to  a  deep  vessel  to  settle,  and  afterwards  save  more  clear  juice. 
The  next  pan  or  tank  should  be  of  larger  capacity  than  the  first, 
because  it  may  be  necessary  to  have  part  of  two  batches  in  it  at 
once,  and  just  enough  lower  so  it  can  be  drawn  from  the  lime 
pan  easily.  In  this  second  pan  the  defecation  is  made  com- 
plete, and  here  comes  the  Stewart  process,  which  is  very  simple, 
and  easy  to  perform. 

There  would  be  a  gummy  substance  surrounding  all  the  lit- 
tle sugar  crystals  if  granulated  direct  from  the  lime  pan,  and  it 
is  not  possible  when  so  made  to  separate  the  dry  sugar  from 
the  molasses  in  a  centrifugal  machine,  and  for  this  reason  acci- 
dental granulation  of  sugar  in  sorghum  molasses  has  never  been 
of  any  account,  because  it  could  not  be  separated.  You  can  not 
free  the  juice  from  this  gum  and  dark  color,  except  by  the 
use  of  sulphur  in  some  shape  or  by  filtration  of  it  when  in 
thin  sirup  through  animal  bone  filterers.  The  latter  is  quite 
expensive. 

Burning  sulphur  and  allowing  the  fumes  to  pass  through  the 
limed  juice  will  soon  accomplish  the  work  and  restore  it  to  a 
good  color,  but  it  is  disagreeable  to  do  the  work  in  this  way. 


MISCELLA  NEO  US  CROPS.  2 1  7 

Therefore  we  have  a  large  cast  iron  retort  weighing  several  hun- 
dred pounds,  and  into  this  we  put  sulphuric  acid  and  finely  pow- 
dered charcoal.  Set  the  retort  in  a  fire  arch,  and  heat  it  up  with 
fire  as  soon  or  before  you  put  in  the  acid,  in  order  that  the  acid 
will  not  destroy  the  retort.  The  sulphur  fumes  will  very  soon 
escape,  much  stronger  than  those  obtained  from  burning  the  com- 
mon sulphur.  We  conduct  these  fumes  by  means  of  lead  pipes 
through  a  series  of  water  casks,  four  in  number,  all  filled  to 
near  the  top  with  good  pure  water.  The  water  will  soon  be- 
come charged  with  the  sulphur  smoke,  and  after  a  short  time 
that  in  the  first  two  or  three  casks  will  fail  to  absorb  any 
more,  and  its  density  will  then  be  from  three  to  four  by  the 
saccharometer  test.  This  fluid  then  can  be  drawn  off  into 
other  tight  casks,  and  kept  any  length  of  time  for  daily  use, 
and  is  then  what  Professor  Stewart  calls  solution  B,  although 
the  name  has  no  significance  whatever.  It  is  simply  sulphur 
fumes  confined  in  water,  or  sulphurous  acid,  and  is  perfectly 
harmless,  and  exactly  what  has  to  be  used  by  all  tropical  cane 
sugar  makers  in  some  form  or  other. 

We  then  take  this  solution  B,  and  add  enough  of  it  to  our 
limed  juice  until  it  will  turn  a  blue  chemical  litmus  paper  a 
slight  scarlet.  We  continue  the  heat  by  steam  pipes,  as  before 
mentioned,  and  the  juice  will  then  become  clear  and  a  bright 
straw  color.  When  it  can  be  boiled  by  steam  or  open  fire  it 
passes  directly  into  beautiful  sugar  or  molasses,  and  the  skimmer 
must  be  kept  going  lively  all  the  time  until  it  approaches  good 
thick  molasses. 

When  defecation  of  the  juice  is  completed  in  the  second  pan 
it  -can  then  be  drawn  hot  from  that  pan  to  others,  as  many  in 
number  as  your  business  requires,  and  the  evaporation  made  as 
rapid  as  possible  into  molasses  or  sugar,  taking  care  not  to  cook 
too  large  batches  at  a  time,  because  it  injures  the  color  and 
flavor  of  the  molasses  or  sugar.  Once  a  day  have  all  your  ves- 
sels and  crusher  thoroughly  cleaned,  and  made  so  nothing  will 
become  sour;  rinsing  with  lime-water  will  leave  the  crusher 
sweet  and  clean.  Never  crush  out  more  juice  than  you  can  boil 
up  each  day;  or,  better  still,  if  you  have  business  enough,  run 


218  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

night  and  day,  with  two  sets  of  hands ;  then  no  heat  is  lost,  or 
chance  for  vessels  to  become  filthy  and  sour. 

The  mush  sugar  can  be  finished  from  the  good  thin  mo- 
lasses— when  skimming  is  complete — by  putting  a  number  of 
batches  together  in  a  deeper  pan  heated  by  one-inch  copper 
pipes,  the  same  as  before  mentioned — we  have  the  fourth  trans- 
fer in  our  factory  for  this  purpose — and  cook  into  sugar  from 
five  hundred  to  six  hundred  pounds  in  each  batch,  taking  about 
one  hour's  time  from  thin  molasses.  It  must  then  be  set  away 
in  vessels,  in  a  hot  room,  kept  from  ninety  to  one  hundred  de- 
grees all  the  time,  when  in  a  few  days  the  granulation  will  be- 
come complete,  and  it  may  then  be  separated  in  a  centrifugal 
machine,  and  is  ready  for  market. 

The  molasses  made  in  this  way  is  worth  far  more  than  com- 
mon sorghum  molasses,  and  is  free  from  that  villainous  taste, 
which  ruins  the  trade  where  the  molasses  is  made  without  any 
defecation.  We  sell  ours  quickly,  where  all  the  sugar  is  left  in, 
at  sixty  cents  per  gallon  at  wholesale,  and  it  is  retailed  at  sev- 
enty-five cents.  The  sugar  brings  eight  cents  very  readily,  and 
we  can  not  keep  any  on  hand ;  our  patrons  would  take  twice  the 
amount  we  are  able  to  make. 

Sugar  made  by  this  process  will  not  cost  over  five  cents  per 
pound,  but  with  vacuum  pans  it  can  be  produced  for  less. 
These  are  very  expensive,  costing  from  five  thousand  to  twenty 
thousand  dollars  apiece,  and  our  large  sugar  factories  must  have 
them  to  do  work  to  good  advantage.  It  is  to  be  hoped  some  of 
the  professors  who  are  using  these  will  be  patriotic  enough  to 
give  to  the  public  full  and  complete  instructions  for  their  use, 
reserving  no  secrets,  but  doing  the  world  good  by  helping  to 
quickly  start  this  industry  among  our  people.  I  am  confident 
by  so  doing  they  will  find  greater  favor  with  Peter  whenever 
they  approach  the  gates  of  heaven,  and  he  will  be  more  ready 
to  pronounce  their  work  well  done,  and  they  justly  entitled 
to  wages. 

New  varieties  of  this  sorghum  plant  are  being  brought  out 
every  year,  and  our  markets  are  being  flooded  with  new  ma- 
chinery, very  much  of  which  is  absolutely  worthless.  Many 


MISCELLANEOUS  CROPS.  219 

a  manufacturer  who  has  had  no  practical  experience,  but  has  a 
"  bee  in  his  hat,"  starts  a  machine,  and  always  thinks  it  the  best ; 
but  all  who  contemplate  embarking  in  the  business  should  learn 
what  they  need  from  the  factories  that  are  making  a  success  of 
it,  and  not  depend  upon  the  word  of  the  manufacturers  of 
machinery  at  all.  Practical  men  will  give  you  the  best  in- 
struction. 

Tobacco. — In  writing  briefly,  as  I  must,  on  the  culture  of 
this  plant,  I  am  embarrassed  as  I  remember  that  the  experienced 
tobacco  grower  does  not  need  and  will  not  profit  by  what  I  shall 
write,  and  that  no  one  who  has  not  practical  knowledge  of  the 
crop  can  learn  from  a  single  article  enough  to  enable  him  to  suc- 
cessfully undertake  its  culture.  It  is  probably  the  most  ex- 
haustive crop  grown  on  the  farm,  requiring  the  best  land  and 
heavy  manuring  to  produce  a  profitable  crop,  and  a  large  amount 
of  labor,  and  it  is  unwise  to  undertake  growing  it  unless  prepared 
to  give  it  the  attention  required,  and  at  the  proper  time.  While 
under  favorable  circumstances  a  large  profit  is  often  realized 
from  this  crop,  it  often,  in  the  long  run,  fails  to  be  profitable, 
and  if  the  same  labor  and  manure  was  devoted  to  corn,  wheat, 
and  potatoes,  it  would  be  better  for  the  farm,  and  often  for 
the  farmer. 

VARIETIES. — The  varieties  of  tobacco  are  as  numerous  as  of 
corn,  and,  like  corn,  there  are  many  local  names  given  it.  Among 
the  names  given  by  practical  writers  I  find  the  following:  Con- 
necticut seed-leaf,  Ohio  seed-leaf  (the  two  are  probably  identi- 
cal), big  Frederick,  little  Frederick,  Orinoco,  brittle  stem,  golden 
leaf,  broad  leaf,  yellow  Prior,  Cuba,  Spanish  white  Burley,  etc. 
Some  varieties  are  suited  to  one  soil  and  some  to  another,  and 
the  inexperienced  planter  should  make  careful  inquiry  before 
deciding  on  what  to  plant. 

SEED  AND  SEED-BEDS. — The  seed  of  tobacco  is  very  small; 
from  careful  weighing  and  counting  it  is  estimated  that  an  ounce 
contains  over  eight  hundred  thousand  seeds,  and  the  amount 
necessary  to  grow  plants  for  an  acre  is  very  small.  Some  writers 
estimate  two  thimbles  full,  but  those  most  experienced  recom- 
mend about  one  ounce  for  each  three  acres.  If  kept  in  a  dry. 


220  THE  PEOPLE'*  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

safe  place,  the  seed  is  good  for  many  years,  growing  as  well  at 
seven  or  eight  years  old  as  the  first  year.  This  will  enable  the 
planter  to  save  seed  for  a  series  of  years  when  he  has  an  extra 
good  crop.  The  greatest  care  should  be  exercised  in  selecting 
plants  from  which  to  grow  seed. 

The  seed-bed  should  be  prepared  early,  varying  with  season 
and  locality,  from  the  middle  of  February  to  the  middle  of 
March.  It  should  be  fresh  land,  and  sheltered  on  the  north  and 
west,  and  a  spot  is  usually  cleared  along  the  edge  of  a  wood.  It 
must  be  naturally  drained,  and  a  piece  of  gravelly  land  sloping 
to  the  south  is  favorable.  If  new  land  can  not  be  had  a  piece  of 
sod  should  be  plowed  in  the  fall,  and  heavily  manured  with 
manure  which  has  been  so  prepared  that  it  is  positively  certain 
there  are  no  seeds  in  it  that  will  germinate. 

When  you  find  the  land  dry  enough  to  work,  as  spring  ap- 
proaches cover  the  bed  with  brush  and  set  them  on  fire,  and 
have  brush  enough  to  add  so  as  to  keep  a  hot  fire  for  an  hour  or 
more.  The  object  of  this  is  to  kill  the  weeds,  as  the  young  to- 
bacco plants  will  not  flourish  with  weeds,  and  it  is  very  difficult 
to  pull  them  out  without  damage  to  the  plants.  After  the  brush 
has  burned,  while  the  land  is  still  warm,  dig  the  bed  up,  turn- 
ing the  ashes  under,  and  pulverize  and  rake  till  it  is  perfectly 
mellow  and  level.  Then  sow  your  seed,  at  the  rate  of  a  tea- 
spoonful  to  the  square  rod.  As  it  is  so  fine  it  will  be  necessary 
to  mix  it  with  something  to  enable  you  to  sow  it  evenly,  and 
ashes  is  recommended  for  the  purpose.  All  the  covering  needed 
will  be  to  run  a  light  roller  over  it  or  press  it  with  a  board. 
Planters  differ  as  to  the  amount  of  land  required  to  produce 
plants  for  an  acre,  some  sowing  less  than  a  square  rod,  and  others 
as  much  as  two.  The  bed  should  be  protected  with  brush  after 
being  sown.  If  the  weather  should  be  very  dry  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  water  the  bed,  and  it  will  be  a  great  advantage  to  use  a 
small  amount  of  hen  manure  or  soot  in  the  water. 

When  the  plants  come  up,  which  will  be  in  from  four  to  six 
weeks  dust  frequently  with  plaster  and  ashes,  as  there  is  an  in- 
sect called  the  tobacco  fly — which  resembles  the  garden  flea— 
that  often  destroys  them.     If  the  plants  are  so  thick  as  to  be 


MISCELLANEOUS  (.'ROJ'S.  221 

likely  to  become  spindling,  they  must  be  thinned  so  as  to  stand 
about  an  inch  apart.  This  can  be  best  done  \vith  an  iron  tooth 
rake,  as  the  plants  left  will  be  benefited  by  the  cultivation 
which  the  raking  will  give. 

SOIL  AND  PLANTING. —  The  best  soil  for  tobacco  is  a  rich, 
sandy,  second  bottom,  or  chocolate  colored  upland.  Black  land 
makes  the  heaviest  growth,  but  the  quality  is  not  so  good.  The 
soil  should  be  dry  and  warm,  and  contain  lime,  as  this  is  an  im- 
portant property  of  the  crop.  New  land  is  preferable,  but  any 
land  that  grows  good  corn,  wheat,  potatoes,  and  clover  will 
grow  good  tobacco.  If  old  land  is  planted,  it  should  have 
twenty-five  loads  of  manure  to  the  acre.  A  good  rotation  is  to 
follow  tobacco  with  wheat  and  seed  with  clover,  and  as  the  land 
will  be  very  rich,  if  the  clover  is  allowed  to  blossom  in  the  fall 
before  any  stock  is  turned  on  it,  it  will  make  a  heavy  growth, 
so  that  it  will  furnish  a  large  amount  of  plant  food,  and  may  be 
turned  under  in  May  following,  and  the  field  again  planted  in 
tobacco.  It  is  best  to  plow  early  and  give  the  land  several 
workings  before  setting  out  the  tobacco,  as  this  will  kill  the 
weeds  and  give  a  better  condition  of  soil  than  late  breaking. 

When  the  plants  have  reached  the  fourth  or  fifth  leaf,  and 
are  three  or  four  inches  high  they  are  ready  to  transplant.  The 
planting  season  varies  in  different  years  and  localities,  and  ex- 
tends from  about  the  middle  of  May  to  July.  The  field  is 
marked  off  sometimes  one,  and  sometimes  both  ways,  the  aver- 
age distance  being  about  three  feet.  Small,  flat  hills,  elevated 
a  few  inches  above  the  level  of  the  land,  are  made  with  hoes, 
and  the  field  is  ready  for  the  plants.  If  a  large  amount  is  to 
be  set,  help  should  be  engaged  to  take  advantage  of  the  first 
good  weather,  and  the  work  pushed.  Before  lifting  the  plants 
from  the  seed  bed,  it  should  be  copiously  watered  so  as  to  soften 
it  in  order  that  they  may  be  taken  up  without  breaking  the  roots. 

The  same  general  directions  given  in  the  chapter  on  root 
crops  for  setting  out  sweet  potato  plants  will  apply  to  tobacco. 
If  there  are  several  hands  at  work,  it  is  best  to  appoint  a  fore- 
man who  will  oversee  the  job.  The  plants  should  be  set  well 
down  in  the  soil,  and  the  earth  pressed  so  firmly  that  if  you 


222  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

take  a  leaf  between  the  thumb  and  finger  and  give  a  jerk,  a 
piece  will  break  out.  If  you  pull  the  plant  up  instead,  it  shows 
that  it  is  not  well  planted,  and  would  be  almost  sure  to  die  if 
dry  weather  follows.  As  soon  as  possible  replace  missing  plants 
so  as  to  have  a  perfect  stand. 

The  first  enemy  that  will  give  you  trouble  is  the  cut-worm, 
and  the  remedy  generally  recommended  is  to  go  over  and  kill 
the  worms  by  hand  and  reset.  Some  claim  that  ashes  or  a 
spoonful  of  salt  and  plaster  scattered  round  the  plants  will  save 
them,  but  whatever  is  done  must  be  done  promptly.  The  cul- 
tivation must  be  thorough.  It  seems  useless  to  give  detailed 
directions,  but  it  will  certainly  pay  to  keep  a  crop  clean  and 
growing,  that  costs  in  labor  and  manure  as  much  as  a  tobacco 
crop  does.  Continue  the  cultivation  till  the  plants  spread,  so 
that  you  can  not  work  them  without  breaking  the  leaves. 

WORMING. — By  the  time  the  leaves  are  as  large  as  a  man's 
hand,  you  must  begin  to  look  for  the  green  worms.  They  usu- 
ally stay  on  the  lower  side  of  the  leaf,  and  if  you  see  a  hole  in 
a  leaf,  no  matter  how  small,  turn  it  up  and  you  will  be  pretty 
sure  to  find  the  worm.  This  work  must  be  done  thoroughly,  for 
if  you  miss  one  or  two  worms,  before  you  know  it  the  plant 
will  be  nearly  eaten  up.  It  will  usually  be  necessary  to  go  over 
the  field  and  kill  the  worms  twice  a  week  from  about  the  middle 
of  July  till  cutting  begins.  While  killing  the  worms,  keep  a 
lookout  for  the  eggs,  and  also  destroy  as  many  of  the  moths  as 
possible.  The  latter  are  about  half  as  large  as  a  humming-bird, 
and  can  be  seen  about  sundown  flying  from  plant  to  plant.  The 
worms,  although  repulsive  in  appearance,  are  perfectly  harmless 
and  are  usually  killed  with  thumb  and  finger  by  a  pinch  and  twist. 

PRIMING. — What  is  called  priming,  is  the  breaking  off  of 
the  bottom  leaves  which  grow  so  near  the  ground  as  to  lie  flat, 
and  rot  or  get  dirty,  and  this  work  should  be  done  as  early  as 
the  plant  will  admit  of  it.  The  distance  from  the  ground  that  the 
leaves  should  be  removed  varies  with  different  varieties  from  four 
to  six  inches.  Some  growers  omit  it  and  sort  out  the  lower  leaves 
after  the  crop  is  cut,  and  sell  them  for  about  half  price.  Those  who 
<lo  not  prime,  generally  top  lower  than  those  who  do.  In  taking 


MISCELLANEOUS  CROPS.  223 

off  these  leaves,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  injure  the  plant;  for 
if  torn  downward,  the  plant  would  often  be  wounded  so  that  it 
would  take  more  strength  to  heal  it  than  to  perfect  the  leaves. 

TOPPING. — This  is  done  to  prevent  blossoming  and  to  throw 
the  strength  to  the  leaves  which  would  otherwise  go  to  make 
seed.  This  must  be  done  as  soon  as  the  seed-buds  show,  and 
often  earlier,  and  sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  take  off  one  or 
more  leaves.  In  determining  when  to  top  and  how  much  to 
take  off,  good  judgment  is  required.  The  planter  should  ask 
first,  "  Is  there  time  enough  to  ripen  the  upper  leaves  fully  ?" 
and,  second,  "Is  there  strength  enough  in  the  plant  and  soil  to 
mature  all  the  leaves?"  If  he  can  answer  "yes,"  to  both  ques- 
tions, only  the  flower-stalk  need  be  removed ;  but  if  "  no,"  he 
tops  to  from  eight  to  sixteen  leaves,  according  to  his  judgment. 
Here  will  be  seen  the  importance  of  starting  the  plants  early,  as 
the  yield  may  often  be  increased  one-half  by  it. 

SUCKERING. — This  is  for  the  same  purpose  as  the  topping— 
to  concentrate  the  strength  of  the  plant  in  the  leaf.  The  suck- 
ers start  where  the  stem  of  the  leaf  joins  the  stalk.  They  draw 
off  the  nutriment,  and  do  not  grow  to  be  of  any  value,  and  so, 
must  be  removed.  This  is  one  of  the  most  tedious  operations 
in  tobacco  culture,  for  the  suckers  do  not  all  appear  at  once, 
coming  first  on  the  lower  leaves,  later  on  the  middle,  and  last  at 
the  top,  and  sometimes  will  even  start  a  second  time  where  they 
were  first  removed.  None  of  these  operations — priming,  top- 
ping, or  suckering — should  be  done  when  the  plant  is  wet, 
either  with  rain  or  dew;  for,  if  handled  when  wet,  rust-spots 
will  appear  on  the  leaves,  which  will  increase  in  size  till  they 
destroy  them. 

HARVESTING. — Tobacco,  as  it  ripens,  changes  color,  assuming 
a  piebald  or  spotted  appearance,  and  the  leaves  feel  sticky,  and 
when  bent,  break  off  short.  These  appearances  indicate  that  it 
is  ready  to  cut.  The  dry-house  should  be  in  order,  and  sticks 
provided.  The  plants  are  cut  close  to  the  ground  and  allowed  to 
wilt,  so  as  to  toughen  them,  when  they  are  taken  to  the  dry-house. 
All  the  handling  must  be  done  with  the  utmost  care,  so  as  not 
to  bruise  or  break  the  leaves.  Some  growers  practice  splitting 


224  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

the  8tem  from  the  top  down  to  within  six  inches  of  the  ground 
before  cutting,  claiming  that  the  tobacco  cures  better.  When 
thus  split  the  plants  are  hung  astride  the  sticks ;  when  not  split 
the  plants  are  sometimes  nailed  to  the  sticks  and  sometimes 
hung  with  strings.  A  tobacco  barn,  to  hold  two  arid  a  half  acres, 
should  be  twenty -four  feet  square,  and  with  posts  high  enough  to 
give  five  tiers,  the  lowest  six  feet  from  the  ground.  Some  prac- 
tice fire-curing,  which  is  done  by  building  fires  in  holes  dug  in 
the  ground  under  the  tobacco,  and  allowing  the  heat  and  smoke 
to  pass  up  through  it;  and  this  is  necessary  when  the  buildings 
are  crowded,  especially  in  damp  weather.  Others  prefer  to  build 
larger  barns,  and  give  the  plants  more  room,  thus  avoiding 
the  expense  and  risk  of  fire,  as  there  is  always  danger  of 
burning  the  building. 

STRIPPING. — When  the  tobacco  is  thoroughly  cured,  so  that 
the  stern  of  the  leaf  shows  no  sap,  it  is  ready  to  strip.  This 
must  be  done  in  damp  weather.  The  leaves  are  stripped  from 
the  stems  and  assorted  into  their  grades.  Ten  to  fifteen  leaves 
are  put  in  a  bunch  and  tied  together  at  the  butts,  and  this 
makes  what  is  called  a  "hand  of  tobacco." 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  evident  to  the  farmer  who  has 
no  practical  knowledge  of  the  crop,  that  it  would  be  folly  for 
him  to  attempt  to  grow  it  on  a  large  scale  with  only  such  knowl- 
edge as  can  be  obtained  from  books.  There  are  nice  points  in 
the  curing  and  handling  of  tobacco  which  can  only  be  learned 
by  experience  and  familiarity  with  the  plant.  It  is  a  crop  like 
cotton,  which  gives  work  almost  the  entire  year,  and  which  ad- 
mits of  no  delay  or  postponement,  and  no  one  should  attempt  to 
grow  it  unless  willing  to  work  early  and  late,  and  so  situated  as  to 
command  all  the  help  necessary.  When  we  consider  the  risk  of 
the  crop,  the  large  amount  of  labor  and  manure  required  to  grow 
it,  its  exhaustion  of  the  soil,  and  that  it  only  gratifies  a  de- 
praved taste,  and  is  largely  used  by  poor  men  whose  families 
need  every  dollar  they  can  earn,  it  becomes  a  question  to  which 
careful  consideration  should  be  given  before  any  farmer  under- 
takes its  production.  If  any  one  determines  to  engage  in  the 
business,  he  should  either  begin  with  a  very  small  plot,  and  in- 


MISCELLANEOUS  CROPS.  225 

crease  as  he  gains  the  necessary  knowledge,  or  he  should  hire 
some  one  experienced  in  its  management  to  take  charge  of  it. 

PROPERTIES. — An  analysis  of  the  ash  of  tobacco  shows  the 
following  per  cent  of  the  various  constituents : 

Potash, 12.14 

Soda 0.07 

Lime, 45.90 

Magnesia,  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .13.09 

Chloride  of  Sodium, 3.49 

Chloride  of  Potassium, 3.98 

Phosphate  of  Iron,  .......  5  48 

Phosphate  of  Lime 1.49 

Sulphate  of  Lime, 6.35 

Silica,  .  ....     8.01 

Total, 100.00 

From  the  above  table  can  be  seen  what  mineral  matters  pre- 
dominate in  the  plant. 

15 


226 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


X. 


ROOT  CROPS. 


IN  this  chapter  I  shall  include  potatoes,   sweet  potatoes,  and 
onions,  as  well  as  roots  for  stock  feeding. 
Potatoes. — The  product  of  potatoes  in  the  United  States 
for  eleven  years,  from  1871  to  1881  inclusive,  was  as  follows : 


Years. 

Acres. 

Bushels. 

Average  price 
per  bushel. 

Average  yield 
per  acre. 

Average  value 
per  acre. 

1871 

1,220,912 

120,416,100 

$0  60 

99 

S58  83 

1872 

1,331,331 

113,516,000 

60 

85 

51  14 

1873 

1,295,139 

106,089,000 

70 

82 

57  47 

1874 

1,310,041 

105,981,000 

68 

81 

54  83 

1875 

1,510,041 

166,877,000 

39 

111 

43  06 

1876 

1,741,983 

124,827,000 

67 

72 

48  14 

1877 

1,792,287 

170,092,000 

45 

95 

42  54 

1878 

1,776,000 

124,126,650 

59 

70 

41  14 

1879 

1,836,800 

181,626,400 

44 

99 

43  09 

1880 

1,842,510 

167,659,570 

48 

91 

44  00 

1881 

2,041,670 

109,145,494 

91 

53 

48  63 

Annual 
average. 

1,608,974 

135,491,019 

59 

87 

47  68 

I  think  we  can  study  the  figures  given  in  the  above  tables 
with  profit,  and  there  are  several  points  to  which  I  wish  to  call 
attention.  First,  you  will  notice  that  the  smallest  acreage  gave 
the  largest  profit  per  acre.  The  four  years  in  which  there  were 
less  than  one  and  a  half  million  acres  planted,  are  the  only 
ones  in  which  the  average  value  per  acre  exceeds  fifty  dollars. 
Again,  you  will  notice,  that  the  years  of  greatest  yield  per 
acre  were  not  always  the  most  profitable,  as  you  will  observe  by 
comparing  1875  with  a  yield  of  111  bushels,  and  1879  with  a 
yield  of  99  bushels,  with  the  years  1876  and  1881,  when  the 


ROOT  CROPS.  227 

yield  was  72  and  53  bushels  respectively.  The  first  two  years 
the  value  per  acre  was  a  fraction  over  $43,  and  the  last  two  it 
was  over  $48,  making  a  difference  of  $5  per  acre  in  favor  of 
the  smaller  yields,  and  as  the  average  is  105  bushels  per  acre  for 
the  two  largest  yields,  and  but  62 h  for  the  two  smallest,  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  farmer  received  five  dollars  more  per  acre  for 
the  labor  of  handling  the  small  crop  than  he  did  for  the  large. 
You  will  also  notice  the  high  average  value  per  acre  of  the 
crop,  $47.68.  During  this  same  period,  the  average  value  of 
the  corn  crop  was  $11.20,  and  of  the  wheat  crop  $12.82  per 
acre,  so  it  will  be  seen  that  the  potatoes  brought  nearly  four 
times  as  much  per  acre  as  the  wheat,  and  more  than  four  times 
as  much  as  corn. 

I  think  these  figures  teach  plainly  that  the  farmer  who  will 
prepare  and  cultivate  his  land  properly,  and  follow  growing  po- 
tatoes every  year,  will  find  the  crop  a  very  profitable  one,  and 
if  he  is  thorough  in  his  work,  so  as  to  grow  average  crops  in  the 
bad  seasons,  he  will  realize  his  greatest  profit  in  the  years  which 
give  nearest  a  failure  of  the  crop.  In  proof  of  this,  I  would 
mention  the  case  of  a  farmer  who,  in  1881,  grew  a  heavy  crop 
of  potatoes.  You  will  see  from  our  table  that  the  yield  per 
acre  that  year  was  very  much  lower  than  any  other  season  dur- 
ing the  eleven  years,  and  the  average  price  higher.  Following 
his  usual  plan  of  thorough  work,  this  man  averaged  $160  per 
acre  from  his  crop  of  early  potatoes,  and  $100  per  acre  for  the 
late  crop  and  realized  over  two  thousand  dollars  for  his  entire 
crop.  I  have  been  acquainted  with  a  few  farmers  who  have 
made  potatoes  a  leading  crop,  and  they  have  in  every  instance 
made  a  handsome  profit. 

PREPARATION  OF  THE  SOIL. — I  think  no  crop  grown  on  the 
farm  pays  better  than  potatoes,  for  extra  work  before  plant- 
ing. The  period  of  growth  is  short,  especially  with  the  early 
varieties,  and  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  land  in  such  condition 
that  the  plant  food  is  available,  and  the  plant  will  push  at  once 
into  a  vigorous  growth.  To  do  this  our  land  must  be  well 
drained,  for  we  can  not  work  a  heavy,  wet  soil.  I  prefer  fnll 
plowing  for  this  crop,  and  find  that  a  sod  turned  under  gives  the 


228  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

best  mechanical  condition.  I  would  advise  that  the  manure  be 
applied  in  the  fall  immediately  after  breaking,  as  early  plant- 
ing gives  the  best  results,  and  it  is  usually  difficult  to  wagon 
over  the  plowed  ground  as  early  as  you  want  to  plant  in  the 
spring.  As  soon  as  the  land  is  in  a  condition  to  be  worked  well 
in  the  spring,  go  to  work  mellowing  the  surface.  Do  not  at- 
tempt to  plow  it  again,  no  matter  how  much  it  has  been  packed 
and  settled,  but  with  the  best  implements  at  your  command 
work  down  from  the  top.  The  disk  harrows  are  advisable  for 
this  purpose,  but  you  can  work  it  fine  and  deep  with  the  cultiva- 
tor with  bull  tongues  and  a  heavy,  common  harrow  if  you  will 
take  time.  As  you  pulverize  it  you  will  mix  the  manure  thor- 
oughly, and  when  you  have  six  inches  of  mellow,  fine  soil,  you 
are  ready  to  plant. 

PLANTING. — I  prefer  to  lay  off  my  potato  land  with  a  shovel 
plow  with  a  long  narrow  point,  as  it  makes  a  deep  furrow  with 
plenty  of  loose  soil  in  the  bottom.  I  believe  in  close  planting, 
so  as  to  fully  occupy  the  land  and  enable  the  crop  to  shade  the 
soil  thoroughly,  and  think  for  most  varieties,  rows  three  feet 
apart,  and  hills  eighteen  inches  in  the  row,  will  give  the  best  re- 
sults. This  will  give  9,680  hills  to  the  acre;  and  an  average  of 
one  pound  to  the  hill  will  make  a  yield  of  over  one  hundred 
and  sixty  bushels  per  acre.  I  think  it  a  great  advantage  to 
step  on  the  seed  in  planting,  so  as  to  press  it  well  down  in  the 
furrow  and  bring  it  in  close  contact  with  the  soil.  The  ad- 
vantages are  that  it  is  less  likely  to  be  displaced  in  covering, 
and  less  earth  will  be  required  to  cover  it  to  a  sufficient  depth, 
it  will  be  less  likely  to  be  frozen  when  the  planting  is  done 
early,  or  to  be  dried  out  when  late,  and  it  will  start  quicker 
when  pressed  closely  in  contact  with  the  soil,  than  if  lying  in 
loose  earth. 

The  amount  of  seed  to  be  used  is  a  matter  of  considerable 
importance,  and  one  on  which  farmers  should  experiment  care- 
fully. Page  229  shows  the  result  of  an  experiment  made  by  J. 
L.  Delano,  of  Massachusetts.  Eight  plots  of  twenty  square  rods 
each  were  planted  with  hills  three  feet  by  eighteen  inches 
apart,  and  seed  prepared  as  described.  Medium  sized  potatoes 


ROOT  CROPS. 


229 


were  selected  and  were  first   cut  so  as  to  divide  the  seed  end 
from  the  stem  end.     The  table  will  be  readily  understood. 


Number  of  plot... 

KINO  OF  SEED. 

Weight  of  seed  In 
pounds  

a"* 

*  2. 

n 
1 

5" 

o 

3 
•o 

V 

! 

Weight  of  large 
potatoes  

B 

sl 

00  O 

jf 

Weight  of  small 
potatoes  

Bushels  of  small 
potatoes  

1 

STEM-END. 
One  eye  

18 

960 

16 

912 

151 

48 

2 

Two  eyes  

30 

1  500 

25 

1  408 

234 

92 

1^ 

3 

Four  eyes  

46 

1,815 

301 

1  652 

f-^ra 

27* 

163 

4 

Half  of  potato  

60 

1  440 

24 

1  234 

20£ 

206 

31 

5 

SEED-END. 

One  eye  

19 

1  050 

1  015 

17 

36 

U2 

6 

Two  eyes  

?4 

1  560 

26 

1  470 

90 

jf 

7 

Four  eyes  

47 

1  905 

1  745 

29 

160 

9f 

8 

Half  of  Potato  

61 

1,560 

26 

1  320 

22 

240 

4 

It  will  pay  to  carefully  study  this  table.  You  will  see  that 
there  is  little  difference  in  the  value  of  the  seed-end  and 
the  stem-end  of  the  potato  and  that  neither  one  or  two  eyes  are 
sufficient  unless  the  hills  are  planted  too  close  for  easy  cultiva- 
tion. The  best  result  in  both  cases  was  from 
four  eyes  and  a  much  larger  proportion  of  small 
potatoes  resulted  from  the  half  potato.  The 
amount  of  seed  per  acre  varies  from  a  little 
less  than  two  and  a  half  to  over  eight  bushels 
per  acre.  I  think  there  is  no  question  as  to 
the  economy  and  propriety  of  cutting  seed, 
and  my  judgment  is  that  the  best  results  will 
follow  cutting  to  two  eyes.  If  four  eyes 
are  wanted  in  the  hill  put  in  two  pieces. 
There  is  also  a  right  and  wrong  way  to  cut  seed, 
the  right  way  being  to  cut  so  as  to  have  the 
piece  run  to  the  center  of  the  potato.  I  pre- 
fer to  begin  at  the  stem-end,  as  the  eyes  are 
farther  apart  there,  and  cut  angling  across  the  potato  so  that 


HOW  TO  CUT  SEED. 


230 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


each  piece  shall  be  triangular,  with  the  point  running  to  the 
middle  of  the  potato.  The  cut  gives  an  idea  of  how  the  work 
should  be  done. 

From  the  illustration  one  might  suppose  there  was  but 
one  eye  to  a  piece,  but  the  second  eye  is  on  the  opposite 
side.  Experiments  made  on  Houghton  farm  showed  a  marked 
difference  in  the  product  from  shallow  cut  eyes,  or  those  cut 
as  shown  in  the  engraving.  The  results  of  three  experiments 
were  as  follows : 


No.  1,  twenty  hills,  produced,  . 

«       O  (I  «  « 

«       O  «  ((  « 

o, 


Shallow  eyes. 

2  Ibs.  6  oz. 

2  "    6  " 

3  "  13  " 


Deep  eyes. 

6  Ibs.  11  oz. 

5    "     15  " 

15   "     13  " 


If  you  have  a  new  and  high-priced  variety  of  seed,  and 
wish  to  make  all  you  can  from  it,  then  cut  to  single  eyes,  as 
you  will  see  from  the  table  that  one  eye  produced  more  than 
half  as  many  potatoes  as  four  eyes  and  with  a  smaller  per  cent 
of  unmerchantable  ones.  When  a  potato  is  planted  whole  a 
portion  of  the  eyes  remain  dormant,  but  there  will  still  enough 
grow  to  make  the  plants  too  much  crowded  in  the  hill  and  so 
produce  an  undue  proportion  of  small  tubers.  This  is  shown  in 
our  table.  The  small  potatoes  from  the  seed  cut  to  one  eye 
were  but  4.18  per  cent  of  the  crop,  and  from  the  seed  cut  to 
two  eyes  but  5.95  per  cent,  while  from  half  potatoes  14.87  per 
cent  were  small. 

It  sometimes  becomes  a  question  of  considerable  importance 
whether  very  small  seed  will  produce  a  profitable  crop,  as  a 
short  crop  often  makes  the  price  of  seed  very  high.  I  do  not 
advocate  the  use  of  small  seed  ordinarily,  but  by  careful  experi- 
ment I  am  fully  satisfied  that  it  may  be  used  occasion- 
ally with  good  results.  I  give  here  the  results  of  several 
experiments : 

I  raised  a  large  crop  of  extra  nice  potatoes  in  the  summer 
of  1857,  and  did  not  sell  till  the  following  spring.  When  I  was 
taking  them  out  of  the  pit  I  concluded  to  try  an  experiment, 
and  so  I  selected  enough  seed  to  plant  five  rows,  ten  rods  long, 
of  the  finest  potatoes  that  could  be  picked  out  from  one  hun- 


ROOT  CROPS.  231 

dred  bushels.  I  did  not  take  a  potato  that  would  weigh  less 
than  a  pound,  or  one  that  had  a  blemish  or  rough  place  OH  it, 
and  I  never  saw  a  handsomer  bushel  of  potatoes  than  those  se- 
lected. I  then  selected  enough  seed  for  five  rows  of  the  poor- 
est potatoes  I  could  find.  I  did  not  select  one  but  what  was 
less  than  an  ounce  in  weight,  and  when  I  could  break  off  a  knob 
from  a  big  rough  potato  I  did  so.  It  did  not  take  over  a  half 
peck  of  seed  to  plant  as  much  land  as  the  bushel  of  large  ones 
planted.  These  were  planted  side  by  side,  cultivated  just  alike, 
and  dug  the  same  day. 

I  put  the  product  of  each  five  rows  in  a  pile  by  themselves, 
and  called  a  carpenter  and  his  three  assistants,  who  were  at 
work  for  me,  to  come  and  examine  them,  telling  of  the  two 
kinds  of  seed  from  which  they  were  grown,  but  did  not  tell 
them  which  pile  grew  from  the  large  seed.  The  three  young 
men  said  they  could  see  no  difference  in  quantity  or  quality,  but 
the  boss  carpenter,  after  a  careful  examination,  picked  out  the 
pile  grown  from  the  small  seed  as  having  the  largest  proportion 
of  merchantable  potatoes. 

In  the  fall  of  1859  the  potato  crop  was  quite  short.  Mine 
did  not  make  over  thirty  bushels  to  the  acre,  as  I  see  by  refer- 
ence to  my  diary.  I  assorted  them  into  three  sizes,  putting  the 
very  small  ones  by  themselves,  intending  to  cook  them  for  the 
pigs;  but,  when  I  was  planting  the  next  spring,  I  ran  out  of 
seed,  and  so  went  to  the  barrel  of  very  small  potatoes  to  finish. 
I  planted  nearly  a  half  acre  of  this  very  small  seed,  and  never 
grew  a  finer  crop,  quality  and  quantity  considered.  Several 
years  later  I  planted  a  row  of  potatoes  from  seed  so  small  that 
it  took  ten  of  them  to  weigh  an  ounce,  and  had  just  as  good  po- 
tatoes, both  in  yield  and  quality,  as  from  the  adjoining  rows, 
planted  with  selected  seed. 

When  this  question  was  discussed  in  our  farmers'  club,  Mr. 
J.  B.  Pugh  stated  that,  when  he  was  living  in  Warren  County, 
0.,  there  was  nearly  a  failure  of  the  potato  crop,  and  seed  was 
worth  two  dollars  per  bushel.  He  traded  a  sack  of  oats  for  a 
bushel  of  very  small  potatoes,  which  a  neighbor  was  about  to 
feed  to  his  hogs,  thinking  they  would  not  do  to  plant.  He  cut 


232  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

them,  and  said  the  pieces  were  not  much  larger  than  grains  of 
corn,  and  a  bushel  planted  an  acre.  The  result  was  a  very  fine 
crop,  both  in  yield  and  quality. 

I  think  that,  with  medium-sized  seed,  properly  cut,  five 
bushels  is  sufficient  for  an  acre.  It  is  of  greater  importance  to 
have  the  seed  sound  than  that  it  be  large.  I  have  rarely  seen 
a  good  crop  of  potatoes  grown  from  shriveled,  sprouted  seed, 
and,  as  seed  is  much  less  likely  to  sprout  in  pits  than  in  the 
cellar,  I  prefer  to  pit  my  seed.  The  best  time  to  select  seed  is 
at  digging  time,  as  there  is  less  difficulty  in  detecting  any  ad- 
mixture at  this  time  than  in  the  spring.  Smooth,  good-shaped 
tubers  that  will  average  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg  I  believe  to  be  as 
good  as  larger  ones,  and  if  these  are  taken  out  it  leaves  those 
which  are  to  be  sold  or  used  looking  all  the  better. 

I  recommend  early  planting  for  most  varieties,  and  think 
that,  in  a  great  majority  of  cases,  it  will  give  the  best  yield. 
There  are  some  varieties,  like  the  Peach-blow,  that  will  grow  all 
through  the  hot  weather,  and  make  the  crop  in  a  short  time 
after  the  fall  rains  come,  which  may  be  planted  in  June,  and 
will  make  a  profitable  yield. 

I  believe,  also,  in  deep  planting,  and  this  is  the  reason  why  I 
recommend  laying  off  the  land  with  the  long-pointed  shovel  plow, 
and  stepping  on  the  seed.  When  planted  in  this  way  they  can 
be  covered  with  the  plow,  harrow,  or  cultivator.  If  the  land  is 
loose  I  prefer  the  harrow,  but  if  it  has  been  compacted  it  is  bet- 
ter to  use  an  implement  that  will  stir  it  somewhat. 

COVERING  WITH  STRAW. — Some  very  excellent  crops  of  pota- 
toes have  been  grown  by  covering  with  straw,  while  in  other 
cases  it  has  resulted  in  failure.  I  think  that,  under  favorable 
conditions,  it  is  an  excellent  way  to  plant,  as  no  cultivation  will 
be  necessary,  and  the  straw,  decaying,  will  enrich  the  land.  This 
plan  will  not  succeed  on  a  cold,  wet  soil  unless  the  season  proves 
a  dry  one,  and  I  would  not  advise  that  it  be  tried,  except  on  a 
soil  either  naturally  or  artificially  drained.  When  the  potatoes 
are  to  be  covered  with  straw  I  would  lay  off  shallow,  and  cover 
lightly,  and  not  apply  the  straw  till  the  potatoes  began  to  show 
above  the  ground.  The  straw  should  be  thick  enough  to  keep 


ROOT  CROPS.  233 

down  all  weeds.  When  ready  to  dig,  the  straw  can  be  put  up 
in  cocks,  like  hay,  and  a  good  portion  of  it  can  be  used  a  second 
year.  One  of  the  most  successful  potato  growers  I  ever  met  was 
using  all  his  straw  for  this  purpose,  planting  an  average  of  five 
acres  each  year  in  this  way. 

VARIETIES. — If  I  should  give  a  list  of  varieties  that  had 
given  satisfaction  here  in  my  own  locality,  it  would  not  be  the 
best  for  a  majority  of  our  readers,  and  as  I  believe  that  this  is  a 
question  which  every  farmer  must  settle  for  himself,  I  shall  not 
attempt  to  make  out  such  a  list.  You  will  find  lists  and  descrip- 
tions in  the  catalogues  of  all  our  leading  -seedsmen  from  which  to 
make  your  selections,  and  my  advice  is  that  you  experiment  with 
one  or  more  new  varieties  each  year.  I  have  increased  the  yield 
and  profits  of  the  potato  crop  largely  by  changing  varieties,  and 
think  that  nearly  every  farmer  can  do  the  same.  I  would  ad- 
vise, in  trying  any  new  variety,  that  but  a  few  be  bought;  a 
peck  is  enough,  and  often  a  single  pound  will  be  better.  A 
bushel  is  often  grown  from  a  pound,  and  I  have  known  this 
yield  doubled,  and  thus  in  two  years  a  pound  will  enable  you 
to  test  a  variety  thoroughly,  and  leave  seed  for  one  or  more 
acres.  In  deciding  what  varieties  to  plant  you  must  take  into 
consideration  table  quality,  yield,  and  salability.  If  you  grow 
only  for  your  own  use,  a  variety  that  is  first-class  for  the  table, 
even  though  it  will  not  yield  quite  so  well,  will  be  most  desira- 
ble. For  example,  I  plant  early  Ohio  and  Snow-flake  for  my  own 
use,  but  Burbank,  mammoth  Pearl,  or  Peerless  for  market.  The 
Burbank  I  have  found  especially  profitable,  as  it  yields  largely, 
and  with  a  very  small  per  cent  of  unsalable  tubers,  and  for  some 
years  has  commanded  the  highest  price  in  the  market;  and  yet, 
on  my  soil,  it  does  not  equal  in  quality  the  first  two  named 
varieties. 

CULTIVATION. — Constant  and  thorough  culture  will  always  be 
found  profitable  with  this  crop.  The  season  of  growth  is  short, 
and  we  ought  to  do  all  we  can  to  push  them.  Like  corn,  I  think 
cultivation  should  begin  before  they  are  up,  and  from  that  time 
till  the  vines  fall  the  land  should  be  kept  clean  and  loose.  In 
some  seasons  this  will  require  double  the  number  of  workings 


234  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

that  will  be  needed  in  others,  so  no  rule  can  be  laid  down  as  to 
the  number  of  times  they  should  be  plowed.  I  like  the  bar- 
plow  in  the  potatoes  when  they  are  small,  as  it  turns  the  earth 
away  from  them,  and  in  working  it  back  we  get  it  thoroughly 
pulverized.  At  the  later  plowings  we  make  up  a  broad,  flat 
hill.  After  the  vines  fall  and  horse  cultivation  ends,  if  weeds 
start  we  take  them  out  with  hoes,  for  I  do  not  like  to  dig  pota- 
toes among  the  weeds.  There  is  a  popular  notion  that  it  will 
not  do  to  disturb  the  vines  after  they  blossom,  and  that  weeds 
do  not  injure  the  crop  at  this  stage,  but  I  believe  both  are 
wrong,  for  I  am  sure  that,  with  moderate  care,  the  vines  will 
not  be  injured,  and  I  know  that  often  the  crop  is  cut  short 
from  one-fourth  to  one-half,  and  the  labor  of  digging  greatly 
increased,  by  the  weeds,  and,  in  addition,  the  land  filled 
with  seed. 

The  Colorado  beetle  has  ceased  to  be  a  terror  to  the  potato 
grower,  and  I  have  found  the  best  remedy  to  be  a  thrifty  plant. 
I  have  not  used  Paris  green  or  hand-picking  for  ten  years,  ex- 
cept in  1880,  when  a  severe  drought  checked  the  growth  of  the 
vines  so  that  the  beetles  were  getting  the  start  of  them.  When 
I  do  use  Paris  green,  I  prefer  to  use  it  in  water  rather  than  to 
dust  in  on  the  vines.  I  use  a  whisk-broom  to  sprinkle  them, 
and  find  about  two  pounds  to  the  acre  is  sufficient.  I  recom- 
mend, however,  that  instead  of  using  Paris  green,  you  try  culti- 
vating twice  a  week,  and  attach  to  the  end  of  the  singletree  a 
light  brush,  so  arranged  that  it  will  brush  the  young  beetles  off 
ahead  of  the  cultivator.  Probably  many  of  them  will  crawl 
back  onto  the  vines,  but  some  of  the  smaller  ones  will  be  killed, 
and  the  extra  workings  will  give  the  plants  extra  vigor.  If  the 
bugs  were  bad,  I  would  work  still  oftener. 

HARVESTING,  STORING,  AND  MARKETING. — Notwithstanding  there 
are  many  styles  of  potato  diggers  on  the  market,  I  have  never 
seen  one  that  I  should  be  willing  to  use;  or,  at  least,  that  I 
would  recommend  to  the  farmer  who  only  grows  an  acre  or  so 
of  potatoes.  The  trouble  with  most  of  them  is  that  they  leave 
more  potatoes  in  the  ground  than  will  pay  for  digging  by  hand, 
unless  the  price  is  low.  With  clean  land  and  a  good  yield,  the 


ROOT  CROPS.  235 

cost  of  hand  digging  will  not  exceed  three  cents  a  bushel,  as  a 
hand  can  dig  forty  bushels  or  more  a  day,  and  the  potatoes  will 
be  left  in  more  convenient  shape  for  picking  up  and  sorting  than 
if  dug  by  a  horse  machine. 

I  have  never  found  an  implement  for  hand  digging  that  was 
so  satisfactory  as  the  potato  hook.  The  form  is  shown  in  the 
cut.  It  should  be  of  the  best  steel,  and 
strong  enough  both  in  prongs  and  handle 
so  that  you  can  strike  a  hard  blow  to 
settle  it  into  the  ground  without  fear  of 
breaking  it,  and  without  causing  it  to 
spring.  I  can  dig  with  this  implement, 
with  much  less  weariness  or  strain  of 

muscle  than  with  the  fork-spade.  In  digging  with  it,  you  strike 
it  into  the  ground  just  beyond  the  hill,  so  as  to  clear  the  pota- 
toes, and  then  lifting  the  handle  gives  a  leverage  which  lifts  the 
potatoes  and  loosens  the  hill.  Then  a  dragging  stroke  or  two 
rakes  out  the  potatoes. 

I  prefer  always  to  sort  the  potatoes  as  I  pick  them  up. 
First,  take  such  as  are  fine,  for  market — do  n't  try  to  smuggle 
in  a  few  small  ones,  or  those  which  have  had  a  fork-tine  through 
them;  you  will  be  certain  to  lose  more  than  you  will  make  by 
it.  Put  only  good-sized,  smooth  tubers  in  the  lot  which  is  de- 
signed for  market  or  home  use.  From  those  left,  select  for 
your  seed  smooth,  good-shaped  tubers,  about  the  size  of  a  hen's 
egg.  Let  the  remainder  go  for  stock  food.  Much  time  will  be 
saved  by  doing  the  sorting  as  you  pick  up  the  potatoes.  It 
takes  but  little  longer  to  pick  them  up  in  this  way  than  to  pick 
all  up  together,  and  sorting  after  gathering  is  a  tedious  job. 

I  think  considerable  time  and  stooping  is  saved  by  throwing 
the  small  potatoes  in  piles  as  you  pick  up  the  large  ones,  as 
this  will  save  going  over  all  the  ground  again.  You  can  throw 
six  or  eight  feet  ahead  and  back,  and  the  contents  of  three  rows 
on  the  middle  one,  so  as  to  leave  all  the  small  potatoes  from 
half  a  square  rod  in  a  pile. 

The  best  way  to  handle  potatoes  is  in  common  grain  sacks, 
with  only  a  bushel  in  a  sack.  I  think  this  filling  the  sacks  only 


236  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

half  full  an  important  matter,  as  it  makes  them  light  to  handle 
and  does  away  with  the  necessity  of  tying,  and  two  men  can 
load  or  unload  a  wagon  in  twenty  minutes.  If  you  pour  the 
potatoes  loose  in  the  wagon-box,  you  must  have  a  team  to  keep 
the  wagon  alongside  of  where  you  are  digging,  or  else  must 
carry  the  potatoes  some  distance  to  reach  the  wagon,  while  if 
you  put  them  into  sacks  you  can  drop  a  sack  wherever  filled 
and  then,  when  a  load  is  ready,  drive  around  and  pick  them  up. 
If  you  expect  to  market  before  spring,  you  should  store  in 
the  cellar,  and  it  will  pay  to  make  some  good  movable  bins  for 
them.  These  can  be  of  any  size  you  wish,  but  should  always 

be  of  a  size  that  can  be  car- 
ried in  and  out  of  the  cellar. 
The  accompanying  cut  shows 
one  convenient  form. 

This    is    made    of    strips, 
both  for  the  bottom  and  sides, 
with  spaces  between  them,  and 
being  raised   upon  legs,   thor- 
ough   ventilation    is    secured. 
Cross-boards  may  be  put  in  to 
separate  varieties. 
If  there  is  a  large  quantity  of  potatoes  to  be  stored,  several 
of  these  bins  may  be  placed  one  above  another,  the  upper  ones 
being  without  legs. 

The  potatoes  you  wish  to  keep  for  a  spring  market,  or  for 
seed,  will  do  better  properly  buried  than  kept  in  a  cellar,  as 
they  will  lose  nothing  in  weight  and  will  not  begin  to  sprout  or 
wilt  so  early.  In  pitting  potatoes,  do  not  put  too  large  a  bulk 
together.  Build  them  up  in  a  sharp  ridge,  so  as  to  have  a  hun- 
dred bushels  extend  about  twenty  feet,  and  always  run  the 
ridges  with  the  slope  of  the  land,  and  in  starting  your  pit,  be- 
gin on  the  highest  land  and  work  down  the  slope.  This  will 
enable  you  to  protect  your  pit  from  water,  if  a  sudden  rain 
comes  up.  I  plow  out  two  furrows  each  way,  and  throw  out  the 
loose  earth  so  as  to  have  the  rick  of  potatoes  about  four  feet 
wide  at  the  ground,  and  then  slope  the  sides  so  that  it  will  be  about 


A  MOVABLE  POTATO  BIN. 


ROOT  CROPS.  237 

three  feet  high  when  ready  for  the  earth.  It  is  the  usual  prac- 
tice to  put  a  coat  of  straw  next  the  potatoes,  but  I  prefer  to  put  six 
or  eight  inches  of  mellow  earth  first,  and  then  the  straw.  I  think 
this  the  better  plan,  because  the  straw  becomes  damp,  and  if  the 
frost  reaches  it,  it  is  likely  to  penetrate  it,  and  if  there  is  a  layer 
of  dry,  mellow  earth  inside  of  this,  there  will  be  little  danger.  If 
you  are  pitting  a  hundred  bushels  or  more,  it  will  pay  to  have  a 
team  and  plow  to  loosen  the  earth  and  turn  it  towards  the  pit. 
It  is  not  so  hard  a  job  as  many  imagine  to  bury  roots,  and  I 
think  that  I  can  put  enough  earth  to  protect  them  on  a  given 
amount  of  potatoes  with  much  less  labor  than  I  can  carry  them 
in  and  out  of  the  cellar. 

Do  not  take  any  risks  and  hope  for  a  mild  winter,  but  be 
sure  and  have  them  protected  against  any  possible  temperature. 
After  freezing  weather  comes  give  an  outside  covering  to  the 
pits.  This  may  be  of  coarse  manure,  straw,  or  corn  fodder.  On 
farms  where  there  is  plenty  of  fodder,  the  cheapest  way  to  pro- 
tect the  pit  is  to  build  a  rick  of  fodder  over  it,  as  it  will  be  but 
little  injured  and  can  be  fed  out  the  latter  part  of  March  or 
first  of  April. 

When  the  potatoes  are  to  be  pitted  it  is  customary  to  dig 
and  put  in  small  piles,  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  hills  to  a  pile, 
till  all  are  dug,  or  at  least  a  sufficient  quantity  for  a  fair-sized 
pit.  The  usual  plan  is  to  throw  a  few  vines  over  these  small 
piles,  and  each  year  large  losses  are  sustained  from  leaving  them 
in  this  way.  A  piece  of  work  prevents  the  farmer  from  get- 
ting back  to  the  potatoes  as  soon  as  he  intended,  and  an  unex- 
pected freeze  catches  them,  a  heavy  rain  soaks  them  through,  or 
the  sun  turns  them  green  from  their  being  insufficiently  covered. 
I  recommend  that  whenever  potatoes  are  to  be  left  in  the  field 
more  than  twenty-four  hours  that  they  always  be  covered  with 
a  few  inches  of  earth  first  and  then  with  the  vines.  Less  than 
five  minutes'  work  will  be  sufficient  to  put  six  inches  of  earth 
over  a  pile  of  five  bushels,  and  then  they  are  safe  until  the  time 
they  ought  to  be  pitted.  It  is  not  safe  to  put  potatoes  away  in 
bulk  when  hot  from  the  sun  shining  on  them ;  and  when  potatoes 
are  dug  early,  when  the  weather  is  hot  and  the  sun  shining 


238  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

brightly,  never  leave  them  long  in  the  sun.  I  lost  one  hundred 
bushels  one  year  by  allowing  them  to  lie  till  the  middle  of 
the  afternoon,  so  that  when  we  picked  them  up  they  felt  hot 
to  the  hand. 

It  is  often  a  difficult  question  with  the  grower  of  early  pota- 
toes to  know  when  to  dig  an  early  crop.  Perhaps  the  first  of 
August  finds  them  ripe  and  the  vines  dead,  and  if  left  in  the 
ground  and  heavy  rains  follow,  they  are  in  danger  of  either  rot- 
ting or  taking  a  second  growth.  If  picked  up  as  soon  as  dug, 
and  put  in  bins  ventilated  like  that  shown  in  the  cut,  I  find 
there  is  no  risk  in  putting  potatoes  in  the  cellar  in  August,  pro- 
viding they  are  ripe. 

Perhaps  there  is  no  crop  which  it  is  so  difficult  to  tell  when 
to  sell  to  the  best  advantage  as  potatoes.  There  is  often  a  rush 
which  gluts  the  market  at  digging  time  and  reduces  the  price 
very  low,  and  if  held  till  spring  there  is  some  risk,  labor,  and 
shrinkage,  and  but  a  short  time  to  sell  in  before  the  new  crop 
from  the  South  conies  in  competition  with  them.  When  a  price 
can  be  had  which  will  give  a  fair  profit,  I  would  advise  that  the 
bulk  of  the  crop  be  sold  in  the  fall.  I  think  all  things  consid- 
ered fifty  cents  a  bushel  when  dug  is  nearly  or  quite  as  profita- 
ble as  seventy  cents  in  May  following. 

One  other  point  deserving  of  attention  in  connection  with  pota- 
toes is  their  value  for  stock.  I  think  that  most  farmers  under- 
value them  for  this  purpose,  and  I  am  aware  that  the  tables  show 
them  to  have  a  large  per  cent  of  water  and  a  low  albuminoid  ratio. 
I  find,  however,  when  fed  in  connection  with  other  food  that 
they  make  it  more  palatable,  and  I  think  more  easily  digested, 
and  a  peck  of  potatoes  boiled  and  mashed,  mixed  with  three 
pecks  of  bran  and  meal  makes  a  palatable  food  for  hogs,  and  one 
on  which  they  thrive  wonderfully,  and  I  am  sure  that  fed  in  this 
way  they  possess  great  value ;  they  are  also  good  for  milch 
cows  when  fed  raw. 

Sweet  Potatoes. — I  have  found  sweet  potatoes  a  profita- 
ble market  crop,  and  although  writers  generally  recommend 
sandy  land  for  them,  I  have  been  entirely  successful  with 
them  on  clay  upland.  It  will  pay  every  sweet  potato  grower  to 


ROOT  CROPS.  239 

raise  his  own  plants.  They  will  usually  cost  him  much  less 
than  to  buy  them,  often  less  than  one-fourth  as  much ;  but 
even  if  they  cost  more  I  should  advise  that  they  be  home- 
grown. My  reasons  are  that  by  growing  your  own  plants  you 
can  always  have  them  when  you  want  them  fresh  from  the 
bed,  and  can  take  advantage  of  the  best  weather  for  setting 
them  out,  either  on  a  showery  day  or  late  in  the  evening. 

In  the  years  that  I  have  not  grown  my  own  plants  it  has 
often  happened  that  there  would  be  such  a  rush  that  the  supply 
at  the  beds  would  be  exhausted,  and  I  was  unable  to  get  any 
until  so  late  that  I  could  not  grow  a  good  crop.  I  would  not 
give  half  price  for  plants  that  had  been  pulled  so  long  that  they 
were  wilted.  In  almost  any  neighborhood  a  limited  amount  of 
plants  can  be  sold,  and  it  will  be  found  profitable  to  supply  your 
neighbors. 

I  have  sprouted  sweet  potatoes  for  nearly  thirty  years,  and 
for  the  first  ten  I  oftener  made  a  failure  than  a  success,  but  do 
not  now  remember  that  I  have  failed  in  the  last  fifteen  years, 
and  I  think  if  the  directions  I  give  are  followed,  that  even  a 
novice  can  succeed. 

The  first  point  of  importance  is  the  selection  of  seed.  It 
should  be  sound  and  fresh,  with  no  signs  of  decay.  Sweet 
potatoes  will  not  keep  long  after  they  are  taken  from  the 
bins  where  they  are  kept  for  the  winter,  and  if  decay  has  be- 
gun it  is  nearly  impossible  to  get  them  to  sprout  well.  The  bed 
for  sprouting  we  make  perfectly  flat;  for  a  frame  we  nail 
boards  a  foot  wide  together ;  a  convenient  size  is  six  feet  by  six- 
teen, which  will  give  room  for  planting  about  one  barrel  of  me- 
dium-sized potatoes.  You  should  nail  one  or  two  strips  across 
your  frame  to  stay  it  and  prevent  spreading.  Have  the  manure 
hot  when  put  in  the  bed,  and  to  insure  this  you  will  need  to 
fork  up  and  thoroughly  mix  it  four  or  five  days  before  you  wish 
to  use  it.  When  thoroughly  hot  prepare  the  bed  for  your 
frame  by  shaking  the  hot  manure  so  that  there  shall  be  no 
lumps  in  it,  and  building  it  in  a  compact  heap  two  feet  wider 
and  longer  than  your  frame.  It  should  be  perfectly  uniform,  so 
that  it  will  all  heat  alike,  and  should  be  packed  as  solid  as  it  can 


240  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

be  by  tramping  on  strips  of  board  laid  on  the  manure.  To 
tramp  it  with  the  feet  would  pack  it  too  much  and  unevenly, 
but  by  taking  strips  of  board  a  foot  wide  and  of  such  length 
that  they  can  be  used  the  narrow  way  of  the  bed,  and  placing 
one  before  the  other  you  can  soon  press  the  manure  solid  and 
have  it  uniform  throughout.  The  bed  should  be  prepared 
about  one  month  before  the  plants  will  be  needed  and  this  time 
will  vary,  of  course,  in  different  latitudes.  Here  in  Southern 
Ohio  we  start  our  beds  about  the  middle  of  April,  as  we  find 
the  middle  of  May  as  early  as  it  is  profitable  to  set  out  the 
plants,  and  from  that  till  the  middle  of  June  is  seasonable. 

You  do  not  need  so  great  a  depth  of  manure  for  a  sweet 
potato  bed  as  for  an  early  hot-bed,  which  must  endure  greater 
changes  of  temperature ;  and  if  the  manure  is  hot  and  in  good 
condition,  one  foot  after  it  is  packed  is  sufficient.  Then  lift  your 
frame  on  to  the  manure  and  bank  up  around  the  outside  of  it  with 
the  same  kind  of  manure  to  the  top  of  the  frame ;  and  it  is  a 
good  plan,  both  to  protect  it  from  cold  winds  and  for  the  sake  of 
cleanliness,  to  cover  this  outside  manure  with  boards.  Cheap 
waste  lumber,  cut  in  short  pieces  and  leaned  up  endwise,  is  as 
good  as  any.  If  your  hot-beds  are  in  a  small  yard  with  a  tight 
board  fence  around  it,  this  protection  is  not  absolutely  necessary, 
but  will  be  found  neat  and  convenient.  I  like  this  plan  of 
making  the  manure  bed  two  feet  larger  each  way  than  the 
frame  much  better  than  making  a  deep  frame  and  putting  the 
manure  into  it,  for  the  latter  plan  takes  much  more  lumber,  and 
the  outer  part  of  the  bed  is  almost  sure  to  be  cold,  while  with 
this  extra  width  of  bed  and  banking  up  it  is  easy  to  have  it 
uniform  in  temperature  throughout. 

After  the  frame  is  set  on  the  bed  we  shake  in  enough  ma- 
nure to  make  four  inches  more  after  it  is  packed  by  tramping 
on  the  boards  as  before.  We  then  fill  the  frame  nearly  full  of 
good  mellow  earth. 

The  best  soil  for  this  purpose  is  well  rotted  leaf  mold 
from  the  woods,  and  it  should  be  not  less  than  seven  inches 
deep.  When  complete  cover  the  bed  with  straw  to  the  depth 
of  eight  or  ten  inches,  and  to  enable  you  to  handle  the  straw 


ROOT  CROPS.  241 

conveniently  have  it  bound  in  bundles.  Above  the  straw  place 
a  roof  of  light  boards  with  slope  enough  to  carry  off  the  water. 
The  lower  end  of  the  boards  can  rest  on  the  frame,  and  the  up- 
per end  should  be  raised  eighteen  inches. 

Examine  the  bed  daily,  and  when  you  find  the  earth  heating 
up  from  the  bottom,  uncover  it  in  the  middle  of  the  day  and 
let  the  sun  on  it,  and  when  all  the  soil  is  warmed  so  as  to  feel 
comfortable  to  the  hand,  it  is  ready  for  the  potatoes.  Begin  at 
one  end,  and  take  off  three  inches  of  the  soil  on  a  strip  a  foot  or 
two  in  width,  and  put  it  on  a  wheel-barrow,  to  be  used  for  cover- 
ing the  last  strip  at  the  other  end.  Now  place  your  potatoes  so 
they  will  not  touch  each  other  on  this  strip  from  which  the  earth 
has  been  removed,  press  them  firmly  into  the  soil,  and  then  remove 
the  top  three  inches  of  earth  from  a  similar  strip,  and  cover 
the  potatoes  already  in  the  bed  with  this  soil.  Proceed  in  this 
way  across  the  bed.  The  last  strip  will  be  covered  with  the 
soil  in  the  wheel-barrow,  which  was  taken  from  the  bed  when 
you  began.  If  the  bed  is  not  moist,  water  moderately,  and  at 
Dnce  replace  the  straw  and  boards.  Examine  the  bed  carefully 
every  day  by  thrusting  the  hand  into  it,  and  if  it  is  warm  it 
will  not  need  uncovering  until  the  plants  begin  to  come  up. 
With  the  depth  of  manure  I  recommend  and  four  inches  of  good 
earth  under  the  potatoes,  there  will  be  little  danger  of  the  bed 
getting  too  warm.  If  it  lacks  heat,  uncover  it  in  the  middle  of 
the  day,  and  let  the  sun  shine  on  it  from  nine  o'clock  till  three. 
As  soon  as  you  find  the  plants  coming  through,  uncover  the  bed 
and  water  thoroughly  every  other  day.  Do  not  cover  at  all 
again  unless  there  is  danger  of  frost.  The  more  you  can  expose 
the  plants  to  harden  them  the  better,  and  I  think  it  best  to 
withhold  water  as  they  get  nearly  large  enough  to  draw,  as  the 
plants  will,  if  watered  too  frequently,  get  spindled  and  tender. 
The  bed  should  be  copiously  watered  a  few  hours  before  the 
plants  are  to  be  drawn. 

If  the  directions  here  given  are  followed  it  is  hardly  possible 
to  fail  of  success  in  sprouting  sweet  potatoes.  My  failures  in 
my  early  experience  came  from  several  causes,  among  which 
were  putting  the  potatoes  too  near  the  manure,  with  but  an 

16 


242  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

inch  and  a  half  of  earth  between  it  and  them;  using  rotten 
wood  instead  of  suitable  earth  in  the  bed  on  the  manure ;  allow- 
ing the  sun  to  shine  all  day  on  the  bed,  so  that  the  heat  be- 
came so  great  as  to  scald  the  potatoes;  neglecting  to  cover  the 
bed  properly,  and  allowing  it  to  be  wet  through  and  chilled  by 
cold  rains;  keeping  the  seed  too  long  after  it  was  taken  from 
winter  quarters  before  putting  it  in  the  bed.  Any  one  of  these 
causes  is  sufficient  to  cause  a  failure  in  sprouting  sweet  potatoes. 

VARIETIES. — I  have  found  no  sweet  potato  that  gives  as 
good  satisfaction  as  the  Jersey  yellow.  The  skin  and  flesh 
are  a  deep  yellow,  and  the  tubers  are  smooth,  and  have  the 
peculiarity  of  growing  short  and  thick.  I  am  inclined  to  think 
this  yariety  identical  with  the  Nansemond,  which  is  a  potato  of 
similar  color  and  flavor,  but  generally  longer  and  more  slender. 
The  difference  in  form  is  probably  due  to  soil  and  methods  of 
culture.  Sweet  potatoes  are  largely  affected  by  soil  and  cli- 
mate, and  the  same  variety  that  is  dry  and  sweet  in  one  locality 
is  often  watery  and  flavorless  in  another. 

The  yam  family  are  generally  earlier  and  grow  larger,  single 
specimens  often  attaining  a  size  of  from  three  to  seven  pounds ; 
but  in  the  north,  at  least,  they  are  deficient  in  quality.  I  have 
found  the  Red  Nansemond  of  excellent  flavor  and  a  fair  yielder. 
The  Southern  Queen  is  early,  a  large  yielder,  and  of  good  shape, 
and  although  not  equal  in  quality  to  Jersey  or  Nansemond,  is 
worthy  of  a  trial.  I  can  grow  as  large  a  yield  of  sweet  as  of 
Irish  potatoes,  and  as  the  price  is  usually  considerably  greater, 
I  always  found  them  a  more  profitable  crop.  With  a  fair  sea- 
son, one  hundred  bushels  to  the  acre  I  consider  a  fair  average 
crop,  and  one  hundred  and  sixty  bushels  is  not  uncommon, 
while  crops  have  been  reported  exceeding  three  hundred  bush- 
els to  the  acre. 

PREPARING  THE  SOIL,  PLANTING,  AND  CULTIVATION. — I  have 
learned  by  long  experience,  and  have  been  glad  to  have  it  con- 
firmed by  many  of  the  most  successful  sweet  potato  growers  I 
have  met,  that  shallow  plowing  and  small  ridges  or  hills  are 
best  for  this  crop.  If  the  soil  needs  manure,  give  a  light 
dressing  that  is  well  rotted  before  plowing,  and  then  break  not 


ROOT  CROPS.  243 

more  than  four  inches  deep.  I  prefer  to  plow  two  or  throe 
weeks  before  ridging,  as  on  most  soils  the  land  will  work  finer 
after  having  been  settled  by  rains. 

When  the  plants  are  ready  to  set,  take  advantage  of  the 
first  day  when  the  land  is  in  just  the  right  condition,  after  a 
rain,  to  work  it  fine  with  the  cultivator  and  plank  drag,  pulver- 
izing it  thoroughly.  Then  throw  up  in  ridges  with  the  small 
one-horse  plow.  The  ridges  should  be  three  feet  apart  from 
center  to  center,  and  thrown  up  so  as  to  be  sharp,  not  flat, 
on  top.  A  narrow  ridge  of  earth  will  be  left  between  the 
rows,  which  will  be  needed  for  dressing  up  the  hills  as  they 
are  cultivated.  Most  growers  plant  on  these  ridges,  setting  the 
plants  about  fifteen  inches  apart;  but  I  find  on  my  soil  that  it 
pays  to  make  hills.  The  extra  expense  will  be  small,  as  two 
hands  will  hill  an  acre  a  day  if  the  soil  is  mellow,  as  it  ought 
to  be.  The  advantages  of  small  hills  over  ridges  are  that  they 
warm  through  more  readily  and  do  not  become  packed  so  hard, 
and  when  the  potatoes  begin  to  grow  in  the  hill,  they  crack  and 
loosen  it,  and  grow  larger  than  they  would  do  in  a  ridge.  The 
advantage  of  shallow  plowing  is  that  the  potatoes  soon  reach 
the  hard  earth,  and  are  checked  in  their  downward  growth,  and 
are  made  short  and  thick. 

We  make  the  rows  three  feet  apart  and  the  hills  thirty 
inches,  and  this  gives  5,808  hills  to  the  acre,  and  a  pound  of 
potatoes  to  the  hill,  makes  a  yield  of  a  fraction  over  one  hundred 
and  sixteen  bushels  to  the  acre.  Mr.  Samuel  Silvers,  of  Butler 
County,  Ohio,  has  made  sweet  potatoes  his  leading  crop  for 
many  years,  and  has  followed  the  plan  of  shallow  plowing,  so  as 
to  have  hard  earth  under  small  ridges,  and  he  has  been  remark- 
ably successful.  I  have  a  record  of  his  crop  for  seven  years, 
and  find  that  the  yield  per  acre  increased  largely  as  he  learned 
how  to  manage  the  crop.  His  first  crop  averaged  one  hundred 
and  twenty-five  bushels  per  acre,  and  the  last  of  the  seven  con- 
secutive crops  two  hundred  and  sixty-two  bushels,  and  the  aver- 
age for  the  entire  period  is  one  hundred  and  ninety-eight  bushels 
per  acre.  Mr.  Silvers  grew  during  these  years  eight  or  ten 
acres  annually.  Whether  hills  or  ridges  are  made,  they  should 


244  THE  PEOPLES  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

be  left  sharp  and  high,  so  that  when  you  come  to  set  the  plants, 
you  can  brush  off  three  or  four  inches  of.  the  top  and  set  them 
in  fresh  earth.  Do  not  water,  but  instead  puddle  the  roots 
before  planting.  For  this  purpose  use  a  mixture  of  equal 
parts  fresh  cow  dung  and  fine  mold,  stirred  till  of  such  a  con- 
sistency that  when  the  roots  are  dipped  in  it  they  will  be 
thickly  coated.  This  is  much  better  than  watering,  as  the 
plants  are  fertilized  and  a  good  start  given  them  by  the  mix- 
ture, and  if  set  out  on  a  cloudy  day  or  toward  night,  they  will 
not  wilt  at  all. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  in  setting  out,  to  have  the  earth 
well  firmed  about  the  roots,  and  then  there  should  be  loose 
earth  drawn  up  to  the  plant.  There  are  millions  of  plants  lost 
every  year  from  neglecting  to  press  the  soil  to  the  roots.  To 
determine  whether  the  plants  are  being  set  firmly  enough,  try 
a  plant  now  and  then  by  taking  the  leaf  between  the  thumb  and 
finger,  and  giving  a  quick  jerk.  If  the  plant  is  properly  set,  a 
piece  of  the  leaf  will  break  off;  but  if  the  plant  pulls  up  by  the 
root,  you  may  know  the  ground  is  not  being  sufficiently  firmed. 
No  vegetable  bears  transplanting  better  than  the  sweet  potato, 
and  if  the  plants  are  set  as  fast  as  taken  from  the  bed  and  man- 
aged as  above  recommended,  there  will  ordinarily  be  a  very 
small  percentage  of  loss. 

Let  the  cultivation  begin  early  and  be  thorough.  Hoeing 
will  be  necessary,  and  a  narrow  cultivator  should  be  run  between 
the  rows  to  loosen  a  little  earth  to  be  drawn  up  to  the  plants. 
I  think  it  an  advantage  to  throw  the  vines  over  so  as  to  leave 
every  other  space  bare.  This  allows  the  sun  to  warm  the  row 
better,  and  saves  trouble  when  you  dig. 

The  potatoes  can  be  plowed  out;  but  I  prefer  to  dig  with 
the  potato  hook,  and  by  taking  a  little  pains,  all  the  vines  can 
be  buried,  if  they  have  been  kept  between  alternate  rows.  The 
potatoes  grow  in  a  clump,  and  a  single  stroke  with  the  potato 
hook  will  usually  dig  a  hill.  I  do  not  think  sweet  potatoes  a 
wholesome  article  of  diet  until  they  are  fully  matured;  but 
then  I  consider  them  as  healthy  as  the  common  potato,  and  far 
more  nutritious. 


ROOT  CROPS.  245 

With  proper  care,  sweet  potatoes  can  be  kept  for  several 
months  in  an  ordinary  cellar.  To  do  this,  handle  carefully,  so  us 
not  to  bruise  them,  and  they  must  be  thoroughly  dried  before  putting 
away.  They  may  be  dried  on  a  kiln;  but  for  family  use  I  dry 
for  three  days  in  bright  sunshine,  taking  pains  to  cover  them  at 
night  from  the  dew,  and  find  that  when  thus  dried  and  put  in 
barrels  with  dry  sawdust,  they  will  keep  till  nearly  spring.  I 
think  sweet  potatoes  might  be  cultivated  farther  north  than  is 
usually  done,  as  they  do  not  require  a  long  season.  I  have  had 
them  mature  a  good  crop  when  planted  as  late  as  July  1st,  and 
if  in  the  higher  latitudes  the  plants  were  transplanted  to  small 
pots  the  middle  of  May,  and  a  month  later  put  in  small  hills  on  a 
dry,  warm  soil,  I  believe  there  would  be  no  trouble  in  securing 
a  crop. 

Onion  Growing. — I  do  not  think  it  necessary  in  this 
chapter  to  treat  of  button  onions,  potato  onions,  or  any  of  the 
varieties  propagated  from  sets  or  bulbs ;  but  as  the  majority  of 
farmers  are  not  familiar  with  growing  onions  from  seed,  and  as 
not  only  the  best,  but  also  cheapest  onions  are  grown  in  this  way, 
I  will  give  directions  for  growing  the  crop. 

The  soil  for  onions  must  be  well  drained,  rich,  and  clean. 
Fabulous  sums  have  been  realized  from  onion  crops,  and  every 
year  many  of  our  farmers  who  know  nothing  of  onion  growing, 
go  into  the  business  only  to  come  to  grief.  I  remember  one 
year,  when  onion  seed  was  worth  five  dollars  per  pound,  four 
young  men  from  an  adjoining  county  rented  six  or  eight  acres  of 
common  corn  land,  and  sent  one  of  their  number  to  me  to  buy 
onion  seed  to  plant  it.  I  made  some  inquiries  about  the  land, 
and  found  that  they  had  no  manure  and  no  experience,  and  told 
them  that  they  would  far  better  throw  their  money  in  the  fire, 
and  I  had  hard  work  to  persuade  them  to  go  home  without 
the  seed. 

One  fourth  acre  is  the  most  I  would  advise  any  one  to  plant 
the  first  year,  and  a  good  deal  less  than  that  unless  he  has  land 
both  clean  and  rich.  Onions,  unlike  most  crops,  do  well  on  the 
same  land  year  after  year,  and  if  clean  land  is  selected  to  start 
with,  and  no  weeds  allowed  to  ripen  seed,  the  labor  of  cultiva- 


246  THE  PEOPLE 'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

ting  the  crop  can  be  greatly  reduced.  I  recommend  fall  plow- 
ing for  onions,  unless  the  land  is  sandy.  I  would  plow  in  nar- 
row beds,  back-furrowing,  so  that  the  center  would  be  the  high- 
est. Then  top  dress  with  good,  fine  manure,  so  as  to  cover  the 
ground  pretty  well;  from  twelve  to  twenty  loads  to  the  acre  will 
not  be  too  much.  As  soon  as  the  land  can  be  worked  nicely  in 
the  spring,  go  to  work  and  mellow  three  inches  of  the  surface 
thoroughly,  and  you  are  ready  to  sow.  The  drag  shown  in  the 

cut  will  be  a  great  help  in  pre- 
paring the  land,  and  by  its  use 
hand  raking  can  be  entirely  dis- 


\  \  \\\\_|  \j^_  pensed  with.  For  one  horse, 

four  feet  square  is  a  good  size. 
A  GARDEN  DRAG.  It  is  best  to  make  it  of  light 

material,  and  then,  when  you  wish  more  weight,  you  can  load  it 
or  ride  on  it. 

Good  seed  is  of  the  greatest  importance,  and  it  should  be 
bought  only  of  men  of  established  reputation.  If  a  large  amount 
is  to  be  sown,  a  seed  drill  is  indispensable.  I  prefer  that  the 
rows  be  fourteen  inches  apart,  and  it  is  very  important  that 
they  be  made  straight.  Stretch  a  line  at  the  side  of  the  bed, 
and  with  a  marker  you  can  lay  off  four  rows  at  a  time. 

In  using  this  marker  you  walk  backward  and  keep  the  first 
runner  at  the  line ;  in  coming  back  you  run  the  first  runner  in 
the  last  mark,  and  if  at  any  time  you  find  the  rows  are  getting 
crooked,  it  will  be  best  to  stretch  the  line  again  and  start  anew, 
The  seed  should  not  be  covered  deep,  and  it  is  wise  to  attend  to 
the  sowing  yourself,  unless  you  have  a  perfectly  trusty  hand. 
The  drill  covers  as  it  drops,  and  can  be  run  so  as  to  cover  from 
a  fourth  inch  to  two  or  three  inches.  For  early  sown  onions, 
the  lighter  the  covering  the  better.  I  would  advise  that  where 
only  a  small  plot  is  sown,  and  the  sowing  is  early,  the  seed  be 
sown  on  the  surface  and  covered  with  sifted  manure,  as  this  will 
give  the  plants  a  thrifty  start. 

Some  care  and  calculation  will  be  necessary  to  know  that 
you  are  sowing  the  right  quantity  of  seed  per  acre.  I  would 
recommend  that  an  ounce  be  weighed  out  and  put  in  the  drill, 


ROOT  CROPS.  247 

and  a  calculation  made  from  the  amount  of  land  it  covers  as  to 
how  much  you  are  using  to  the  acre.  At  the  rate  of  four 
pounds  per  acre,  an  ounce  should  cover  two  and  a  half  square 
rods,  and  the  drill  should  drop  from  ten  to  fifteen  seeds  to  a  foot 
of  row.  This  will  seem  like  thick  seeding  to  the  uninitiated, 
but  I  have  often  counted  twelve  or  more  perfect  onions  to  a 
foot  of  drill. 

I  have  never  found  a  drill  that  possessed  so  many  good 
points  as  the  Mathews,  not  only  for  onions  but  for  general  work. 
We  use  it  for  any  seed  from  a  pea  to  portulacca  or  petunia. 
All  the  tools  described  for  onions  can  be  used  for  other  garden 
crops.  The  best  varieties  for  general  cultivation  are  the  red 
Wethersfield  and  yellow  Danvers,  as  they  are  large  yielders  and 
good  keepers.  For  home  use,  some  of  the  white  onions  are 
said  to  be  of  better  flavor.  Let  the  cultivation  begin  as  soon 
as  the  plants  can  be  seen  in  the  row,  and  now  you  will  find 
the  advantage  of  straight  rows,  for  it  will  enable  you  to  cut 
close  with  the  scuffle  hoe  and  have  a  narrower  strip  for  hand 
weeding. 

The  best  implement  for  the  first  weeding  is  the  scuffle  hoe. 
It  is  very  easy  to  use,  as  it  does  not  require  you  to  stoop  or  bear 
down  as  with  a  common  hoe,  but  the  force  is  applied 
by  pushing  it  from  you.  Another  advantage  is  that 
you  walk  backwards  and  do  not  tramp  the  land 
after  it  is  worked,  but  the  weeds  are  left  loose  and 
are  more  likely  to  die  than  if  you  walk  over  the 
land  after  it  is  hoed.  In  a  few  days  after  the 
scuffle  hoeing  the  crop  will  need  weeding  by  hand, 
and  this  should  be  thoroughly  done.  There  is  no 
other  way  but  to  get  down  on  your  knees,  and  with 
a  common  table-knife  take  the  weeds  from  the  row. 
Onions  do  not  need  deep  culture,  but  they  must  be 
kept  clean,  and  the  scuffle  hoeings  and  hand  weed- 
ings  must  be  repeated  often  enough  to  keep  down 
all  weeds.  After  the  onions  are  six  inches  high 
the  hand  plow  can  be  used  between  the  rows,  and  this  will 
enable  you  to  do  the  work  more  rapidly. 


248  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

HARVESTING. — When  the  tops  have  fallen,  and  the  larger 
part  of  them  are  dry,  the  crop  is  ready  to  pull,  and  three  or 
four  rows  should  be  thrown  together.  If  there  are  any  weeds, 
be  sure  and  destroy  them  at  this  time.  At  the  end  of  a  week 
stir  carefully  with  a  wooden  rake,  taking  pains  not  to  bruise 
them,  and  repeat  as  often  as  necessary ;  and  when  dried  so  as 
to  feel  hard  they  are  ready  for  market  or  storing,  and  they  may 
be  taken  to  the  barn  and  spread  two  feet  deep,  but  the  doors 
should  be  left  open  in  pleasant  weather.  The  sorting  and  top- 
ping can  be  done  as  they  are  wanted  for  market. 

I  would  advise  selling  in  the  fall  whenever  a  fair  price  can 
be  had,  as  there  is  both  labor  and  risk  in  wintering.  The  best 
way  to  winter  is  to  spread  them  on  the  floor  of  an  outbuilding 
to  the  depth  of  eighteen  inches,  and  leave  them  till  frozen  hard. 
Then  cover,  to  the  depth  of  two  feet,  with  hay  or  straw.  If 
you  have  long  straw  in  bundles  nothing  else  will  be  necessary  ; 
but  if  loose  straw  or  hay  is  used,  it  will  be  best  to  cover  first 
with  sheets,  so  as  to  keep  the  chaff  or  broken  straw  from  mix- 
ing with  them.  The  onions  should  not  be  put  against  the  wall, 
but  a  space  of  eighteen  inches  left,  and  packed  with  hay 
or  straw. 

Under  favorable  circumstances  the  crop  is  enormously  profit- 
able. I  have  seen  six  hundred  bushels  grown  to  the  acre  when 
the  price  was  two  and  a  half  dollars  a  bushel,  but  such  yield 
and  price  are  exceptional.  At  one  dollar  per  bushel,  and  a  yield 
of  two  hundred  bushels  per  acre,  the  crop  will  be  found  a  profit- 
able one. 

In  closing  I  will  sum  up  the  requisites  for  successful  onion 
growing,  which  are  :  First,  clean,  rich  land ;  second,  plenty  of 
good,  fine  manure,  with  no  foul  seeds  in  it;  third,  thorough 
preparation  of  the  soil;  fourth,  good  seed,  properly  sown;  fifth, 
clean  culture.  The  gardener  who  begins  with  a  small  area,  and 
increases  as  he  gains  experience,  will  be  likely  to  make  a  suc- 
cess of  onion  growing. 

Turnips. — The  turnip  can  be  so  easily  grown,  on  account 
of  its  quick  maturity,  and  so  cheaply,  because  it  can  be  grown 
as  a  second  crop,  and  generally  with  no  cultivation,  that  it  de- 


ROOT  CROPS.  249 

serves  a  more  prominent  place  in  our  agriculture  than  it  has  yet 
attained.  In  my  experience  as  a  market  gardener  no  one  crop 
ever  gave  me  so  large  a  profit,  cost  considered,  as  this  in  occa- 
sional years.  I  have  grown  from  one  to  five  hundred  bushels 
to  the  acre,  and  often  they  have  cost  less  than  five  cents  a 
bushel  when  pitted  for  winter. 

Of  the  flat  turnips  there  are  many  varieties,  but  in  all  the 
Western  markets  the  "Purple  top  strap-leaf"  sells  best,  and  this 
is  the  variety  generally  cultivated.  We  sow  in  Southern  Ohio 
from  the  middle  of  July  to  the  first  of  September,  but  consider 
the  first  ten  days  of  August  the  best  if  the  weather  is  favorable. 
The  soil  need  not  be  very  rich,  but  they  do  best  where  a  little 
manure  has  been  used  for  a  spring  crop.  I  usually  grow  my 
heaviest  crops  among  my  melons  and  cucumbers,  as  these  crops 
are  generally  planted  on  manured  land,  and  the  shade  of  the  vines 
is  favorable  to  getting  a  stand,  and  the  turnip  crop  will  make 
after  the  frosts  have  killed  the  vines.  I  have  grown  profitable 
crops  by  plowing  a  clover-stubble  after  cutting  the  first  growth 
for  hay,  and  also  by  burning  off  wheat  stubble  and  harrowing 
the  surface  till  fine  and  mellow.  I  have  never  succeeded  with 
turnips  sown  on  freshly  plowed  land,  but  find  they  do  best  on 
land  that  has  become  settled,  and  the  surface  made  fine.  Where 
stubble  is  to  be  prepared  for  turnips,  plow  as  early  as  possible, 
and  shallow;  then  harrow  and  roll  at  once.  When  a  heavy  rain 
falls,  so  as  to  settle  it,  harrow  again,  and  drag  with  the  plank- 
drag.  If  any  manure  is  used  it  should  bo  applied  after  plowing, 
so  as  to  be  well  mixed  with  the  surface  soil  by  the  harrow  and 
drag.  One  pound  of  good  seed  is  sufficient  for  an  acre.  I  pre- 
fer not  to  mix  with  any  thing  to  sow  it,  but  find  (hat,  by  using 
only  the  thumb  and  one  finger,  I  can  sow  evenly,  and  about  the 
right  quantity. 

The  most  important  direction  I  can  give  for  sowing  is,  always 
sow  after  a  rain.  The  common  practice  is  to  watch,  and  when  a 
rain  is  coming  sow  the  seed,  so  that  the  rain  will  wash  it  in. 
It  is  the  worst  possible  plan,  as  the  rain  forms  a  crust  and 
starts  a  crop  of  weeds,  which  often  outgrow  the  turnips  and 
smother  them.  The  turnip  fly  is  also  much  more  liable  to 


250  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

destroy  the  plants  if  their  growth  is  checked  by  a  hard  crust. 
When  sown  as  soon  after  a  rain  as  the  land  can  be  nicely 
worked,  the  plants  come  up  in  two  or  three  days,  and  start  at 
once  into  vigorous  growth.  You  can  not  have  the  land  too 
smooth  or  fine  to  sow  on,  and  after  sowing  you  should  run  over 
it  with  a  light  plank-drag.  If  you  are  putting  in  a  large  field  it 
will  pay  to  hitch  a  horse  at  each  end  of  a  plank  sixteen  feet  long, 
and  make  a  quick  job  of  it.  Turnips  may  be  pitted  with  less 
labor  than  potatoes,  as  they  are  not  injured  by  a  little  freezing, 
and  do  not  require  as  much  earth.  I  do  not  use  straw  in  pitting 
them,  but  throw  the  earth  directly  on  the  turnips. 

PROFITS  OF  THE  CROP. — Those  near  a  city  market,  so  that  the 
crop  can  be  transported  in  wagons,  will  find  them  more  profita- 
ble, as  they  can  watch  the  market  and  take  advantage  of  a 
scarcity.  I  have  sold  by  the  wagon  load  at  sixty  cents  a  bushel, 
and  by  the  car  load  at  thirty-three,  the  buyer  paying  freight.  1C 
I  could  contract  all  I  could  grow  at  twenty  cents  a  bushel  I 
should  put  out  large  fields  each  year.  I  think  it  as  easy  to 
grow  two  hundred  bushels  of  turnips  to  the  acre  as  forty  of 
corn,  and,  as  stated,  I  have  grown  five  hundred  bushels.  If 
there  is  no  demand  for  them,  they  can  be  fed  to  the  stock.  I 
have  found  them  of  great  advantage  in  fattening  old  cows,  the 
turnips  keeping  the  system  in  such  a  condition  that  they  could 
eat  and  digest  more  grain,  and  thus  be  able  to  lay  on  flesh 
rapidly. 

Beets  and  Mangold  Wurzels. — Perhaps  no  other  plant 
will  give  so  great  a  bulk  of  food  to  the  acre  as  beets.  From 
forty  to  sixty  tons  of  roots  have  often  been  grown,  and  there  is 
one  crop  on  record  of  over  eighty  tons  to  the  acre.  We  have  of 
the  mangolds  the  long  and  the  round,  or  globe  .shaped,  and  the 
red  and  yellow  in  color,  while  the  sugar-beets  are  white.  Anal- 
ysis shows  that  size  is  usually  gained  at  the  expense  of  quality, 
and  that  roots  weighing  eight  to  nine  pounds  each  contained  but 
about  three  per  cent  of  sugar,  while  roots  of  from  one  to  two 
pounds  each  contained  over  ten  per  cent. 

Beets  require  a  rich,  deep  soil,  and  for  this  crop  deep  plowing 
is  best.  Early  planting  is  advisable,  and  in  this  latitude  the 


ROOT  CROPS.  251 

earlier  in  April  the  better,  if  the  land  is  in  good  order.  Plant 
level,  as  they  can  be  cultivated  easier  thus  than  on  ridges. 
Make  the  rows  two  feet  apart.  Set  the  drill  so  as  to  drop  four 
to  six  seeds  to  the  foot,  as  it  is  easy  to  thin  the  crop,  and  a  good 
stand  is  desirable.  By  planting  in  rows,  this  distance  apart, 
most  of  the  cultivation  can  be  done  with  a  horse  after  the  plants 
are  six  inches  high.  Attend  to  the  thinning  as  soon  as  the 
plants  are  large  enough  so  that  you  can  get  hold  of  them  with 
the  thumb  and  finger.  Every  day's  delay  in  thinning  will 
reduce  the  yield  of  the  crop.  Leave  the  plants  from  eight  to 
twelve  inches  apart  in  the  row.  It  is  not  nearly  so  much  work 
to  cultivate  a  beet  crop  as  onions,  for  they  grow  rapidly,  and  in 
a  few  weeks  shade  the  ground  so  completely  as  to  keep  down 
all  weeds. 

The  crop  should  be  gathered  before  the  weather  is  coid 
enough  to  freeze  them,  for  if  frosted  they  will  not  keep.  The 
tops  should  be  removed  either  by  twisting  them  off  or  by  cut- 
ting, care  being  taken  not  to  cut  the  beets,  as  it  will  cause 
them  to  rot.  They  may  be  stored  either  in  the  cellar  or  in 
pits ;  in  the  latter  case  they  must  be  as  well  protected  as  pota- 
toes. Mangolds  undergo  a  ripening  process  after  they  are  gath- 
ered, which  makes  them  more  healthful  and  nutritious,  a  part  of 
the  starch  being  converted  into  sugar;  and  it  is,  therefore,  best 
that  they  should  be  kept  till  the  latter  part  of  the  winter.  In 
feeding  roots  of  any  kind,  begin  with  a  moderate  quantity,  and 
increase  gradually.  When  only  a  limited  quantity  are  grown 
they  may  be  cut  with  a  spade,  but  where  grown  largely  a  good 
root  cutting  machine  will  pay.  The  dairyman  or  farmer  who  is 
feeding  cattle  for  beef  in  winter  who  gives  beets  a  fair  trial 
will  be  likely  to  continue  their  cultivation. 

Carrots. — This  root  is  greatly  esteemed  for  feed  both  for 
horses  and  milch  cows.  A  few  fed  daily  to  a  horse  or  other 
grain-fed  animal  aids  the  digestion  and  makes  the  hair  glossy, 
and  the  color  of  the  milk  and  butter  is  greatly  improved  by 
feeding  the  cows  on  carrots. 

Every  thing  that  has  been  said  about  selecting  clean  soil, 
giving  thorough  preparation,  and  clean  culture  to  other  root 


252  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

crops,  applies  with  equal  force  to  carrots.  The  plants  come  up 
small  and  weak,  and  prompt  and  vigorous  work  will  be  necessary 
to  save  them  from  the  weeds.  It  is  best  to  sow  rather  early,  as 
the  seed  will  not  bear  deep  covering,  and  if  planting  is  post- 
poned till  the  sun  is  hot  and  the  ground  dry,  it  is  difficult  to 
get  a  stand.  Sow  in  rows  fifteen  inches  apart,  and  thin  to 
three  or  four  inches  in  the  row.  One  and  a  half  to  two  pounds 
of  good  seed  per  acre  is  all  that  will  be  needed.  The  Short 
Horn  is  recommended  by  Mr.  Gregory,  and  the  particular  strain 
known  as  the  Danvers  as  the  best.  It  is  of  a  rich  dark  orange 
color,  smooth,  and  handsome,  and  much  easier  to  dig  than  the 
long  Orange.  On  good  soil,  with  thorough  culture,  from  twenty 
to  forty  tons  per  acre  are  grown,  or  from  four  to  eight  hundred 
bushels. 

The  same  implements  and  general  cultivation  that  is  recom- 
mended for  onions  will  suit  for  carrots,  except  that  while  the 
cultivation  of  onions  should  always  be  shallow,  deep  culture  is 
beneficial  to  the  carrot.  I  use  a  long,  narrow  bull-tongue,  which 
will  work  six  inches  or  more  in  depth,  and  find  no  difficulty  in 
driving  a  gentle  horse  in  a  fifteen-inch  row.  The  growing  of 
roots  of  all  the  varieties  mentioned  calls  for  high  farming. 
The  land  must  not  only  be  rich  and  clean,  but  help  must  be 
plenty,  and  the  work  done  at  the  right  time  and  well  done. 
With  these  conditions  fulfilled,  these  crops  will  prove  profitable ; 
but  without  them,  vexation  and  loss  will  result. 

Artichokes. — I  have  one  very  important  direction  to  give 
on  the  subject  of  planting  artichokes,  and  it  is  embodied  in  one 
word — DON'T.  I  planted  two  bushels  four  years  ago,  and  have 
cropped  the  land  ever  since,  growing  corn,  wheat,  and  vines  on 
it,  and  have  failed  to  kill  them  out.  I  did  not  find  them  profit- 
able or  palatable  for  stock,  and  would  as  soon  recommend  the 
planting  of  Canada  Thistles. 


FRUIT  ON  THE  FARM.  253 


XI. 

KRUIT    ON    THE 


WHILE  but  few  farmers  should  undertake  fruit-growing  as 
a  business,  with  a  view  to  making  money  out  of  it,  there 
is  no  farmer,  whether  his  land  is  rich  or  poor,  or  the 
area  small  or  great,  but  should  plant  fruit  for  the  family;  and, 
notwithstanding  occasional  failures  and  the  many  enemies  the 
fruit-grower  must  contend  with,  there  is  no  other  way  in  which, 
at  the  same  cost,  so  much  of  luxury  can  be  provided  for  the 
family. 

Fruits  are  also  healthful,  and  those  who  eat  freely  and  reg- 
ularly of  fresh,  ripe  fruits,  are  usually  free  from  derangements 
of  the  stomach  and  bowels.  This  is  not  true  of  fruits  bought 
in  market,  which  are  often  stale  and  unwholesome;  but  on  the 
farm,  where  they  can  be  had  fresh,  children  may  be  allowed  to 
eat  all  they  want  through  the  season,  and  will  be  benefited 
rather  than  injured  thereby.  A  moderate  amount  of  land  de- 
voted to  fruit,  if  managed  intelligently,  will  furnish  a  constant 
succession  from  the  time  strawberries  ripen  till  freezing  weather, 
and  a  sufficiency  to  can  for  winter  use,  and  it  should  be  the  aim 
of  every  farmer  to  provide  fruits  for  this  succession. 

The  first  requisite  in  fruit-growing  is  common  sense,  and  to 
see  how  fruit-growing  is  managed  on  many  farms  one  might 
think  this  a  scarce  commodity.  The  farmer  who  will  thoroughly 
prepare  his  land  and  cultivate  grain  crops,  will  plant  out  a  few 
peach  and  cherry  trees  in  the  fence  corners,  and  pay  no  further 
attention  to  them,  and  will  grow  a  crop  of  grain  in  the  apple 
orchard  each  year,  and  from  these  neglected  trees  expect  a  sup- 
ply of  fruit  for  the  family. 

To  successfully  grow  fruit  of  any  kind  requires  intelligence  in 


"254  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

the  selection  of  location  for  the  orchard  or  garden  and  of  varieties, 
and  thorough  cultivation  of  the  soil  and  attention  to  the  wants  of 
the  trees,  and  without  these  failure  is  assured  as  certainly  as  it 
would  be  if  a  crop  of  corn  was  badly  put  in  and  then  left  with- 
out further  care.  There  is  no  mystery  about  fruit-growing,  and 
no  valid  reason  why  every  farmer  should  not  succeed  at  least 
with  some  varieties,  while  many  who  are  favorably  located  as  to 
soil,  markets,  etc.,  could  embark  in  the  business  of  growing  fruit 
for  market  with  a  certainty  of  profit. 

Selection  of  Orchard  Site. — Wherever  it  is  possible, 
the  orchard  should  be  located  on  rolling  land  having  good  sur- 
face drainage.  Even  hillsides  that  are  too  steep  for  profitable 
cultivation  will  make  good  orchard  lands,  and  clay  land  is  pref- 
erable to  that  which  is  rich  in  vegetable  matter. 

Our  best  grain  lands,  black  loam  or  alluvial,  are  not  to  be 
chosen  for  orchards,  as  they  tend  to  produce  too  great  a  growth 
of  wood,  and  to  keep  it  growing  late  in  the  fall,  so  that  the  new 
growth  is  not  well  matured,  and  the  buds  consequently  not  well 
developed.  Such  lands  usually  lie  low,  and  are  more  subject  to 
frost  in  early  spring  than  the  higher  rolling  lands. 

The  farmer  can  not  always  have  a  good  location  for  an 
orchard,  but  he  should  understand  what  is  likely  to  prove 
successful,  and  not  attempt  to  engage  in  fruit  growing  as  a 
business  on  a  farm  well  suited  to  grain,  and  on  which  fruit 
growing  is  almost  certain  to  prove  unprofitable.  Fruit  trees 
will  not  be  thrifty  and  will  be  likely  to  winter-kill  on  lands 
that  are  saturated  with  water  in  winter  and  spring,  and  on  such 
land  drainage  must  be  provided. 

I  have  seen  such  good  results  from  a  very  simple  and  inex- 
pensive method  of  surface  drainage  that  I  am  prepared  to  re- 
commend it.  My  attention  was  first  called  to  this  plan  in  1860, 
in  the  flat  lands  of  Allen  County,  Indiana.  My  father  was 
buying  and  shipping  apples  from  that  part  of  the  State,  and  he 
found  some  orchards  that  were  wonderfully  prolific,  and  with 
fruit  of  the  highest  excellence  on  flat  wet  lands,  that  were  so 
flooded  with  wrater  as  to  endanger  the  life  of  trees  planted  in 
the  usual  manner.  In  these  orchards  the  ground  was  plowed  in 


FRUIT  ON  THE  FARM.  255 

narrow  lands,  back  furrowing  where  the  row  of  trees  was  to  be 
planted  and  ridging  the  earth  as  much  as  possible.  The  trees 
were  then  placed  on  the  top  of  the  plowed  land,  the  roots 
spread  out  and  earth  brought  from  the  dead  furrows  to  cover 
the  roots  and  raise  a  mound  around  each  tree,  so  as  to  hold  it 
firm.  Every  time  the  orchard  was  plowed  or  cultivated,  the 
earth  was  worked  towards  the  trees  and  the  dead  furrows  kept 
open,  and  by  the  time  the  trees  were  in  bearing  they  stood  on 
a  ridge  more  than  three  feet  above  the  bottom  of  the  dead  fur- 
rows, and  with  more  than  double  depth  of  the  best  soil  under 
the  roots. 

In  1868  I  planted  one  hundred  Early  May  cherry  trees  on 
this  plan  on  a  piece  of  cold,  wet,  clay  land.  As  these  trees 
were  but  one  rod  apart  we  could  shovel  the  soil  from  the  dead 
furrows  directly  around  the  roots,  which  made  it  easy  to  get 
earth  to  cover  them.  At  the  lower  side  of  the  orchard  there 
was  not  fall  enough  to  remove  the  water,  and  one  row  of  trees 
was  drowned  out  entirely ;  but  as  far  as  I  kept  the  furrows 
clear  and  the  trees  on  the  ridges,  they  made  a  most  excellent 
growth,  and  the  orchard  has  proved  the  most  uniformly  profit- 
able of  any  that  I  ever  planted.  I  mention  these  instances  to 
show  that  natural  difficulties  may  often  be  overcome  by  the 
exercise  of  judgment. 

Selection  of  Trees. — What  I  have  to  say  under  this 
head  applies  with  equal  force  to  all  varieties  of  fruit.  Never 
buy  a  fruit  tree  of  an  irresponsible  agent  who  is  a  stranger  to 
you.  There  is  no  business  that  offers  so  easy  an  opportunity 
for  swindling  as  that  of  selling  fruit  trees,  from  the  fact  that  it 
is  impossible  to  detect  the  imposture  till  the  orchard  comes  into 
bearing,  and  this  gives  the  dishonest  agent  an  opportunity  to 
cheat  the  buyer  with  perfect  safety. 

Refuse  stock  has  been  bought  by  the  car  load  from  the 
large  commercial  nurseries  and  sold  under  false  names  and  at 
high  prices  to  the  farmers  of  the  West.  A  nursery  man  often 
overestimates  the  demand  for  a  particular  variety  of  apple  or 
some  other  fruit,  and  finds  himself  over-stocked,  and  is  glad  to 
sell  out  for  a  cent  or  two  a  tree,  as  he  would  otherwise  be 


250  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

obliged  to  dig  and  burn  them.  These  trees  are  bought  by  un- 
principled scoundrels,  and  labeled  to  suit  the  wants  of  customers. 
Then  armed  with  a  book  of  colored  plates  and  an  oiled  tongue, 
the  purchaser  starts  out  to  gull  the  farmers.  Often  the  agents 
employed  to  canvass  are  honest  and  ignorant  of  the  fraud,  but 
that  does  not  help  the  farmer.  It  seems  strange  that  so  many 
intelligent  farmers  who  are  shrewd  enough  in  all  ordinary  business 
transactions  should  allow  themselves  to  be  swindled  by  tree  agents. 

Go  to  the  nursery  and  select  your  own  trees.  I  presume 
there  are  few  farmers  but  can  find  a  good  reliable  nursery  within 
from  twenty  to  fifty  miles,  and  it  were  better  to  be  at  the 
expense  of  a  journey  for  ten  dollars'  worth  of  trees  than  to  find 
after  years  of  care  and  waiting  that  you  have  some  worthless 
variety.  Often  several  neighbors  can  unite  and  send  one  of 
their  number  to  the  nursery,  and  thus  reduce  the  expense. 

Plant  Young  Trees. — I  give  this  advice  after  more 
than  twenty-five  years'  experience  in  tree-planting,  during  which 
time  I  have  set  and  fruited  more  than  one  thousand  trees. 
Peach,  pear,  cherry,  plum,  and  quince,  I  would  always  set  in 
the  orchard  at  one  year  old,  and  apples  at  two.  I  can  give  a 
number  of  valid  reasons  for  this  advice. 

1st.  The  trees  will  cost  less  at  the  nursery,  and  can  be 
packed  and  transported  cheaper,  and  it  will  be  less  work 
to  plant  them. 

2d.  They  will  be  surer  to  grow,  as  they  will  be  less  dis- 
turbed by  transplanting,  and  will  have  better  roots  in  proportion 
to  their  tops  than  if  older. 

3d.  They  will  become  established  sooner  and  adapted  to  the 
soil  in  which  they  are  to  grow  if  transplanted  young,  and  can 
be  more  easily  brought  to  the  shape  the  owner  desires. 

4th.  In  a  few  years  from  setting  they  will  be  as  large,  and 
will  come  into  bearing  as  soon  or  sooner  than  the  larger  and 
more  expensive  trees. 

In  planting  the  cherry  orchard  before  referred  to  I  tested 
the  relative  value  of  large  and  small  trees.  One  row  was  set 
with  large  trees  six  feet  high,  which  were  retailing  at  forty 
cents  each,  and  the  remainder  of  the  orchard  from  a  lot  of 


FRUIT  ON  THE  FARM.  257 

small  trees,  averaging  about  two  feet  high,  which  I  bought  for 
six  cents  each.  I  cut  the  small  trees  back  to  within  a  foot  or 
less  of  the  ground,  and  in  four  year's  they  had  fully  caught  up 
with  the  large  ones,  and  came  into  bearing  just  as  soon. 

So  thoroughly  convinced  am  I  of  the  superiority  of  young 
trees,  that  I  would  plant  them  if  they  cost  fifty  per  cent  more 
than  larger  ones,  instead  of  considerably  less. 

Selection  of  Varieties. — Many  mistakes  are  made  under 
this  head,  and  the  more  common  one  is  to  plant  too  many  kinds. 
It  is  a  matter,  too,  in  which  the  advice  given  in  books  is  of  little 
value,  for  each  soil  and  locality  has  its  varieties  which  are 
suited  to  it,  and  often  a  variety  that  will  give  good  satisfaction 
in  one  locality  may  be  nearly  worthless  fifty  miles  away.  Every 
one  intending  to  plant  an  orchard  should  take  pains  for  some 
months  beforehand  to  inquire  among  his  neighbors  as  to  what 
kinds  have  been  most  prolific  and  regular  bearers,  and  have  sold 
best  in  the  market,  and  given  the  best  satisfaction  in  the  fam- 
ily. This  matter  becomes  one  of  special  importance  in  commer- 
cial fruit  growing;  and  in  planting  for  this  purpose  a  few  lead- 
ing varieties  will  usually  give  a  large  profit,  while  an  orchard 
planted  with  a  large  number  will  often  prove  unprofitable. 

To  illustrate  this,  I  planted  in  1860  an  orchard  containing 
one  hundred  apple  and  three  hundred  peach  trees.  I  had  little 
experience  in  fruit  growing,  and  thought  it  best  to  plant  a  great 
number  of  varieties  and  so  planted  nearly  thirty  varieties  of  apple 
and  fifteen  of  peach.  The  result  was  that  fully  three-fourths  of 
the  orchard  never  paid  for  planting,  while  the  remaining  fourth 
gave  a  very  large  profit.  Nearly  all  the  money  made  from 
apples  came  from  three  varieties,  Baldwin  and  Smith-cider,  for 
winter  fruit,  and  Maiden  Blush  for  summer,  of  which  the  or- 
chard contained  about  twenty  trees.  If  the  entire  orchard  had 
been  of  these  varieties  the  profit  would  have  been  increased 
from  $500  to  $1,000.  Three  varieties  of  peach,  Crawford's 
Early,  Honest  John,  and  Cooledge's  Favorite,  of  which  there 
were  seventy-five  trees,  gave  more  profit  than  all  the  rest  of 
the  orchard. 

It  will  not  do  to  be  governed  by  the  advice  of  some  one  in 

17 


258  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

a  different  locality,  for  climate  and  soil  may  totally  change  the 
character  of  a  fruit.  The  Northern  Spy  is  a  good  illustration 
of  this.  In  Michigan,  Northern  Ohio,  and  New  York,  I  find  it 
an  excellent  keeper,  and  one  of  the  very  best  winter  apples, 
while  on  our  limestone  soil  in  South-western  Ohio,  it  is  a  fall 
apple,  and  comes  in  at  a  season  when  the  market  is  glutted  and 
prices  at  the  lowest.  A  little  thought  will  show  how  important 
it  is  for  the  farmer  who  expects  to  make  money  by  fruit  grow- 
ing, to  not  only  have  a  general  knowledge  of  the  business,  but 
also  to  understand  thoroughly  the  peculiarities  of  his  own  local- 
ity. He  must  also  understand  how  to  market,  as  it  is  not 
always  the  best  fruit  that  will  give  the  greatest  profit.  A  red 
apple  of  inferior  quality  will  out  sell  a  much  better  one  that 
has  a  dull  color,  and  an  apple  of  the  greatest  excellence,  is 
often  a  shy  or  irregular  bearer.  A  fruit  well  adapted  to  can- 
ning is  always  in  demand,  but  one  unsuited  to  this  purpose  will 
find  comparatively  few  customers.  For  example,  when  the 
"Wild  Goose  Plum"  was  first  introduced,  I  bought  some  of  the 
fruit  and  had  it  cooked,  and  found  that  though  it  was  of  very 
pleasant  flavor  raw,  it  was  sour  and  acrid  when  cooked.  I  wrote 
an  article  for  the  agricultural  press  cautioning  fruit  growers 
against  planting  it  largely,  and  giving  my  reasons.  The  article 
was  replied  to  by  a  prominent  nurseryman  in  the  Miami  Valley, 
who  took  issue  with  me,  and  greatly  praised  the  fruit  as  one 
that  would  give  great  and  sure  profit.  Six  years  later  I  noticed 
in  a  report  of  a  meeting  of  horticulturists,  this  same  nursery- 
man conceded  the  very  points  I  had  made,  and  advised  against 
planting  it.  Two  orchards  of  this  fruit  set  out  in  my  neighbor- 
hood were  cut  down  within  ten  years  without  giving  a  dollar 
profit.  Under  each  kind  of  fruit  I  shall  give  a  list  of  general 
excellence,  but  wish  it  distinctly  understood  that  judgment 
must  be  used  by  the  individual. 

Planting  an  Orchard. — With  young,  healthy  trees,  of 
good  varieties  selected,  you  are  ready  to  plant,  and  to  this  work 
be  sure  and  give  your  personal  supervision.  The  land  should  be 
broken  up  beforehand,  as  you  can  not  grow  good  trees  in  a 
wheat  or  grass  field,  and  it  is  more  difficult  to  plow  the  land 


FRUIT  ON  THE  FARM.  259 

well  after  the  trees  are  set  out  without  injuring  them.  If  sur- 
face drainage  is  needed,  as  suggested  previously,  dig  a  shallow 
hole,  or  set  the  trees  on  the  surface  and  raise  the  earth  around 
them.  Ordinarily,  however,  you  will  need  to  dig  a  hole  two 
spits  deep,  and  much  labor  can  be  saved  by  proper  management. 
For  small  trees  dig  the  hole  two  feet  in  diameter,  and  lay 
the  surface  soil  to  one  side,  then  go  another  spit  deep  and  put 
this  subsoil  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  hole.  This  hole  will 
usually  be  six  or  eight  inches  deeper  than  you  will  want  to  set 
the  tree.  Now,  with  the  spade  cut  down  the  edges  of  the  hole, 
and  fill  the  bottom  with  the  soil  as  you  widen  the  hole,  and  you 
will  have  a  bed  of  good,  mellow  surface  soil  to  set  your  tree  on, 
and  a  hole  three  or  three  and  a  half  feet  wide.  Spread  out  the 
roots  of  the  tree  so  they  will  be  in  a  natural  position,  and  sift 
down  among  them  well  fined  earth  from  the  surface  soil.  Churn 
the  tree  up  and  down  slightly  to  make  sure  that  all  the  intersti- 
ces are  filled,  and  when  well  covered  press  firmly  on  all  sides 
with  the  foot.  Finally,  put  the  subsoil  on  the  surface  around 
the  tree.  If  there  are  any  sods  place  them  inverted  around  the 
outer  edge  of  the  hole,  and  see  that  they  are  covered  so  that 
they  can  not  sprout  and  they  will  decay  and  furnish  just  the 
plant  food  the  trees  need.  It  will  take  time  and  labor  to  plant 
a  tree  well,  but  the  future  growth  will  repay  it.  An  orchard 
not  only  presents  a  better  appearance  if  the  rows  are  straight, 
but  it  will  be  easier  to  cultivate  between  the  trees.  It  is  easy 
to  set  the  stakes  straight,  but  after  the  holes  are  dug,  if  the 
trees  vary  a  few  inches  from  the  center  of  the  holes,  or  the  hole 
is  not  dug  so  that  the  stake  was  the  center,  the  result  is  a  crooked 
row.  A  very  simple  device,  which  can  be  made  in  a  few  min- 
utes, will  enable  you  to  set  the  trees  exactly  where  the  stake 
stood.  It  is  shown  in  the  cut.  It  is  simply  a  piece  of  board, 
five  or  six  feet  long,  with  a  hole 


near  each  end  and  a  notch  cut  out 


of  the  side.     When  you  are   ready  A  TREK  PLANTER. 

to  dig  the  hole  lay  your  board  down  so  that  the  stake  will  fit  in 
the  notch.  Then  drive  a  small  stake  through  each  of  the  holes 
in  the  board,  take  up  your  board  and  center  stake  and  dig 


260  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

the  hole.  When  ready  to  plant  the  tree,  lay  your  board  across 
the  hole  so  that  the  two  stakes  will  fit  in  the  end  holes,  and  set 
your  tree  in  the  notch,  and  it  must  stand  just  where  the  stake 
did;  and  if  the  stakes  were  set  right,  the  rows  must  be  straight. 
This  board  also  serves  to  steady  the  tree  while  the  earth  is  being 
filled  in  around  it. 

Pruning. — The  top  of  fruit  trees  when  transplanted  should 
be  well  cut  back,  especially  if  the  roots  have  been  at  all  injured. 
I  have  always  succeeded  in  getting  a  better  shaped  head  when 
setting  young,  small  trees  by  cutting  off  all  side  branches  and 
heading  back  a  little.  If  any  roots  have  been  bruised  or  man- 
gled they  should  be  pared  smooth  with  a  knife.  If  pains  is 
taken  from  the  start,  but  little  pruning  will  be  necessary.  Much 
of  the  pruning  can  be  done  with  the  hand  by  rubbing  out  sprouts 
as  they  start. 

Perhaps  less  wisdom  is  shown  in  tree  pruning  as  usually  done 
than  in  any  other  farm  operation.  The  orchard  will  be  neglected 
for  years,  and  then  with  ax  and  saw  is  cut  and  slashed  so  as  to 
nearly  ruin  it.  In  pruning  a  young  orchard,  one  needs  to  look  for- 
ward and  anticipate  the  growth,  and  the  intelligent  orchardist  will 
be  able  to  give  a  reason  for  every  cut  he  makes.  Our  objects  in 
pruning  are,  to  prevent  the  branches  from  becoming  crowded, 
which  would  cause  small  fruit  and  injury  from  abrasion;  to  ad- 
mit sun  and  air;  and  to  preserve  a  well-balanced  and  symmetri- 
cal top.  By  keeping  these  points  in  mind,  and  remembering  that 
there  is  to  be  constant  growth,  one  can  easily  prune  correctly. 

Cultivation. — Every  young  orchard  should  have  thorough 
cultivation  for  at  least  three  years.  It  is  quite  a  common  prac- 
tice to  set  out  fruit  trees  in  a  wheat  field  or  to  sow  the  young 
orchard  in  oats,  and  I  have  seen  a  large  orchard  planted  in  a 
meadow,  great  care  being  taken  to  kill  as  little  grass  as  possible. 
A  thrifty  and  profitable  orchard  can  not  be  grown  in  this  way. 
The  young  orchard  should  always  be  planted  in  a  crop  that 
will  neither  shade  the  trees  or  deprive  them  of  moisture. 
Beans,  potatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  tomatoes,  or  vines  of -any  kind 
can  be  grown  at  a  positive  advantage  to  the  trees.  Great  care 
must  be  taken  when  using  a  horse  among  the  trees  not  to 


FRUIT  ON  THE  FARM.  261 

injure  them.  Only  a  gentle  horse  and  a  careful  man  should  be 
allowed  to  cultivate  among  them,  and  a  short  single-tree  should 
be  used,  and  the  end  of  it  well  padded.  A  quince  or  peach 
orchard  should  be  cultivated  as  long  as  it  remains  in  bearing; 
but  apples,  pears,  and  cherries  may  have  clover  sown  among 
them  after  they  have  a  good,  thrifty  start  of  three  or  four 
years,  and  be  pastured  with  hogs. 

I  think  hogs  a  great  benefit  to  an  orchard  if  they  are 
properly  managed,  as  by  eating  the  fruit  which  falls  prema- 
turely and  that  which  is  decaying  they  destroy  the  many  inju- 
rious insects  which,  if  not  kept  in  check,  would  soon  make  it 
impossible  for  us  to  grow  fruit.  Hogs  allowed  the  run  of  the 
orchard  should  be  rung,  and  should  be  shut  out  during  wet 
weather,  when  the  land  is  soft. 

I  think  clover  better  than  grass  in  the  orchard,  because  it 
does  not  form  a  sod,  and  the  growth  is  not  heavy  in  dense 
shade,  and  if  pastured  moderately  close  the  orchard  will  be 
benefited  more  by  the  droppings  of  the  hogs  than  damaged  by  the 
clover.  I  would  not  leave  the  orchard  in  grass  or  clover  for  a 
series  of  years,  but  would  cultivate  it  thoroughly  every  third 
year.  In  plowing  up  an  old  orchard,  the  plow  should  not  run 
so  deep  as  to  tear  up  many  of  the  roots,  but  as  shallow  as  can 
be  done  to  kill  out  weeds  and  grass  and  give  a  mellow  surface. 
Where  plenty  of  material  can  be  had,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  mulch 
the  ground  under  the  trees,  so  as  to  kill  out  all  grass  and 
weeds.  If  this  mulching  is  done  with  coarse,  half-rotted  ma- 
nure, all  the  better.  To  manure  or  mulch  a  fruit  tree  prop- 
erly is  not  merely  to  put  it  around  the  trunk,  but  it  should 
extend  as  far  as  the  drip  of  the  branches.  Thorough  cultiva- 
tion and  manuring  will  often  work  wonders  on  an  old,  unthrifty 
orchard. 

In  the  chapter  on  Entomology  you  will  find  a  description  of 
insect  enemies,  with  directions  how  to  combat  them. 

Apples. — I  would  plant  apples  thirty-three  feet  apart, 
which  gives  forty  trees  to  the  acre.  If  peaches  are  wanted, 
they  may  be  set  between  the  apple-trees  each  way,  which  will 
make  three  peach-trees  to  one  of  apple,  and  make  the  trees  just 


262  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

one  rod  apart.  Two  and  a  half  acres  will  contain  just  four  hun- 
dred trees  of  both  kinds.  I  planted  an  orchard  of  this  size  in 
this  way,  and  found  that  the  peach-trees  were  out  of  the  way 
before  the  apple-trees  needed  the  room.  I  give  below  a  list  of 
general  excellence  for  family  use : 

Early — Early  Harvest,  Benoni,  Red  Astrachan.  Fall — 
Maiden  Blush,  Porter,  Bellmont,  Fall  Wine,  Fall  Pippin,  Jersey 
Sweet.  Winter — Yellow  Bellflower,  Baldwin,  Smith  Cider, 
Rambo,  White  Pippin,  Wine  Sap,  Golden  Russet,  Ben  Davis, 
Rome  Beauty,  Rawles  Janet,  Wagoner. 

Peaches. — I  have  never  found  any  trouble  in  growing  a 
vigorous,  healthy  peach-tree,  although,  on  account  of  the  tender- 
ness of  the  fruit-buds,  I  have  often  had  the  crop  killed  by  frost, 
and  sometimes  an  orchard  will  bear  but  a  single  crop  during  its 
life-time.  One  rod  apart  each  way  is  a  suitable  width  for  plant- 
ing; but  if  a  large  orchard  is  planted,  I  would  recommend  that 
every  fifth  space  be  left  wider,  so  that  there  would  be  no  diffi- 
culty in  driving  through  to  gather  the  fruit. 

A  small  peach-tree  will  do  better  than  a  large  one,  and 
I  would  not  plant  a  tree  more  than  one  year  old  from  the 
bud  if  I  could  get  it  for  nothing.  Nursery  men  often  sort  out 
the  trees  under  four  feet  high,  and  sell  them  at  half  price  as 
second  class,  and  I  have  frequently  tested  them  beside  first  class 
trees  from  five  to  seven  feet  high,  and  in  two  years  the  small 
trees  will  overtake  the  large  ones.  In  planting  a  large  orchard, 
the  use  of  these  small  trees  makes  a  large  saving. 

I  advise  that  all  side  branches  be  removed  at  the  time  of 
transplanting  and  the  trees  headed  back.  This  close  pruning 
will  cause  a  much  stronger  and  more  satisfactory  growth.  After 
setting,  the  peach  requires  but  little  pruning,  and  large  branches 
should  never  be  cut.  The  twigs  should  be  thinned  out  a  little, 
and  the  new  growth  cut  back  each  year.  Cultivation  will  largely 
increase  the  size  and  market  value  of  the  fruit. 

The  following  list  embraces  such  as  have  proved  the  best  in 
my  experience  :  Troth's  Early,  Early  Amsden,  Crawford's  Early, 
Crawford's  Late,  Smock,  Stump  the  World,  Old  Mixon,  Switzer- 
land, Oxford  Late,  Heath  Cling,  Salway. 


FRUIT  ON  THE  FARM.  263 

Pears. — The  one  great  drawback  to  the  cultivation  of 
pears  is  the  blight.  Probably  the  most  successful  pear  grower 
in  the  West,  if  not  in  the  Union,  is  N.  Ohmer,  of  Dayton,  0. 
He  has  planted  since  1868  over  3,500  pear-trees,  and  made  the 
growing  of  pears  profitable.  He  recommends,  a  deep,  well 
underdrained,  rich  clay  soil,  and  that  no  manure  be  used;  that 
planting  be  shallow,  and  the  earth  worked  to  the  trees,  so  as  to 
give  surface  drainage.  Cultivate  three  years,  and  then  seed  to 
clover  and  allow  the  second  crop  to  decay  on  the  ground.  After 
this  the  orchard  is  not  cultivated,  but  the  grass  allowed  to  come 
in  and  take  possession. 

Mr.  Ohmer  is  quite  sure  that  to  stimulate  the  growth  of 
wood  by  either  manure  or  cultivation  increases  the  danger  of 
blight.  In  proof  of  this  he  cites  the  following  examples :  In 
1869  he  planted  an  orchard  of  seven  hundred  Bartletts,  and 
cultivated  it  for  five  years,  losing  more  or  less  each  year,  till 
more  than  one  hundred  were  dead.  He  then  seeded  it  to  grass, 
and  the  blight  disappeared  in  two  years.  Another  orchard, 
which  had  not  blighted,  but  had  a  heavy  sod,  was  plowed  up, 
thinking  it  would  improve  the  fruit,  and  the  blight  appeared, 
and  many  of  the  trees  died.  He  also  recommends  that  the 
trees  be  headed  low,  so  that  the  branches  shall  shade  and  pro- 
tect the  trunk.  I  have  referred  thus  at  length  to  Mr.  Ohmer's 
experience,  because  his  twenty-five  years  of  success  in  the 
business  give  weight  to  his  suggestions.  He  does  not  believe 
that  blight  can  be  avoided  entirely  by  following  the  directions 
given  above,  but  that  its  evils  may  be  mitigated. 

My  own  experience  in  pear  culture  extends  over  twenty-five 
years,  during  which  time  I  have  planted  about  three  hundred 
trees.  I  have  found  the  Buffum,  Flemish  Beauty,  Seckel,  and 
Tyson  free  from  blight,  but  have  lost  about  half  the  Bartletts; 
but  notwithstanding  the  blight,  I  have  found  pear  culture  fairly 
profitable. 

The  following  list  is  given  as  embracing  the  best  varieties 
for  family  use:  Bartlett,  Osband's  Summer,  Sheldon,  Tyson, 
Seckel,  Clapp's  Favorite,  Lawrence,  Bloodgood.  Mr.  Ohmer 
recommends  for  an  orchard  of  one  thousand  trees,  150  Bartlett, 


264  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

150  Beurre  de  Anjou,  150  Duchess,  150  Lawrence,  100  Beurre 
Clairgeau,  50  Howell,  50  Flemish  Beauty,  50  Seckel,  hO  Ros- 
tiezer,  50  Louise  Bonne,  and  50  Sheldon. 

I  find  that  after  the  blight  has  prevailed  for  a  series  of 
years,  it  will  often  disappear  and  the  trees  that  remain  will  be 
healthy,  vigorous  bearers  for  a  long  period.  I  think  the  farmer 
with  a  soil  suited  to  pears  could  scarcely  fail  to  make  their 
growing  profitable,  for  if  three-fourths  of  the  trees  on  an  acre 
died,  there  would  be  enough  left  to  give  a  large  profit,  as  the 
crop  from  a  single  tree  will  often  bring  more  money  than  an 
acre  of  corn.  I  would  plant  sixteen  and  a  half  feet  apart,  as 
the  growth  of  pear  trees  is  usually  upright,  and  they  will  bear 
close  planting.  My  Bartlett  orchard  is  now  fourteen  years  old 
and  is  planted  this  distance  apart,  and  none  of  the  trees  interfere 
with  each  other,  or  look  as  though  they  would  for  many  years 
to  come. 

I  have  always  had  good  success  in  transplanting  pear  trees 
at  one  year  old  from  the  bud  or  graft,  but  have  found  when 
large  trees  were  moved  a  considerable  per  cent  of  them  would 
die.  I  think  that  one-year  old  trees  can  be  bought  at  most 
nurseries  for  about  twenty  cents  each.  One  hundred  and  sixty 
trees,  which  would  plant  an  acre,  would  cost,  including  the  labor 
of  setting,  about  forty  dollars.  During  the  three  or  four  years 
that  the  orchard  should  be  cultivated,  crops  may  be  grown  on 
the  land,  which  will  pay  for  the  labor  and  a  fair  interest  on  the 
investment,  and  after  that  the  grass  would  pay  at  least  a  moder- 
ate interest,  and  if  forty  trees  escaped  the  blight  and  came  into 
full  bearing,  enough  would  be  left  to  give  a  large  profit,  as  good 
pears  are  always  in  demand  at  fair  prices. 

In  proof  of  the  statement  that  enough  trees  are  likely  to  sur- 
vive to  render  pear  growing  profitable,  I  give  the  record  of  sev- 
eral orchards.  My  first  planting  was  in  1859,  twenty-seven 
trees.  In  1883  there  were  thirteen  alive,  ten  of  them  vigorous 
and  full  of  fruit.  In  1869  I  planted  an  orchard  of  eighty  Bart- 
letts,  of  which  there  are  now  standing  forty-five.  This  orchard 
has  suffered  severely  with  blight,  but  it  has  been  decreasing 
for  a  few  years,  and  it  now  shows  very  little  blight.  Another 


FRUIT  ON  THE  FARM. 


265 


orchard  of  sixty  trees,  twelve  years  old,  all  Bartlett,  is  three- 
fourths  dead,  but  seems  to  have  now  passed  the  blighting  stage. 
There  is  one  old  tree  near,  which  for  thirty-five  years  has  borne 
heavy  crops,  never  missing  except  when  a  heavy  freeze  came 
late  in  the  season,  as  in  1875  and  1882.  This  tree  has  made 
so  little  new  wood  that  it  has  not  increased  perceptibly  in  size 
during  the  time  I  have  known  it,  but  all  its  energies  are  devoted 
to  the  production  of  fruit.  Mr.  Ohmer  reported  twenty  years 
after  planting  his  first  orchard  of  four  hundred  and  twenty  trees, 
that  but  eighty  had  died,  and  if  we  except  three  varieties  which 
proved  failures,  his  five  orchards  of  three  thousand  five  hundred 
trees  show  about  the  same  per  cent  of  loss. 

Dwarf  Pears.  —  Dwarf  pears  are  produced  by  grafting 
pear  stock  on  the  roots  of  the  Angiers  Quince.  This  produces 
a  small  tree  which  comes  early  into  bearing  and  produces  a  very 
fine  quality  of  fruit.  These  dwarf  trees  may  be  planted  eight 
feet  apart  each  way,  which  gives  680  trees  to  the  acre.  Some 
varieties  do  not  succeed  well  on  the  quince,  while  others  do  re- 
markably well.  Mr.  Ohmer  had  great  success  with  Beurre  de 
Anjou  and  Duchess  as  dwarfs,  and  on  my  grounds. the  Flemish 
Beauty  and  Seckel  have  given  good  satisfaction.  If  dwarf  pears 
are  set  deeply  they  will  often  strike  root  from  the  pear  stock 
and  become  vigorous  standard  trees.  Of  eighteen  dwarfs  which 
I  planted  in  1859,  there  are  now,  in  1884,  six  large,  thrifty 
trees  in  full  bearing. 
Any  one  who  has  a 
taste  for  horticulture, 
and  the  time  to  de- 
vote to  it,  can  pro- 
duce a  pleasing  ef- 
fect by  training  dwarf 
pear  trees  to  the  sides 
of  a  bower,  as  shown 
in  the  cut.  A  grape-vine  might  be  planted  at  each  end  to  run 
over  the  top  of  the  bower,  and  the  pear  trees  kept  on  the  sides, 
as  the  grape  would  give  a  better  shade,  and  is  also  less  liable 
to  rot  if  allowed  to  run  high  above  the  ground. 


DWAUK    I'K.AK   TKKK    HOWKK. 


266  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Plums. — The  great  enemy  of  the  plum  is  the  curculio, 
which  stings  the  fruit  when  young  and  tender,  and  deposits 
within  it  an  egg.  This  hatches  into  a  grub,  which  causes  the 
fruit  to  fall  before  maturity.  The  tree  is  also  subject  to  a  dis- 
ease called  black  knot,  and  to  rotting  of  the  fruit  and  defolia- 
tion during  July  and  August.  For  the  curculio,  planting  the 
trees  in  a  hog  lot,  or  poultry  yard,  or  where  the  branches  over- 
hang water,  or  paving  under  the  trees  has  often  proved  a  rem- 
edy, as  the  instinct  of  the  insect  seems  to  teach  it  to  deposit  its 
eggs  only  under  such  circumstances  as  will  insure  reproduction. 

The  most  effectual  remedy  is  jarring  the  trees  to  cause  the 
insects  to  fall  on  a  sheet  held  for  the  purpose  of  catching  them. 
The  habit  of  the  insects  when  disturbed  of  folding  their  legs  and 
feigning  death,  makes  it  easy  to  capture  them  thus.  For  large 
orchards  various  devices  have  been  used.  A  frame  like  an  in- 
verted umbrella,  lined  with  canvas,  and  with  an  opening  at  one 
side  to  receive  the  tree,  is  placed  on  a  wheelbarrow  and  trun- 
dled from  tree  to  tree.  The  operator  carries  a  heavy  mallet 
with  which  he  strikes  the  tree  on  a  spike  which  has  been  driven 
in  it  for  the  purpose.  In  some  of  these  it  is  arranged  that  the 
insects  fall  into  a  pan  of  coal  oil,  and  others  are  provided  with 
pockets;  which  retain  them  till  they  can  be  destroyed  with  hot 
water.  As  the  period  when  the  curculio  damages  the  fruit  is 
but  short,  this  method  will  pay  for  large  orchards.  The  trees 
should  be  jarred  early  in  the  morning,  at  which  time  the  insects 
are  sluggish.  The  work  of  jarring  should  begin  soon  after  the 
fruit  forms,  and  should  be  repeated  every  morning  for  two  or  three 
weeks,  if  rewarded  by  the  capture  of  sufficient  insects  to  pay. 

For  the  diseases  mentioned,  there  are  no  specific  remedies, 
but  supplying  manure  and  salt  to  the  soil  often  acts  as  a  cure 
or  preventive,  and  sprinkling  the  trees  with  a  solution  of  one 
ounce  of  copperas  to  two  gallons  of  water  is  said  to  be  a  cure. 
Ashes  applied  to  the  soil  is  also  a  preventive.  Thinning  the 
fruit  is  found  a  remedy  for  rotting,  as  it  is  believed  to  originate 
from  exhaustion  of  the  tree  from  overbearing.  The  plum  will 
flourish  on  a  great  variety  of  soils,  but  should  never  be  planted 
on  wet  land,  as  it  needs  thorough  drainage. 


FRUIT  ON  THE  FARM.  267 

Varieties. — Probably  the  most  profitable  of  all  the  plums 
grown  is  the  "Damson."  It  is  a  small,  blue  plum,  with  a  bloom 
of  a  lighter  blue,  and  is  a  popular  and  excellent  fruit  for  can- 
ning. The  tree  is  a  prolific  bearer,  and  the  fruit  possesses  the 
valuable  quality  of  remaining  fit  for  market  for  some  weeks,  and 
also  bears  transportation  well.  The  tree  comes  into  bearing 
early,  and  often  proves  exceedingly  profitable.  Although  wri- 
ters catalogue  a  hundred  varieties  of  this  fruit,  it  would  be  im- 
possible to  name  a  list  that  would  be  of  general  value,  and  we 
therefore  leave  it  for  each  planter  to  decide  for  himself. 

Quinces. — I  have  found  the  quince  a  more  regular  and 
constant  bearer  than  any  other  of  the  orchard  fruits.  Even  in 
the  seasons  of  hard,  late  frosts  which  kill  the  blossoms,  the 
quince  will,  like  the  grape,  put  out  a  second  bloom  and  make 
some  fruit.  I  have  gathered  eleven  successive  crops — most  of 
them  heavy — from  the  same  orchard. 

The  quince  requires  a  deep  soil,  and  should  be  kept  free 
from  grass  and  weeds,  either  by  mulching  or  cultivation.  Salt 
at  the  rate  of  a  quart  to  the  tree  is  recommended  to  be  used  in 
connection  with  stable  manure.  Quinces  are  hardy,  and  may  be 
planted  in  the  fall.  They  do  best  transplanted  at  one  year  old 
from  cutting.  Plant  twelve  feet  apart,  which  will  give  three 
hundred  and  two  trees  to  the  acre,  but  if  a  large  orchard  is 
planted,  leave  every  fifth  space  twenty  feet  wide  for  drawing  in 
manure  and  taking  out  the  fruit.  The  trees  require  considera- 
ble pruning,  as  the  fruit  is  produced  on  spurs  two  or  more  years 
old,  and  shortening  the  wood  induces  the  formation  of  fruit  buds. 

One  excellent  quality  of  the  quince  is  that  it  bears  handling 
and  keeps  well,  and  may  be  shipped  to  a  distant  market  with 
safety.  The  varieties  are  few,  and  the  Orange  is  the  standard, 
and  the  one  best  suited  for  the  family  or  market. 

Cherries. — A  moderate  sized  cherry  orchard,  of  well  se- 
lected varieties  will  furnish  a  succession  of  fruit  for  two  months 
or  more.  Cherries  will  grow  on  most  soils  if  well  drained,  and 
as  I  have  proved  in  the  orchard  before  referred  to,  they  can  be 
grown  successfully  on  wet  soils  by  surface  drainage  alone.  The 
smaller  varieties,  such  as  the  Dukes  and  Morellos,  may  be  set 


268  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

as  close  as  the  peach,  but  the  larger  varieties  should  be  twenty 
to  twenty-five  feet  apart.  But  little  pruning  will  be  needed  for 
any  of  the  varieties,  but  if  it  is  necessary  to  remove  branches, 
it  is  best  to  do  it  in  July,  or  when  the  terminal  buds  are  forming. 
Like  all  other  varieties  of  fruit,  the  cherry  should  have  clean 
cultivation  for  a  few  years  until  the  trees  are  well  established. 

The  following  list  comprises  the  varieties  which  have  proved 
best  in  my  experience :  Early  Purple  Guigne,  Bowman's  May, 
Early  Richmond,  May  Duke,  Belle  De  Choisy,  Elton,  Black  Tar- 
tarian, Governor  Wood,  and  Belle  Magnifique.  Of  these,  the 
first  two  named  are  the  earliest,  ripening  before  or  with  straw- 
berries. I  have  not  found  them  profitable  for  market,  but  valu- 
able for  the  family  because  of  their  earliness.  Belle  Magni- 
fique is  the  latest,  and  ripens  slowly,  lasting  till  the  first  of 
August.  The  fruit  of  this  variety  is  very  large  and  of  especial 
value  for  culinary  purposes.  For  rich  and  delicate  flavor,  the 
Belle  De  Choisy  stands  unrivaled.  I  have  never  tasted  its  equal. 
It  is  only  a  moderate  bearer,  but  quite  regular,  and  is  not  suited 
for  marketing.  It  ripens  the  last  of  June.  For  market,  the 
Early  Richmond  and  Black  Tartarian  are  the  varieties  which  I 
have  found  most  profitable. 

The  first  named  is  also  called  early  May,  the  Pie  Cherry, 
the  Canning  Cherry,  and  by  other  local  names.  There  are  prob- 
ably ten  bushels  of  this  cherry  sold  in  Cincinnati  market  to  one 
of  all  other  varieties,  and  no  other  that  I  am  acquainted  with 
gives  so  great  profit.  The  trees  come  into  bearing  young,  and 
give  large  and  regular  crops.  They  may  be  headed  low,  so  that 
for  many  years  a  large  part  of  the  fruit  can  be  gathered  by 
standing  on  a  chair.  The  fruit  grows  in  pairs,  is  of  a  light  red, 
is  very  prolific,  and  when  fully  ripe  of  a  delicious  flavor.  The 
orchard  before  alluded  to,  is  almost  wholly  of  this  variety, 
and  has  missed  giving  a  full  crop  but  twice  in  eight  years,  and 
then  gave  an  abundance  for  family  use.  The  cherries  from  this 
orchard  have  been  mostly  sold  at  five  cents  a  quart  on  the  tree, 
the  purchaser  gathering  them.  No  pains  has  ever  been  taken 
to  keep  the  birds  from  them,  as  we  prefer  to  have  them  tame 
and  never  allow  one  killed,  and  no  account  has  been  kept  of 


FRUIT  ON  THE  FARM.  2G9 

cherries  canned  or  used  in  the  family,  and  the  sales  have  aver- 
aged fifty  dollars  a  year.  The  trees  are  not  long-lived,  but  will 
usually  continue  in  bearing  from  ten  to  fifteen  years. 

The  Black  Tartarian  is  a  large,  sweet  cherry,  heart-shaped 
and  glossy,  of  a  purplish-black  color,  and  ripens  the  last  of  June. 
The  tree  is  of  a  peculiar,  upright  and  compact  habit  of  growth, 
with  large,  dark  foliage,  and  often  attains  to  great  size.  It  is  a 
very  prolific  bearer,  often  producing  many  bushels  of  fruit  to  the 
tree,  which,  on  account  of  its  size,  beauty,  and  flavor  is  very  salable. 

Grapes. — Probably  no  other  fruit  grown  will  furnish  a 
family  supply  with  so  little  labor  and  risk  of  failure  as  the  grape. 
If  one  owns  a  single  square  yard  of  land  in  which  to  put  the 
roots  of  a  grape-vine,  it  can  be  trained  to  the  house  side  and 
will  for  years  produce  a  liberal  supply  of  fruit.  There  are  in 
my  neighborhood  thrifty  vines  in  full  bearing,  that  I  have  known 
for  thirty-five  years,  and  they  were  old  in  appearance  when  I 
first  saw  them.  I  have  a  single  Concord  vine  which  is  trained  to 
the  south  end  of  a  summer  kitchen  and  arbor  over  the  west  door, 
which  covers  about  twenty  square  yards  and  has  not  missed  a 
crop  in  ten  years,  and  in  favorable  years  I  have  counted  one 
thousand  clusters  on  it.  It  has  had  no  cultivation,  and  aside 
from  gathering  the  fruit,  less  than  a  half  hour's  work  a  year  in 
pruning  keeps  it  in  order.  I  would  always  transplant  at  one 
year  old.  I  do  not  advise  close  planting  and  training  to  stakes, 
as  by  training  to  trellises  and  wider  planting  I  have  seen  the 
best  results. 

A  cheap  trellis  can  be  made  by  setting  posts  and  stretching 
wires,  or  cheap  bowers  can 
be  made  of  rough  poles  or 
some  lasting  wood  like  locust. 
A  family  supply  of  fruit  can 
usually  be  grown  by  train- 
ing vines  to  out-buildings  or 

to  rough    bowers   Or    trellises  SKLF-SUPPOUTINO  ORAPE  TRELLIS. 

where  a  screen  shade  or  good  protection  is  desirable.  Another 
cheap  and  servicable  trellis  is  shown  in  the  cut.  This  is 
a  self-supporting  trellis  for  two  rows,  and  is  made  by  leaning 


270  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

scantling  against  each  other  like  the  rafters  of  a  house.  A 
short  board  near  the  top  and  a  strip  near  the  ground  should 
be  nailed  across  to  keep  them  from  spreading  and  to  hold  them 
to  their  place,  and  the  strips  nailed  to  them  to  support  the  vines 
would  hold  them  firmly.  When  first  put  up  it  would  be  neces- 
sary to  secure  the  bottoms  to  prevent  their  being  blown  over  in 
a  gale,  and  this  could  be  done  by  driving  a  stake  firmly  into  the 
ground  flat  against  the  side  of  the  uprights  of  the  trellis  and 
driving  a  spike  through  it.  As  the  vines  grow  and  cover  the 
trellis,  they  can  be  made  to  hold  it  down  firmly  by  training 
some  of  them  under  and  some  over  the  strips.  This  trellis 
should  always  run  north  and  south  so  as  to  give  the  vines 
an  equal  share  of  sun.  I  would  recommend  oak  two  by  four 
inches  and  eight  feet  long  for  the  uprights,  set  them  edge- 
wise and  place  the  bottoms  six  feet  apart. 

I  would  plant  the  vines  for  trellising  in  this  way :  in  rows 
eight  feet  apart  where  the  trellis  was  to  go,  and  twelve  feet  be- 
tween the  trellises.  This  would  leave  a  space  between  the 
trellises  to  drive  a  wagon  to  take  in  manure  and  get  the 
fruit,  and  these  spaces  could  be  cultivated  and  made  to  grow 
good  crops,  as  the  vines  running  up  the  leaning  trellis  would 
shade  much  less  than  if  perpendicular.  The  vines  would  stand 
a  foot  from  the  bottom  of  the  trellis,  which  would  give  room  to 
hoe  or  spade  around  them.  Light  poles  of  durable  wood  could 
be  used  to  spike  on  to  this  trellis  in  place  of  boards.  The  land 
under  the  trellis  would  be  so  shaded  that  it  would  be  impos- 
sible for  weeds  to  grow. 

The  cost  of  this  trellis  will  vary  in  different  localities;  but 
as  it  will  answer  for  two  rows,  it  would  not  be  expensive, 

and  it  seems  to  me  to 
possess  advantages  over 
all  others.  If  tender  va- 
rieties are  planted,  which 
SELF-SUPPORTING  WIRE  TRELLIS.  nee(j  winter  protection,  a 

row  of  corn  fodder  can  be  leaned  up  against  them. 

Still  another  way  to  make  a  cheap  trellis  for  two  rows  is  to 
set  strong  posts,  seven  feet  high  and  thirty  feet  apart,  and  lean 


FRUIT  ON  THE  FARM.  271 

a  scantling  from  each  side  and  secure  them  to  the  posts  by  a 
carriage  bolt,  and  then  stretch  wires  for  the  vines  to  run  on. 
This  would  be  much  cheaper  than  boards,  as  the  posts  could  be 
much  farther  apart,  and  the  wires  would  be  more  durable. 

The  varieties  of  grapes  are  almost  numberless,  and  each 
year  brings  out  new  ones,  which  sell  at  high  prices.  These  are 
often  exceedingly  valuable  to  the  nurseryman,  but  seldom  to  the 
buyer.  I  have  at  different  times  bought  one  or  more  of  these  new 
high-priced  varieties — probably  ten  or  twelve  in  all — and  have 
never  been  rewarded  with  a  single  bunch  of  grapes  from  one  of 
them.  Those  which  have  given  me  the  best  satisfaction  are 
the  Concord,  Catawba,  Ives,  Delaware,  Clinton,  and  Hartford 
Prolific.  With  the  exception  of  the  Catawba  and  Delaware, 
these  are  not  first-class  grapes;  but  they  bear  abundant  crops, 
and  when  fully  ripe  are  very  eatable. 

The  Catawba  in  its  perfection  is  delicious;  but  occasionally 
it  fails  to  ripen.  With  me  it  will  mature  a  crop  two  years  out 
of  three,  and  if  it  would  only  do  so  every  third  year,  I  would 
still  grow  it  for  family  use. 

The  Concord  is  the  grape  for  the  million.  It  is  an  early  and 
abundant  bearer,  has  large  fruit  in  large  clusters  covered  with  a 
blue  bloom.  I  have  fruited  this  variety  for  twelve  years  without 
a  single  failure;  but  some  years  the  vines  so  exhaust  them- 
selves by  overbearing  that  the  crop  is  inferior  both  in  quality 
and  quantity  the  ensuing  year;  yet  this  can  be  largely  remedied 
by  attention  to  pruning. 

The  Delaware,  where  it  will  succeed,  is  an  excellent  table 
grape,  and  will  give  the  best  of  satisfaction  for  family  use. 

The  Ives  is  prolific  and  hardy,  and  when  fully  ripe  is  good 
flavored.  But  as  it  colors  long  before  it  is  ripe,  it  is  usually 
gathered  before  its  fine  flavor  is  developed,  and  many  who  have 
fruited  it  for  years  have  very  little  idea  of  its  excellence. 

In  pruning  the  grape,  bear  in  mind  that  the  fruit  grows  on 
new  wood  made  from  buds  which  start  the  same  spring.  In  prun- 
ing young  vines,  the  object  is  to  get  a  good,  healthy  vine.  At 
one  year  old  the  vine  should  be  cut  back  to  two  buds,  and 
when  they  start  rub  out  the  weaker  one.  Cut  back  well  each 


272  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

spring  till  the  vines  are  old  enough  to  bear,  and  then  train  upon 
the  trellis  two  canes  for  leaders.  Alter  this  the  pruning  will  con- 
sist in  cutting  back  the  laterals  to  one  bud,  which  will  grow  the 
bearing  wood  for  the  coming  season.  The  best  time  to  prune  is 
after  the  leaves  fall  in  autumn;  but  it  may  be  done  any  time 
during  the  winter  when  the  wood  is  not  frozen.  If  deferred  till 
the  sap  starts  in  the  spring,  the  vines  will  bleed  profusely;  and 
while  I  have  known  vines  to  bear  good  crops  when  treated  thus, 
I  would  advise  early  pruning  so  as  to  avoid  it.  If  possible,  place 
the  vineyard  on  rolling  land;  but  whatever  situation  you  have 
for  them,  you  will  be  likely  to  succeed  with  the  hardy  varieties. 

Small  Fruits. — It  is  a  deplorable  fact  that  berries  are 
rarely  found  on  the  tables  of  the  majority  of  farmers.  I  think 
it  safe  to  affirm  that  not  one  farmer  in  five — possibly  not  one  in 
ten — has  ever  grown  a  strawberry,  and  there  seems  to  be  an 
opinion  that  peculiar  skill  and  knowledge  is  required  to  grow  this 
fruit.  It  will  require  more  labor,  but  not  more  skill,  to  grow  a  good 
crop  of  strawberries  than  of  potatoes.  It  is  necessary  in  either 
case  to  have  a  good  variety,  a  good  soil,  and  good  cultivation. 

The  varieties  of  strawberries  are  so  numerous  that  to  merely 
name  them  would  more  than  fill  a  page  of  our  book.  But  no  list 
can  be  given  that  would  be  a  safe  guide  to  the  planter,  for  the 
variety  that  does  best  on  one  soil  or  in  one  location  is  often 
unprofitable  in  another.  The  only  safe  rule  in  choosing  is  to 
find  out  what  kinds  are  giving  satisfaction  to  the  growers  of 
your  own  neighborhood.  It  is  well  also  to  experiment  with  a 
few  new  varieties  on  your  own  grounds  each  year,  discarding 
such  as  are  unprofitable,  and  extending  the  cultivation  of  those 
which  you  find  suited  to  your  soil  and  locality.  The  following 
list  is  from  standard  varieties,  some  of  which  have  given  good 
success  with  growers  in  all  parts  of  the  country:  Charles 
Downing,  Cumberland  Triumph,  Sharpless,  Duchess,  Crescent 
Seedling,  Wilson,  Windsor  Chief,  (Champion),  Mount  Vernon, 
(Kirkwood),  Bid  well,  Captain  Jack,  Defiance,  and  Seth  Boyden. 
Among  the  newer  varieties  which  promise  well  are  Manchester, 
James  Vick,  Big  Bob,  Finch's  Prolific,  and  Indiana.  Kentucky 
and  Glendale  are  desirable  late  varieties. 


FRUIT  ON  THE  FARM.  273 

SOIL. — Strawberries  flourish  on  a  great  variety  of  soils,  and 
no  one  should  be  deterred  from  planting  them  because  his  soil 
is  not  the  best.  Any  soil  that  will  grow  good  corn  will  grow 
strawberries;  but  it  should  be  made  rich,  and  should  be  clean, 
deep,  and  mellow.  A  good  loam  or  loamy  clay  upland  will 
give  the  best  results.  Plow  deep  in  the  fall,  and  manure  on 
the  surface  with  finely  rotted  barn-yard  manure  that  contains  no 
foul  seed,  and  plant  as  early  in  spring  as  the  plants  are  in  good 
condition  for  setting.  This  will  be  when  they  have  started  to 
grow,  but  before  the  fruit  buds  show.  I  much  prefer  spring 
planting  to  fall,  as  it  is  easier  to  put  a  bed  in  good  order 
and  plant  it  in  spring  than  to  get  it  so  if  it  has  been  planted 
in  the  fall,  and  a  fall  planted  bed  will  not  give  a  crop  the  en- 
suing spring,  and  requires  more  care  and  labor  than  if  the 
planting  is  deferred,  as  it  must  be  protected  two  winters  before 
getting  a  crop. 

There  is  little  question  that  the  best  results  will  be  obtained 
by  keeping  off  all  runners,,  as  the  energies  of  the  plant  will  then 
be  directed  to  the  development  of  fruit  buds.  The  advantages 
of  this  plan  are  that  the  fruit  will  be  finer  and  more  abundant, 
the  bed  cultivated  with  less  labor,  and  can  be  kept  longer  in 
bearing,  and  nearly  all  the  work  of  cultivation  can  be  done  with 
a  horse;  while,  if  the  runners  are  allowed  to  set  and  form  a 
matted  row,  they  must  be  kept  clean  by  hand.  In  garden  cul- 
ture, plant  rows  two  feet  apart  and  the  plants  twelve  to  fifteen 
inches ;  but  for  field  culture,  where  the  hill  system  is  to  be  fol- 
lowed, I  would  plant  two  by  two  and  half  feet,  so  as  to  culti- 
vate both  ways.  This  would  give  8,712  plants  to  the  acre.  See 
that  the  plant  are  fresh  and  vigorous;  the  roots  should  never  be 
allowed  to  dry.  Our  best  strawberry  growers  emphasize  this 
point,  and  even  recommend  that  the  plants  should  not  be 
dropped  ahead  of  the  one  who  is  setting  them  out,  but  carried 
in  a  vessel  with  a  little  water  or  damp  moss.  It  is  also  recom- 
mended that  the  roots  be  shortened  one-third  of  their  length,  and 
the  tops  should  always  be  trimmed  of  all  dead  leaves  and  old 
runners,  so  as  to  leave  three  gre.en,  vigorous  leaves.  With  the 

close  planting  recommended  it  is  important  that  the  rows  be  per- 
is 


274:  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

fectly  straight  and  regular,  as  it  will  save  much  hard  work  in 
cultivating  them.  Remove  all  blossom  buds  from  the  newly  set 
plants  as  fast  as  they  appear,  as  the  plant  will  not  have  vigor 
enough  to  produce  a  crop  of  fruit  and  a  healthy,  vigorous  growth 
at  the  same  time,  and  as  the  fruit  will  at  best  be  inferior  in 
quality,  it  is  better  to  allow  the  plant  to  get  all  the  strength, 
rather  than  divert  a  part  of  it  to  the  fruit. 

I  would  not  advise  any  one  who  must  buy  plants  from  a 
distance  to  set  out  strawberries  largely.  It  will  be  better  to  defer 
the  general  planting  a  year,  and  grow  your  own  plants. 

Be  sure  you  obtain  plants  true  to  name  from  some  reliable 
nurseryman.  I  think  more  farmers  have  made  a  failure  from 
getting  plants  of  some  worthless  variety  than  from  any  other 
cause.  Because  they  can  get  them  for  the  digging,  farmers  will 
sometimes  go  to  an  old,  run-out  bed,  and  dig  spindling,  weak 
plants  of  perhaps  several  varieties  mixed,  and  because  they  do 
not  succeed  in  growing  a  crop,  they  conclude  there  is  some 
mystery  about  strawberry  growing. 

The  next  point  necessary  to  success  is  winter  protection. 
This  is  necessary,  not  to  keep  the  plants  from  freezing,  but  from 
the  alternations  of  freezing  and  thawing.  Whatever  material  is 
used  should  be  prepared  beforehand,  but  is  better  applied  after 
the  ground  has  frozen.  When  the  plants  are  kept  in  hills,  less 
material  will  protect  them.  Be  sure  that  there  is  no  seed  of 
any  kind  in  your  mulch ;  old,  half-rotted  straw,  the  bagasse  from 
the  sorgo  mill,  leaves,  second  crop  hay,  or  any  waste  material 
will  answer. 

If  you  want  the  very  best  results,  work  thoroughly  in  the 
spring  as  soon  as  the  soil  is  in  good  condition,  and  then  mulch 
so  as  to  keep  the  land  moist.  A  very  small  bed  treated  in  this 
way  will  furnish  a  liberal  family  supply  of  the  finest  fruit.  I 
have  known  sixty  quarts  gathered  from  a  square  rod,  and  much 
larger  crops  are  often  grown.  E.  P.  Roe,  who  is  a  very  suc- 
cessful strawberry  grower,  recommends  this  plan  of  high  ma- 
nuring and  cutting  off  runners,  and  calls  it  "  Stimulation  and 
Restriction,"  and  claims  that  we  need  not  fear  too  much  stimu- 
lation by  manuring  and  deep  and  thorough  culture,  if  we  prac- 


FRUIT  ON  THE  FARM.  275 

tice  the  restriction  recommended.  If  the  matted  row  system  is 
followed,  it  will  pay  best  to  plow  up  the  bed  after  one  crop,  as 
it  is  cheaper  to  plant  a  new  bed  than  to  clean  out  an  old  one, 
but  if  the  hill  system  is  adopted,  three  crops  may  be  profitably 
grown  from  one  planting. 

It  is  wise  in  strawberry  culture  to  begin  with  a  limited  area 
and  increase  as  you  learn  what  varieties  are  suited  to  your  soil, 
and  how  best  to  manage  and  dispose  of  the  crop.  If  the  hill 
system  is  followed,  it  will  be  necessary  to  have  nursery  beds  for 
growing  plants ;  and  to  make  sure  of  enough,  I  would  advise 
that  one  thousand  plants  be  set  in  the  nursery  bed  for  each  acre 
you  intend  planting  the  coming  year.  In  a  good  season  this 
would  probably  produce  four  times  as  many  plants  as  would  be 
needed,  but  in  a  dry,  unfavorable  season,  less  plants  would  be 
produced,  and  it  is  better  to  have  a  surplus  than  to  fall  short. 
If  there  is  a  great  abundance  of  plants,  enough  can  be  taken  up 
without  disturbing  the  rows,  and  a  crop  be  gathered  from  the 
nursery  beds,  and  this  will  enable  you  to  compare  the  matted 
row  and  the  hill  system.  Every  successful  strawberry  grower 
can  sell  more  or  less  plants,  and  often  he  finds  a  good  income 
from  this  source,  and  it  is  well  to  always  provide  a  surplus. 

If  intending  to  set  out  a  plantation  of  strawberries,  I  would 
advise  that  you  manage  to  have  the  land  in  clover  the  preceding 
year;  cut  the  first  crop  for  hay,  and  plow  down  the  second 
growth  in  July,  and  seed  heavily  with  buckwheat.  When  the 
buckwheat  blooms,  plow  it  under  and  then  top  dress  the  bed 
thoroughly  with  manure  that  has  been  composted,  so  that  you 
are  sure  there  is  no  seed  in  it  that  will  grow.  In  the  spring 
work  the  bed  till  it  is  perfectly  fine  and  mellow,  and  then  mark 
it  both  ways  perfectly  straight.  For  this  purpose  you  will  need 
a  light  sled  marker  which  a  man  can  draw  and  mark  three  rows 
at  a  time.  You  will  need  two  sleds  of  different  widths  for  this 
purpose,  but  they  can  be  cheaply  and  easily  made.  Stretch  the 
garden  line  to  start  with,  and  walk  backwards  in  marking  and 
you  will  have  no  difficulty  in  keeping  the  rows  straight. 

When  ready  to  plant  have  plenty  of  help.  One  man  will 
take  up  plants  as  fast  as  two  can  trim  and  prepare  them,  and 


276  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

two  more  set  them  out,  and  it  will  be  best  to  have  help  enough 
to  do  the  work  in  a  day  if  you  can.  I  would  recommend  that 
the  plants  be  puddled  with  a  mixture  of  cow  dung  and  clay,  as 
is  described  in  the  chapter  on  sweet  potatoes.  I  would  advise, 
in  growing  strawberries  on  a  large  scale  on  this  plan  of  hill  cul- 
ture, that,  every  four  rods,  a  space  of  eight  feet  be  left  for  a 
wagon-drive,  for  convenience  in  drawing  in  manure  and  mulch 
and  in  taking  out  the  fruit.  These  strips  should  be  kept  culti- 
vated, and  after  the  berry  season  is  over  can  be  planted  in  some 
late  crop. 

As  soon  as  the  bed  is  done  bearing,  give  a  thorough  work- 
ing both  ways  and  see  that  all  runners  are  kept  off.  Some 
growers  recommend  that  the  plants  be  closely  trimmed  of  all  old 
leaves  and  fruit  stalks,  with  a  sharp  sickle,  and  I  am  inclined 
to  favor  the  plan.  Bone  meal  and  ashes  are  valuable  and  con- 
centrated fertilizers  for  the  strawberry.  The  former  I  would 
apply  at  the  first  working  after  the  bearing  season,  and  the  lat- 
ter in  early  spring. 

I  will  condense  a  few  points  which,  if  attended  to,  will  in- 
sure success  in  strawberry  growing :  1st.  A  clean  soil  thoroughly 
prepared ;  2d.  A  liberal  application  of  well  rotted  manure ;  3d. 
Strong  plants,  true  to  name,  set  out  fresh,  with  roots  always 
kept  moist;  4th.  The  earth  well  firmed  around  the  young 
plants ;  5th.  Thorough  and  constant  cultivation ;  6th.  All  blos- 
som stalks  and  runners  removed  the  first  spring,  as  soon  as 
they  appear,  and  all  fruit  stalks  and  dead  leaves  trimmed  off  as 
soon  as  the  bearing  season  is  over;  7th.  Good  winter  protection. 

Raspberries. — It  is  doubtful  if  any  other  fruit  can  be  pro- 
duced with  so  little  labor  and  with  so  great  certainty  of  an 
annual  crop  as  the  raspberry,  if  it  is  intelligently  managed.  A 
single  planting  will  last  a  generation.  I  have  known  raspberries 
to  remain  in  vigorous  bearing  on  the  same  spot  for  more  than 
thirty  years,  and  when  removed,  they  seemed  to  have  lost  no 
vigor.  As  the  raspberry  renews  its  canes  each  year,  all  that  is 
necessary  to  keep  a  plantation  healthy,  is  to  give  good  cultiva- 
tion, plenty  of  plant  food,  and  attend  to  pruning  and  the  removal 
of  the  old  canes  each  year,  and  there  seems  to  be  no  limit  to  the 


FRUIT  ON  THE  FARM.  277 

time  in  which  they  will  remain  in  bearing.  It  was  the  practice 
formerly  to  trellis  or  stake  and  tie  up  the  canes,  which  involved 
the  grower  in  a  heavy  expense;  but  our  best  growers  have 
learned  to  manage  them  so  that  this  is  not  necessary.  Mr. 
Ohmer,  on  whose  fruit  farm  I  have  seen  eight  or  ten  acres  of 
raspberries  in  a  field,  says :  "  I  can  and  do  grow  raspberries  al- 
most as  cheaply  as  I  do  corn,  not  counting  the  cost  of  gathering. 
At  one  time  I  advocated  and  practiced  tying  up  the  canes,  espe- 
cially of  the  black  varieties.  I  have  entirely  abandoned  this, 
and  raise  as  many  bushels  per  acre  and  as  nice  fruit  at  a  much 
less  expense.  The  additional  expense  of  providing  stakes,  or 
posts  and  wire,  is  not  all  I  save,  as  the  tying  up  of  the  canes 
took  much  time,  and,  of  course,  cost  money." 

The  way  to  manage  raspberries  to  avoid  trellising,  is  to 
pinch  back  the  tops  of  the  canes  when  two  feet  high.  They 
then  throw  out  laterals  in  all  directions,  which  balance  and 
support  the  main  stem.  Early  the  following  spring  these  lat- 
erals must  be  cut  back  to  about  one  foot  in  length,  and  when 
managed  in  this  way,  they  will  stand  up  and  support  the  fruit 
as  well  as  if  staked. 

Most  cultivators  of  the  raspberry  make  a  mistake  in  planting 
too  close.  The  rows  should  not  be  less  than  eight  feet  apart 
and  the  plants  set  three  feet  in  the  rows,  as  this  width  is  neces- 
sary for  proper  cultivation.  In  planting  the  Black  Caps,  or  any 
of  the  varieties  that  propagate  from  the  tips,  it  is  usual  to  ad- 
vise shallow  planting,  but  when  these  are  not  to  be  staked,  they 
should  be  set  at  least  three  inches  deep  and  then  the  earth  worked 
to  them.  Cultivation  should  be  thorough  till  August,  and  all 
surplus  plants  should  be  killed  out  as  remorselessly  as  weeds. 
The  varieties  that  propagate  by  suckers  will  overrun  the  ground 
and  become  a  tangled  wilderness,  and  cease  bearing  unless  the 
suckers  a?re  kept  down.  Three  or  four  canes  to  a  hill  will  give 
more  and  better  fruit  than  a  larger  number. 

Probably  the  cheapest  and  most  satisfactory  way  to  manage 
a  plantation  for  home  use  is  to  mulch  it  heavily.  Give  the  land 
a  thorough  working  in  the  spring,  and  then  cover  it  so  thickly 
with  straw  that  no  weeds  can  grow,  and  you  will  have  large,  fine 


278  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

berries  when  your  neighbor's  neglected  plot  will  suffer  greatly 
with  drought.  If  the  mulching  is  forked  away  from  the  rows  a 
little,  and  the  land  spaded  and  the  mulch  returned  and  a  little 
extra  added  each  spring,  the  labor  of  keeping  the  plot  in  order 
will  be  greatly  reduced,  the  yield  largely  increased,  and  the  qual- 
ity of  the  fruit  greatly  improved.  Either  mulching  or  thorough 
cultivation  must  be  given,  and  on  most  farms  material  for  mulch- 
ing is  so  abundant  that  it  would  be  cheaper  than  cultivation. 

VARIETIES. — The  Gregg,  Doolittle  and  Souhegan  are  probably 
the  best  varieties  of  the  Black  Caps,  and  the  Hansell,  Cuthbert, 
Turner,  and  Brandy  wine  of  the  red. 

Blackberries. — The  same  general  directions  for  cultivation 
will  apply  to  the  blackberry  as  the  raspberry,  except  that  the 
blackberry  should  be  trellised.  The  cheapest  and  best  trellis  is 
a  single  wire  three  feet  above  the  ground  to  which  the  canes 
are  tied.  Some  years  since  nearly  all  the  cultivated  varieties 
were  attacked  with  an  orange-colored  rust  which  completely  de- 
stroyed them,  and  all  attempts  to  renew  the  plantations  were 
fruitless,  as  the  plants  were  killed  before  they  came  into  bearing. 
Of  late  years  the  disease  has  disappeared,  it  is  to  be  hoped  never 
to  return.  Before  this  disease  appeared  I  could  grow  a  bushel 
of  blackberries,  aside  from  gathering,  as  cheaply  as  a  bushel  of 
corn.  A  very  few  square  rods  of  land  will  supply  a  family  for 
nearly  a  month,  and  furnish  all  that  is  needed  for  canning.  As 
it  is  difficult  to  keep  them  in  a  narrow  row,  I  would  recommend 
that  blackberries  be  planted  in  rows  eight  feet  apart. 

The  standard  varieties  are :  the  Lawton  or  New  Rochelle, 
Kittatinny,  Wilson's  Early,  Snyder,  and  Taylor's  Prolific.  The 
Snyder  is  the  hardiest,  and  is  recommended  for  cold  climates  or 
localities  where  other  varieties  have  been  killed  out  by  rust. 

Currants. — The  currant  is  very  hardy  and  thrives  on  almost 
any  soil.  If  neglected  and  allowed  to  become  crowded  with  old 
wood  and  choked  with  grass  the  plant  is  short-lived  ;  but  if  well 
cultivated  and  pruned  annually,  removing  all  wood  that  shows 
signs  of  decay,  and  thinning  out  the  new  shoots,  they  can  be 
kept  thrifty  and  bearing  for  many  years.  One  thing  which  adds 
greatly  to  the  value  of  the  currant,  is  the  long  time  it  continues 


FRUIT  ON  THE  FARM.  279 

in  use,  beginning  before  the  fruit  is  grown  and  continuing  for 
many  weeks.  The  season  for  this  fruit  may  be  prolonged  till 
September  if  the  bushes  are  shaded  after  the  middle  of  May. 
This  can  be  done  by  spreading  straw  mats,  or  coffee-sacking  over 
them,  allowing  it  to  rest  on  a  frame  so  as  to  relieve  the  bush  of 
its  weight.  On  light  soils  mulching  will  keep  the  land  cool  and 
prolong  the  season.  A  few  bushes  well  cared  for  will  give 
better  results  than  a  much  larger  number  neglected.  I  would 
not  advise  planting  nearer  than  five  feet  each  way.  This  will 
give  over  seventeen  hundred  plants  to  the  acre,  and  four  quarts 
to  the  plant  would  make  over  two  hundred  bushels  of  fruit. 
Near  a  good  market  the  crop  often  proves  largely  profitable, 
sometimes  bringing  five  hundred  dollars  or  more  per  acre. 

Of  late  years  the  currant-worm,  in  many  localities,  has  eaten 
all  the  leaves  from  the  plant,  ruining  the  crop  and  damaging 
the  plantation.  It  is  not  difficult  to  destroy  them  if  taken  in 
time.  They  may  be  treated  with  powdered  hellebore,  which 
may  be  applied  in  solution,  one  tablespoonful  to  a  pailful  of  water, 
or  it  may  be  mixed  with  sifted  ashes  at  the  rate  of  one  pint  to 
one  gallon  of  ashes  and  one  pint  of  flour  of  sulphur.  This 
mixture  should  be  applied  when  the  dew  is  on,  so  it  will  adhere 
to  the  leaves.  It  is  important  that  these  remedies  be  used  at  the 
first  appearance  of  the  worm,  and  that  they  be  followed  up  regu- 
larly until  all  are  destroyed.  The  Red  Dutch,  White  Grape, 
and  Cherry  are  standard  varieties. 

Gooseberries.  —  The  same  general  treatment  is  required 
for  the  gooseberry  as  for  the  currant.  Plant  so  as  to  cultivate 
both  ways,  five  feet  apart  each  way,  and  keep  well  pruned. 
They  yield  enormously.  I  have  gathered  a  bushel  from  six 
plants  of  the  Houghton.  The  large  English  varieties  are  subject 
to  mildew  and  are  hardly  worthy  of  cultivation  in  this  country, 
but  the  Downing,  Smith's  Improved,  and  Houghton  are  seldom 
affected,  and  bear  heavy  crops.  They  can  be  very  cheaply 
gathered  by  using  thick  gloves  to  protect  the  hands.  The 
picker  should  wear  a  long  apron,  and  in  gathering  he  kneels  and 
spreads  this  on  the  ground  under  the  bush,  then  with  the  gloved 
hands  strips  off  the  berries  and  lets  them  fall  on  the  apron. 


280  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

The  berries  so  gathered  are  afterwards  passed  through  a  fanuing- 
mill  to  blow  out  the  leaves.  In  this  way  one  man  will  gather 
several  bushels  in  a  day.  A  very  few  plants  will  furnish  a 
family  supply,  and  where  there  is  a  market  for  them  it  will 
prove  largely  profitable  to  grow  them  for  sale. 

Commercial  Fruit  Growing. — There  are  many  locations 
in  which  growing  fruit  for  market  will  prove  a  profitable  busi- 
ness to  the  man  that  understands  it.  To  be  successful  in  the 
business,  however,  requires  a  combination  of  qualities  rarely 
found.  The  successful  fruit  grower  must  be  industrious,  care- 
ful, patient,  intelligent,  and  honest.  Industrious,  because  there 
is  much  labor  connected  with  the  business  which  cnn  not  be 
trusted  to  others,  but  requires  the  presence  and  oversight  of  the 
owner.  Careful,  because  there  are  many  things,  which,  if  not 
done  promptly,  will  result  in  great  loss.  Patient,  because  he 
will  have  many  difficulties  to  encounter  and  many  losses  to 
meet,  and  he  must  not  be  easily  discouraged.  Intelligent,  be- 
cause there  are  points  to  be  settled  upon  which  his  profits 
largely  depend  in  all  the  operations  of  planting  and  caring  for 
the  trees,  selecting  varieties,  and  disposing  of  the  crop,  which 
can  only  be  determined  by  wisdom  and  experience.  Honest, 
because  the  man  who  expects  to  retain  his  customers  and  sell 
his  fruit  at  a  profit,  must  not  "top"  his  barrels  and  measures, 
or  attempt  to  smuggle  worthless  fruit  in  the  middle  of  his 
packages. 

Thousands  attempt  the  business  of  fruit  growing  and  fail 
for  the  want  of  some  one  or  more  of  these  qualities.  They 
hear  of  the  success  of  some  one  who  has  a  good  market  and 
has  thoroughly  mastered  the  business,  and  without  an  idea  of 
the  necessary  qualifications  they  plant  an  orchard  or  set  a  plot 
of  berries,  and  the  only  one  who  makes  any  money  out  of  it  is 
the  nurseryman  who  furnishes  the  stock.  The  fruit  grower 
must  be  prepared  to  handle  his  fruit  promptly,  and  know  just 
what  to  do  with  it,  for  many  kinds  of  fruit  will  spoil  in  twenty- 
four  hours  after  it  is  gathered.  It  must  be  put  up  for  market 
in  an  attractive  form,  and  such  as  the  public  demand,  for  there 
is  fashion  in  the  way  fruits  must  be  handled  as  well  as  in  other 


FRUIT  ON  THE  FARM.  281 

things.  All  boxes,  crates,  baskets,  etc.,  must  be  prepared  be- 
forehand, and  help  engaged  to  handle  the  fruit,  for  there  must 
be  no  delay.  Always  give  good,  honest  measure,  and  a  uniform 
quality  throughout  the  package.  Thousands  of  bushels  of  fruit 
are  sent  to  market  every  year  that  would  have  brought  more 
money  if  one-third  of  it  had  been  fed  to  the  hogs  and  the 
remainder  sold. 

On  this  point  I  quote  Mr.  Ohmer,  whose  success  and  long 
experience  give  great  authority  to  what  he  says :  "  Many  in- 
voices of  fruit  have  been  sold  for  less  than  the  freight  and  com- 
mission charges,  principally  because  they  were  not  properly  put 
up.  Dealers  want  you  to  face  the  packages  with  nice  fruit,  but 
they  do  not  want  all  under  the  facing  to  be  worthless  or  indif- 
ferent, but  merchantable  fruit  all  through.  The  man  who  will 
face  a  package  of  fruit  and  fill  up  with  that  which  is  worthless 
is  not  an  honest  man,  but  a  disgrace  to  the  profession.  Such  a 
man  ought  not  and  does  not  make  fruit  growing  pay." 

One  other  point  I  consider  of  great  importance,  especially  in 
the  growing  of  small  fruits  for  market,  and  that  is  not  to 
attempt  it  on  a  large  scale  until  you  have  gained  some  experi- 
ence. Feel  your  way  carefully  into  the  business,  and  master 
every  detail  as  you  go  along.  The  man  who  undertakes  to 
start  a  large  fruit  plantation  without  experience  is  likely  to 
pay  high  tuition  in  the  school  of  experience,  and  too  often  fail 
to  get  a  good  education  at  last. 


282  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


CHAPTER   XII. 

GARDENING  AND  TRUCK  RARMING. 

THE  old-fashioned  garden — which,  unfortunately,  is  not  yet 
a  thing  of  the  past — will  be  recognized  with  a  slight  de- 
scription. It  is  usually  paled  in,  and  contains  from  one- 
eighth  to  one-fourth  acre.  There  is  a  wide  border  around  it 
which  can  not  be  plowed,  and  here  dock,  wild  parsnips,  and  other 
weeds  struggle  for  the  mastery,  and  continually  encroach  upon 
the  cultivated  portions.  It  contains,  also,  a  row  of  currant 
bushes,  raspberries,  blackberries,  and  a  few  quince  bushes  and 
grape-vines.  The  little  space  left  for  cultivation  is  planted  in  the 
spring,  and  after  maturing  a  single  crop  is  neglected  for  the  rest 
of  the  season,  and  before  the  summer  is  ended  it  becomes  a  wil- 
derness of  weeds,  and  produces  seed  enough  to  sow  a  quarter 
section  of  land.  It  is  quite  a  common  sight  in  September  to  see 
the  farmer  in  a  garden  of  this  description  with  a  scythe  and 
dung  fork  trying  to  find  his  potato  patch. 

Very  often  after  the  garden  is  plowed  in  the  spring,  the 
entire  care  of  it  devolves  on  the  farmer's  wife — who  is,  perhaps, 
already  overburdened — and  what  of  good  it  affords,  is  the  re- 
sult of  her  warfare  with  the  weeds.  The  garden  can  be  made 
the  pleasantest  and  most  profitable  spot  on  the  farm,  and  will 
furnish  labor  suited  to  the  boys  not  old  enough  to  do  regular 
field  work,  and  to  the  grandfather  whose  day  of  hard  field  labor 
has  passed.  A  fourth  acre  of  rich  land  in  garden,  kept  clean 
and  thoroughly  cultivated,  and  the  land  constantly  occupied  with 
a  succession  of  crops  through  the  season,  will  produce  a  very 
large  amount  of  family  supplies,  and  I  think  it  a  safe  estimate 
that  what  would  cost  one  hundred  dollars  in  the  market  can  be 
grown  on  it. 


GARDENING  AND  TRUCK  FARMING.  283 

The  business  of  market  gardening  has  a  promising  outlook 
in  this  country.  Good,  fresh  vegetables  are  wholesome  and 
cheap  living,  and  our  cities  are  increasing  in  population  much 
faster  than  the  country,  and  will  furnish  a  market  for  a  large 
amount  of  garden  products.  Young  men  with  a  taste  for  gar- 
dening, who  will  make  themselves  masters  of  the  business,  will 
find  it  remunerative.  No  one  should  begin  the  business  of 
market  gardening  unless  he  is  willing  to  work,  and  can  devote 
his  entire  time  to  it  and  give  personal  supervision  to  all  the 
details  of  the  work. 

To  give  some  idea  of  how  much  can  be  sold  from  an  acre 
of  garden,  I  quote  from  Peter  Henderson  the  cost  and  proceeds 
per  acre  for  a  few  leading  crops,  and  he  gives  this  as  the  aver- 
age for  ten  years : 

EXPENDITURES  FOR  ONE  ACRE  PER  YEAR. 

Rent, $50  00 

Labor, 300  00 

Horse  labor, 35  00 

Manure, 100  00 

Seeds, ;                 .  10  00 

Wear  and  tear  of  tools,  etc., 10  00 

Cost  of  marketing,  .                                     ....  100  00 

Total, $605  00 

RECEIPTS   FOR   ONE   ACRE   PER   YEAR. 

12,000  early  cabbages  at  5  cents  per  head,  .  .  .  $600  00 
14,000  lettuce  at  1  cent  per  head,  .  .  .  .  140  00 
30,000  celery  at  2  cents  per  head,  .  .  600  00 

Total 81,340  00 

Deduct  cost, 605  00 


Leaves  profit,         ......        $735  00 

All  three  of  the  above  crops  were  grown  on  the  land  the 
same  year,  which  will  account  for  the  large  amount  of  labor  and 
manure  expended. 

Selecting  and  Preparing  the  Garden  Spot. — Whether 
the  garden  is  to  be  merely  for  the  family  or  a  market  g.'irden, 
the  same  general  directions  will  apply.  It  should  be  well 
drained.  The  soil  should  be  warm  and  easily  worked.  It  must 
be  rich.  It  must  be  kept  free  from  weeds. 

If  one  is  going  into  the  business  of  market  gardening,  he 


284  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

should  locate  on  land  well  suited  to  the  purpose.  But  on  the 
farm  he  can  often  better  afford  to  make  the  land  what  it  should 
be  than  to  have  his  garden  at  an  inconvenient  distance  from  the 
house.  I  would  advise  that  where  possible  the  farm  garden  be 
at  the  rear  of  the  house,  near  the  kitchen,  so  that  it  can  be 
seen  and  be  convenient,  and  that  it  be  protected  on  the  north 
and  west  by  a  tight  board  fence  or  an  evergreen  hedge.  If  the 
land  is  a  stiif,  cold  clay,  draw  sand  and  black  loam  on  it  till  you 
get  it  in  the  right  condition,  or  if  a  leachy  sand,  give  it  a  coat  of 
clay.  If  you  are  starting  a  new  garden,  manure  heavily  and 
plow  under,  and  then  top  dress  with  manure.  There  is  no  dan- 
ger of  getting  the  land  too  rich;  but  after  it  is  once  well  ma- 
nured, it  will  not  need  so  much,  and  a  light  top  dressing  each 
year  will  answer. 

The  garden  must  be  thoroughly  drained,  and,  in  addition  to 
underdrains,  you  should  always  leave  it  in  such  shape  in  the 
fall  as  to  give  good  surface  drainage,  for  you  can  not  have  an 
early,  mellow  garden  on  land  that  the  water  has  stood  on  through 
the  winter.  I  find  fall  plowing  a  great  help  in  getting  land  in 
good  order  for  gardening,  and  the  plan  which  has  given  the  best 
satisfaction  on  my  farm  is  to  plow  in  narrow  lands,  running  with 
the  slope  of  the  land,  and  then  open  the  dead  furrows  so  as  to 
leave  them  clear  and  unobstructed  for  the  water.  Pains  must  be 
taken  to  provide  an  outlet  for  the  water,  so  it  will  not  stand  in 
the  furrows  and  saturate  the  land.  It  is  surprising  how  soon 
land  will  dry  off  in  the  spring  and  be  ready  to  plant,  and  how 
mellow  it  will  be  when  treated  in  this  way. 

The  beginner  should  not  be  discouraged  if  he  does  not  suc- 
ceed in  growing  large  crops  the  first  year,  for  it  takes  several 
years  of  manuring  and  thorough  culture  to  get  land  into  the 
best  condition  for  growing  some  of  our  garden  crops.  By  con- 
stant, thorough,  and  clean  culture  and  a  dressing  of  manure  each 
year,  the  land  can  be  brought  to  such  a  condition  that  there  will 
be  little  danger  of  failure  of  crops.  All  the  manure  for  the 
garden  should  be  well  composted,  so  as  to  kill  any  foul  seeds  it 
may  contain,  and  so  that  will  be  in  a  condition  for  immediate 
use.  It  should  always  be  kept  in  flat  piles,  as  this  will  enable 


GARDENING  AND  TRUCK  FARMING.  285 

the  manure  to  maintain  uniform  heat  throughout  and  decompose, 
so  as  to  be  in  the  best  condition  for  plant  food.  Except  when 
starting  a  garden  on  new  land,  I  find  the  greatest  benefit  from 
using  manure  at  the  surface,  and  thoroughly  incorporating  it 
with  the  soil  by  repeated  harrowing  and  stirring  with  the  culti- 
vators. Be  careful  to  avoid  getting  small  stones  on  the  garden 
with  the  manure.  It  is  often  the  case  that  manure  from  the 
village  is  thrown  into  a  graveled  alley  and  mixed  with  small 
stones,  which  would  do  little  or  no  harm  in  a  grain  field,  but 
which  dull  the  hoes  and  give  great  trouble  in  the  garden. 

If  starting  a  large  garden,  and  manure  enough  can  not  be 
had  to  put  it  in  good  condition,  it  will  pay  to  devote  a  part  to 
green  crops  for  manure  the  first  year.  A  crop  of  rye  sown  in 
the  fall  can  be  turned  under  in  May,  and  followed  by  buckwheat, 
which  would  be  ready  to  turn  under  early  in  July.  Then  a  sec- 
ond crop  of  buckwheat  or  one  of  sowed  corn  can  be  grown,  and 
plowed  down  in  time  to  seed  again  with  rye,  and  this  will  make 
the  land  so  mellow  and  clean  that  it  will  grow  good  crops  of 
many  kinds  with  but  little  manure. 

The  vegetable  and  fruit  gardens  should  be  kept  separate,  for 
if  currants,  raspberries,  blackberries,  etc.,  are  allowed  in  the 
garden,  they  are  almost  sure  to  spread  until  they  take  up  too 
much  space,  and  too  often  to  be  choked  with  weeds  and  seed  the 
balance  of  the  garden. 

Laying  out  the  Garden. — The  old  plan  of  a  grass  bor- 
der and  narrow  beds  sowed  crosswise,  to  be  cultivated  entirely 
with  the  hoe,  is  no  longer  followed  by  experienced  gardeners. 
Whether  there  is  a  fourth  acre  to  be  cultivated  for  family  use, 
or  the  market  garden  of  five  or  ten  acres,  it  should  be  laid  off 
so  that  every  thing  can  be  planted  in  long  rows,  and  cultivated 
by  horse  power  or  with  the  hand  plow.  We  shall  never  be  able 
to  dispense  with  the  hoe  or  hand  work  in  the  garden ;  but  by 
proper  management  and  keeping  the  soil  free  from  weed  seeds 
we  can  greatly  reduce  the  labor. 

No  weeds  should  be  allowed  to  go  to  seed  in  the  garden 
under  any  circumstances.  It  is  not  so  difficult  to  prevent  this 
as  is  often  supposed.  In  most  gardens  which  are  allowed  to 


286  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

become  overrun  with  weeds  it  is  due  to  neglect  after  the  crops 
have  matured.  The  very  day  that  a  crop  has  gone  past  use, 
the  land  should  be  cleared  and  cultivated,  and  if  not  planted  in 
another  crop,  should  be  stirred  often  enough  to  keep  it  clear  ol 
weeds.  I  would  not,  however,  allow  any  part  of  the  garden  to 
remain  idle,  for  it  is  as  easy  to  cultivate  a  crop  as  the  bare 
land,  and  one  is  not  so  likely  to  neglect  it.  I  shall  speak  of 
succession  of  crops  elsewhere  in  this  chapter. 

A  garden  managed  in  this  way  can  after  a  few  years  be 
cultivated  with  much  less  labor  than  one  where  the  land  is  full 
of  foul  seed. 

If  not  experienced  in  market  gardening,  it  is  best  to 
begin  with  a  few  crops  which  are  easily  managed,  and  at  the 
same  time  experiment  with  others  on  a  small  scale,  so  as  to 
gain  experience  in  their  management.  The  crops  best  suited 
for  truck  farming  are  tomatoes,  sweet  corn,  sweet  potatoes. 
Irish  potatoes,  turnips,  and  cabbages.  Lima  beans,  nutmeg 
melons,  Hubbard  squashes,  and  pickles  are  also  largely  profit- 
able when  you  have  a  good  market  for  them.  Onions  require 
rich  land  and  a  good  deal  of  labor,  and  it  will  be  wise  to  begin 
their  cultivation  on  a  small  scale.  But  grow  some  each  year, 
so  as  to  learn  their  management,  and  increase  if  you  find  them 
profitable. 

Implements. — You  will  need  a  good  breaking  plow,  two 
harrows — one  a  slicing  harrow  like  the  Randall  and  the  other 
a  steel  tooth — a  roller,  drag,  marker,  cultivator,  and  seed  drill ; 
also  garden  line  and  reel,  hand  plow,  hoes,  forks,  potato  hook, 
spades,  watering  can,  and  transplanting  trowel.  I  have  never 
seen  a  five  or  seven-tooth  cultivator  that  suited  me  for  garden 
work.  They  are  too  clumsy  and  hard  to  manage.  I  prefer  a 
good  "  three-shovel,"  with  the  shovels  set  at  just  the  right  slope, 
and  two  sets  of  them — one  very  narrow  to  use  among  small 
plants,  and  the  other  wider,  to  throw  up  some  earth  when  the 
plants  are  large  enough  to  receive  it.  For  work  among  small 
plants  it  should  be  provided  with  a  fender,  as  this  will  enable 
you  to  work  very  close  without  covering  them.  For  a  seed  drill 
I  have  never  found  a  better  than  the  Mathews.  It  is  easily 


GARDENING  AND  TRUCK  FARMING.  287 

and  quickly  adjusted  to  sow  seeds  of  any  size  from  a  turnip  to 
a  bean,  and  is  very  easy  to  operate. 

In  a  large  garden  a  good  hand  plow  is  indispensable.  Under 
certain  conditions  of  soil,  one  man  with  one  of  these  will  do  as 
much  good  as  six  with  hoes.  On  most  soils  a  heavy  rain 
forms  a  crust  and  starts  a  crop  of  weeds  unless  the  land  is 
stirred  as  soon  as  it  is  in  good  condition,  and  with  a  good  hand 
plow  a  man  can  run  over  an  acre  in  about  two  hours,  and  loosen 
the  surface,  while  to  do  this  with  hoes  in  the  same  time  would 
require  several  men.  If  the  surface  is  only  mellowed  an  inch 
deep  it  will  kill  the  weeds  that  are  just  starting  and  prevent  the 
land  from  crusting  and  drying  out.  I  have  tried  several  hand- 
plows,  some  rigged  up  with  a  dozen  different  tools  to  be  used 
on  the  same  stock,  but  I  find  most  of  .these  attachments  of  lit- 
tle value,  and  if  I  were  to  choose  one,  it  would  be  a  narrow 
shovel  or  bull-tongue,  not  to  exceed  two  inches  in  width.  Next 
in  value  to  this  is  a  small  share,  something  like  that  of  a  break- 
ing plow,  so  attached  that  the  earth  can  be  turned  away  from 
the  plants.  All  the  tools  used  on  the  hand-plow  should  be  of 
polished  steel,  and  kept  bright,  and  in  using  it,  run  shallow,  so 
that  you  can  walk  rapidly  with  little  labor.  More  can  be  ac- 
complished in  a  day  by  going  over  the  ground  twice  with  it 
rapidly  and  easily  than  once  slowly  and  laboriously. 

For  starting  early  plants,  a 
hot-bed  will  be  necessary.  It 
should  always  be  located  where 
it  will  be  protected  from  the 
wind,  and  there  should  be 
buildings  or  a  high,  tight,  board 
fence  to  the  north  and  west  of 
it.  I  prefer  one  made  above  HOT-BED. 

ground,  as  shown  in  the  cut,  but  if  made  early,  it  should  be 
banked  up  with  manure  to  the  top  of  the  frame.  The  proper  slope 
for  the  sash  can  be  had  by  making  the  rear  board  a  foot  wider  than 
the  front.  The  manure  should  be  hot  and  moist  when  put  in  the 
bed,  and  should  be  thoroughly  shaken  apart,  so  as  to  contain  no 
lumps,  and  be  evenly  packed.  This  can  be  best  done  by  using 


288  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

small  pieces  of  board,  stepping  from  one  to  the  other  and  mov- 
ing them  as  you  cross  the  bed.  For  an  early  bed  there  should 
be  eighteen  inches  of  manure,  when  packed,  and  five  or  six 
inches  of  good  soil. 

There  are  three  evils  to  be  guarded  against  in  the  manage- 
ment of  a  hot^bed — cold,  heat,  and  over-crowding — which  makes 
the  plants  weak  and  spindling.  The  first  can  be  guarded  against 
by  the  means  already  named — a  sheltered  spot  for  the  beds,  and 
banking  up  with  manure,  and  in  addition,  by  covering  the  beds 
at  night  with  boards,  mats,  or  bundles  of  straw.  To  guard 
against  overheating  requires  constant  care;  for  whenever  the 
sun  shines  brightly,  the  bed  must  be  partly  opened  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  day,  or  the  plants  will  be  damaged,  if  not  ruined. 
As  the  plants  grow,  they  must  be  thinned,  so  as  to  give  them 
room.  They  may  be  transplanted  into  other  beds.  Enough 
plants  can  be  started  under  one  sash  to  fill  beds  that  a  dozen 
will  cover,  and  the  plants  will  be  made  stocky  and  much  im- 
proved by  the  transplanting.  If  you  have  a  warm  house  and  a 
south  window,  a  box  may  be  fitted  to  the  window-sill  and  held 
in  place  by  a  wire  at  each  end,  and  enough  plants  for  a  family 
started  in  it,  and  these  can  be  transplanted  to  a  hot-bed  or  cold 
frame,  to  give  them  a  start  before  it  is  warm  enough  to  put  them 
in  the  open  ground. 

A  cold  frame  is  the  same  as  a  hot-bed  without  manure. 
That  is,  you  use  the  frame  and  sash,  and  avail  yourself  of  pro- 
tection from  winds,  but  depend  on  the  sun  for  warmth.  It  will 
require  less  watching  th:m  the  hot-bed,  and  will  give  plants  sev- 
eral weeks  earlier  than  they  can  be  grown  in  the  open  ground. 
It  is  of  great  value  also,  late  in  the  spring,  for  protecting  ten- 
der plants  like  tomatoes  from  late  frosts,  and  for  this  purpose 
they  can  be  used  without  glass,  as  covering  will  only  be  required 
at  night. 

When  to  Plant. — No  directions  can  be  given  when  to  start 
a  hot-bed,  or  plant  any  particular  crop,  which  will  suit  all  parts 
of  a  country  of  such  varied  climate  as  ours ;  but  I  shall  give  the 
time  which  I  have  found  best  in  latitude  one-half  degree  north 
of  Cincinnati,  and  shall  try  to  show  how  much  cold  the  different 


GARDENING  AND  TRUCK  FARMING.  289 

plants  will  endure,  and  readers  must  decide  for  themselves  when 
to  plant  in  their  locality.  Every  gardener  should  keep  a  diary, 
and  record  every  operation  with  the  date.  It  becomes  exceed- 
ingly valuable  as  the  years  pass,  to  be  able  to  look  back  and  see 
how  early  and  late  the  different  garden  crops  have  been  planted, 
what  degree  of  cold  they  have  endured,  and  at  what  date  they 
have  matured.  All  these  points  are  important,  and  should  not 
be  left  to  memory,  but  be  made  a  matter  of  record. 

Insects. — In  another  chapter  you  will  find  a  description  of 
the  various  insects  which  are  injurious  to  the  garden,  and  the 
best  means  of  preventing  their  ravages,  and  I  shall  only  say 
that  to  avoid  many  of  them,  all  that  is  necessary  is  a  soil  so 
rich  and  well  cultivated  as  to  insure  a  strong  thrifty  plant. 
This  is  not  true  of  all,  and  for  some,  poisons  must  be  used,  and 
when  this  is  done,  it  should  be  with  extreme  care.  The  rem- 
edy should  also  be  applied  in  time,  as  a  little  delay  may  cause 
the  loss  of  the  plants  in  spite  of  all  efforts  to  the  contrary. 
When  you  have  such  crops  as  are  liable  to  the  attacks  of  in- 
sects— as  young  cabbage  plants,  cucumbers,  squashes,  melons, 
etc., — watch  them  constantly,  and  have  your  poisons  already 
mixed  and  ready  for  use.  Fortunately,  with  most  of  these 
pests,  the  period  in  which  they  injure  the  plants  is  short,  and 
attention  for  a  few  days  will  usually  .save  them. 

Rotation  and  Succession  of  Crops.  —  Most  garden 
crops  do  best  if  not  planted  on  the  same  land  year  after  year- 
onions  being  perhaps  the  only  exception — and  this  should  be 
kept  in  mind  in  assigning  the  different  vegetables  their  place  in 
the  garden.  A  garden  brought  to  the  condition  it  should  be,  is 
too  valuable  to  grow  only  one  crop  in  a  season,  and  as  there  are 
quick  maturing  crops,  and  the  planting  season  lasts  from  the 
first  of  March,  or  earlier,  till  September,  there  is  no  need  of  any 
vacancies.  Keep  something  growing  on  every  foot  of  the  garden, 
if  only  sweet  corn  to  grow  fodder  for  the  cows.  In  some  cases 
two  crops  can  stand  on  the  ground  at  once  for  a  short  time,  as 
for  example,  vines  can  be  planted  among  the  early  potatoes  and 
get  a  little  start  before  the  potatoes  are  dug,  or  cabbage  or  sweet 
corn  can  be  planted  in  the  same  way.  Beans  or  cabbage  can 

19 


290  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

follow  early  lettuce  and  radishes,  cucumbers  or  sweet  corn  ilu; 
early  peas,  and  turnips  can  be  sown  among  the  melon  and  cu- 
cumber vines. 

As  an  example  of  a  succession  of  crops  on  the  same  land  in 
a  single  year,  I  one  season  planted  an  acre  in  early  peas,  and  as 
soon  as  they  were  ripe  prepared  the  land  and  planted  it  in 
pickles,  and  at  the  last  working  of  the  pickles  I  sowed  a  pound 
of  turnip-seed.  I  had  very  heavy  crops  of  all  these,  the  turnips 
measuring  five  hundred  bushels.  When  two  or  three  crops  are 
to  be  grown  on  the  land  there  must  be  no  delay  in  removing 
one  and  planting  another. 

If  the  land  is  to  be  manured  again,  the  manure  should  be 
hauled  beforehand  and  heaped  at  the  most  convenient  point,  and 
there  must  be  help  enough  to  do  the  work  as  rapidly  as  possible. 
I  have  often  had  a  crop  standing  on  an  acre  of  land  in  the 
morning,  and  before  night  it  was  removed,  the  land  plowed, 
manured,  roiled,  harrowed,  dragged,  and  planted  in  another  crop. 

The  cultivation  of  the  garden  can  not  be  too  thorough.  The 
late  Mr.  Root,  of  Rockford,  Illinois,  was  one  of  the  most  suc- 
cessful gardeners  and  seed  growers  I  ever  knew,  and  his  rule 
was  to  keep  a  horse  at  work  all  the  time,  that  the  land  could 
be  stirred  on  each  four  acres.  Thorough  cultivation  not  only 
increases  the  yield,  but  also  improves  the  quality  of  the  vege- 
tables, for  those  grown  on  a  rich,  well  worked  soil  are  more 
crisp  and  tender,  and  of  better  flavor  than  such  as  are  of  slow, 
stunted  growth. 

Planting. — I  shall  give  some  hints  as  to  planting  and  cul- 
tivation, with  the  description  of  the  vegetables,  but  some  gen- 
eral directions  for  planting  seem  necessary  also. 

We  have  some  varieties  of  vegetables  so  hardy  that  they 
will  endure  a  hard  freeze  without  injury,  and  these  should  be 
planted  as  soon  as  the  land  can  be  worked  in  the  spring,  and  if 
it  is  plowed  and  rounded  up  in  narrow  lands  the  preceding 
fall,  as  directed  elsewhere,  it  will  often  be  ready  to  plant  two 
weeks  earlier  than  if  left  flat  to  be  plowed  in  the  spring.  In 
my  latitude  we  can  occasionally  plant  the  last  week  in  February 
and  usually  during  the  first  ten  days  of  March.  The  hardy 


GARDENING  AND  TRUCK  FARMING.  291 

vegetables  which  we  plant  at  this  season,  are  Peas,  Beets,  Cab- 
bages, Lettuce,  Spinach,  and  Radishes.  Mercury  may  go  down 
to  fifteen  degrees  without  damage  to  any  of  these,  and  I  have 
often  had  them  planted  when  a  week  or  more  of  severe  winter 
weather  would  come,  with  snow  and  frozen  ground,  and  mercury 
as  low  as  eight  degrees  above  zero,  and  no  damage  whatever  be- 
fall them.  Sometimes,  if  the  ground  freezes  hard  after  they 
are  up,  the  radishes  will  be  killed,  but  all  the  others  will 
survive  it. 

In  planting  crops  which  must  be  cultivated  entirely  by  hand, 
and  especially  those  which  come  up  small  and  delicate,  like 
onions,  carrots,  parsnips,  etc.,  the  greatest  pains  should  be  taken 
to  get  the  rows  straight.  Not  only  should  they  be  planted  by 
line,  but  the  row  should  be  narrow.  If  a  crooked  drill  three 
inches  wide  is  made  to  receive  the  seed,  which  is  scattered  the 
full  width,  there  will  be  three  times  the  amount  of  hand  weed- 
ing required  than  if  the  seed  is  deposited  in  a  straight  drill  less 
than  an  inch  in  width.  Judgment  must  be  used  also  in  deter- 
mining the  depth  and  manner  of  covering  the  seed.  Most  seeds 
sown  late  in  the  season,  after  the  hot  weather  has  come,  will 
need  to  be  covered  two  or  three  times  as  deep  as  those  sown  in 
March  or  April.  Walking  on  the  row  to  press  the  soil  to  the 
seed  has  been  recommended  in  many  agricultural  books  and 
papers  of  late  years,  but  whether  this  should  be  done  or  not  de- 
pends on  the  season,  the  variety  of  seed,  and  kind  and  condition 
of  soil.  On  a  clay  soil,  early  in  the  spring,  if  this  was  done 
with  some  varieties  of  seed,  they  would  never  come  up  at  all, 
but  later  in  the  season  it  is  often  necessary  to  secure  a  stand. 

When  it  is  desirable  to  press  the  soil  lightly  to  the  seed,  the 
best  way  is  to  draw  a  board  over  the  row,  and  the  pressure  can 
be  regulated  by  weighting  the  board  with  earth  or  stones.  In 
hot  weather  when  there  is  but  little  moisture  in  the  soil,  this 
pressing  of  the  earth  to  the  seed  will  often  insure  a  perfect 
stand,  when  without  it  not  half  the  seed  would  come  up. 

If  the  garden  contains  so  much  clay  as  to  be  liable  to  run 
together  and  pack  after  a  heavy  rain,  it  will  pay  to  provide  sand 
to  cover  with.  Delicate  seeds,  such  as  parsnip,  carrot,  and 


292  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

onion,  often  fail  to  come  up  from  the  fact  that  they  are  not 
strong  enough  to  penetrate  the  crust,  and  beans,  melons,  cucum- 
bers, and  the  class  of  plants  that  come  up  with  a  curved  stem, 
also  often  perish  under  the  weight  of  water-soaked  clay.  All 
these  seeds  can  be  sown  in  shallow  drills,  and  instead  of  cover- 
ing them  with  the  clay  soil,  a  little  sand  used  for  the  purpose. 
This  will  not  only  make  a  stand  surer,  but  as  pure  sand  usually 
contains  no  seeds  there  will  be  less  labor  in  weeding  the 
young  plants. 

There  is  a  best  time  in  which  to  perform  every  operation  in 
gardening,  and  he  is  most  likely  to  be  successful  who  knows 
when  this  time  is,  and  is  ready  to  do  the  work  then.  A  delay 
of  a  single  day  in  preparing  the  land  and  putting  in  a  crop  will 
sometimes  make  all  the  difference  between  success  and  failure, 
and  two  or  three  days'  waiting  will  often  add  many  dollars  to 
the  expense  of  cleaning  an  acre.  The  gardener  should  visit  and 
inspect  every  part  of  his  garden  daily  and  be  ready  to  concen- 
trate his  force  upon  the  part  which  most  needs  it.  He  should 
also  have  at  his  command  extra  help  for  times  when  it  is  needed. 

Disposing  of  Garden  Crops. — It  is  not  enough  to  know 
how  to  grow  good  garden  crops,  for  the  profit  will  depend  largely 
on  the  market  and  the  success  the  gardener  has  in  selling.  It 
would  be  foolish  for  a  man  living  several  miles  from  a  village 
to  undertake  to  grow  perishable  crops  which  must  be  sold  the 
day  they  are  gathered.  He  may  find  such  crops  as  sweet  and 
Irish  potatoes,  melons,  turnips,  and  squashes  profitable,  but  he 
should  not  attempt  to  do  a  regular  market  garden  business.  I 
think  any  village  of  one  thousand  inhabitants  will  support  one 
good  gardener,  and  the  best  way  to  manage  is  to  sell  direct  to 
the  families,  as,  if  you  try  to  furnish  them  through  the  groceries^ 
the  commissions  and  goods  that  are  allowed  to  become  stale  and 
unsalable  will  largely  reduce  the  profits,  and  as  the  people  will 
not  get  their  vegetables  fresh,  the  amount  consumed  will  be 
greatly  reduced. 

If  you  intend  starting  in  the  business,  notify  all  the  families 
in  your  village  some  weeks  in  advance,  either  personally  or  by  a 
printed  circular,  and  as  soon  as  your  vegetables  are  ready,  drive 


GARDENING  AND  TRUCK  FARMING.  293 

around  to  their  houses  regularly  every  day  or  every  other  day. 
Take  orders  at  each  trip  for  the  next.  Always  give  good  meas- 
ure, and  do  not  top  out,  so  that  they  will  think  they  are  getting 
nicer  vegetables  than  they  are.  Have  every  thing  you  sell  in  as 
attractive  a  form  as  possible.  Be  obliging,  and  carry  the  vege- 
tables into  the  cellar  or  back  shed  if  they  wish  you  to,  and  try 
to  establish  a  reputation  for  fair  dealing.  If  you  will  do  this, 
you  can  retain  your  customers  as  long  as  you  wish. 

Those  living  near  a  city  can  often  grow  tomatoes,  melons, 
sweet  corn,  and  other  truck,  and  sell  it  at  wholesale  better  than 
to  try  to  market  it  themselves,  and  it  will  often  pay  to  keep  the 
larger  part  of  the  farm  in  grass,  and  buy  grain  and  feed  as  much 
stock  as  possible  in  winter  to  furnish  manure  for  the  truck  patch. 
To  those  who  have  a  taste  for  gardening  and  are  so  situated  as 
to  have  a  good  market,  and  who  can  command  the  help  and 
manure  needed,  there  is  no  way  in  which  so  large  an  income 
can  be  realized  from  a  few  acres  of  land.  There  is  this  advan- 
tage, also,  that  there  is  a  regular  cash  income  during  the  larger 
part  of  the  year.  If  one  engages  in  regular  market  gardening 
and  grows  early  vegetables,  such  as  radishes  and  lettuce,  under 
glass,  he  should  have  no  other  business.  But  truck  farming 
can  be  profitably  combined  on  many  farms  with  dairying,  and 
where  the  farmer  can  establish  a  milk  route  and  sell  the  milk 
from  a  half  dozen  or  more  of  cows,  he  will  find  a  largely  in- 
creased profit  from  combining  the  two. 

This  system  of  truck  farming  will  become  more  and  more 
profitable  as  our  population  increases,  and  its  adoption  will 
enable  many  young  men  to  remain  on  the  farm  who  would 
gladly  do  so,  but  are  led  to  go  to  the  cities  because  they  think 
it  takes  one  hundred  acres  of  land  to  furnish  support  for  a 
family.  In  the  following  pages  will  be  found  directions  for  the 
cultivation  of  vegetables  and  descriptions  of  varieties. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  VEGETABLES, 

AND    DIRECTIONS   FOR    PLANTING    AND  CULTIVATING. 

Asparagus. — It  is  a  matter  of  surprise  that  asparagus  is  so 
seldom  found  in  the  farmer's  garden,  for  there  is  no  vegetable 


294  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

grown  that  will  furnish  so  large  a  return  with  so  little  labor., 
and  it  is  in  use  in  advance  even  of  early  peas,  and  at  a  season 
when  the  scarcity  of  other  vegetables  makes  it  of  great  value. 
A  bed  properly  planted  will  last  a  life-time.  If  only  enough 
for  family  use  is  wanted,  buy  the  plants,  as  in  this  way  a  year's 
time  will  be  saved,  but  if  you  wish  to  plant  largely  for  market, 
grow  your  own  plants.  Sow  the  seed  in  shallow  drills,  far  enough 
apart  so  that  you  can  work  with  a  narrow  cultivator,  and  thin 
so  as  to  have  them  grow  stocky.  Give  thorough  cultivation  and 
they  will  be  large  enough  to  transplant  at  one  year  old.  One 
thousand  or  more  good  plants  can  be  grown  on  a  square  rod. 

For  family  use  plant  a  row  or  two  at  the  side  of  the  garden. 
Plow  the  land  deep  as  you  can.  It  is  best  often  to  plow  out  a 
deep  dead  furrow,  and  coat  it  liberally  with  manure,  and  then 
plow  back  the  earth  till  it  is  level.  Set  the  plants  two  feet 
apart  in  the  row  and  four  inches  below  the  surface,  spreading 
out  the  roots  evenly  in  all  directions.  For  an  ordinary  family, 
a  row  ten  rods  long  will  be  sufficient,  but  if  the  family  is  large, 
double  the  amount.  If  two  rows  are  planted,  set  them  four  feet 
apart.  Cover  the  row  heavily  with  manure  every  fall,  and  as 
early  in  the  spring  as  the  land  can  be  worked,  fork  off  the  ma- 
nure and  cultivate  the  rows  thoroughly  and  then  replace  it.  The 
plant  is  perfectly  hardy  and  will  not  be  killed  by  the  hardest 
freezing,  but  it  will  start  earlier  and  make  a  stronger  growth  if 
well  protected  through  the  winter. 

The  secret  of  large,  tender  shoots  is  plenty  of  manure,  clean 
culture,  and  sufficient  distance  between  the  plants.  Salt  may  be 
used  on  the  bed  in  sufficient  quantities  to  kill  weeds,  and  will 
be  of  benefit  to  the  asparagus.  Cut  sparingly  the  second 
spring,  and  after  that  it  should  be  kept  cut  close  till  about  the 
first  of  June.  At  the  last  cutting  work  thoroughly.  The  tops 
should  not  be  removed  in  the  fall  till  fully  ripe.  For  field  cul- 
ture I  would  recommend  that  it  be  planted  three  by  four  feet 
apart  and  worked  with  a  horse  both  ways.  This  crop  is  very 
salable,  and  bears  shipping  and  handling  well,  and  is  very  profit- 
able where  a  market  can  be  had  for  it.  Peter  Henderson  says : 
"It  is  safe  to  say  that  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York  the  net 


GARDENING  AND  TRUCK  FARMING.  205 

profits  from  asparagus  will  average  $400.00  per  acre.  But  two 
varieties  are  named  in  the  catalogues,  "Conover's  Colossal,"  and 
"Giant,"  of  which  the  first  named  is  the  largest  and  most 
profitable. 

Beans. — In  the  chapter  on  miscellaneous  crops  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  navy  bean  is  treated.  The  best  bush  bean  for  the 
garden  that  I  have  ever  seen  is  the  black  wax.  To  call  it  a 
string  bean  is  a  misnomer,  for  it  is  absolutely  stringless.  It  is 
also  tender  and  of  excellent  flavor,  and  is  best  when  fully  grown. 
The  seed  is  a  glossy  black,  and  the  pod  a  clear  yellow.  They 
are  very  prolific,  and  bear  quite  close  planting.  I  prefer  hills 
one  foot  apart,  with  three  beans  in  a  hill  and  the  rows  may  be 
from  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet  apart.  They  are  quite  hardy, 
and  the  first  planting  may  be  made  the  latter  part  of  April  and 
every  two  weeks  thereafter  till  the  first  of  August.  They  are 
not  suitable  for  shelling,  for  which  purpose  the  golden  wax  and 
white  kidney  are  the  best. 

Pole  Beans. — As  the  poling  of  beans  is  expensive  I  would 
never  plant  pole  beans  if  there  were  as  good  dwarf  varieties, 
but  none  have  been  found  that  compare  with  the  Lima.  There 
are  three  varieties,  the  "  Large  Lima,"  the  "  Small  Lima,"  also 
called  the  "  Sieva,"  or  "Carolina,"  and  "  Dreer's  Improved." 
Of  these,  the  second  is  best  for  family  use,  as  it  is  earliest, 
most  prolific,  and  easiest  to  shell,  and  it  also  takes  to  the  poles 
more  readily  than  the  other  varieties.  The  Dreer's  Improved 
is  the  largest  and  best  flavored  of  all;  the  seeds  are  not  white 
when  ripe,  but  of  a  pale  greenish  color,  and  are  formed  more 
closely  in  the  pod  than  any  other  variety.  All  these  varieties 
are  excellent  for  winter  use  and  can  be  grown  at  a  profit  for 
this  purpose,  or  for  sale.  The  most  durable  bean  poles  I  ever 
saw  are  those  cut  from  Osage  orange  hedges,  as  they  are  almost 
indestructible. 

Any  one  expecting  to  engage  in  growing  pole  beans  should 
plant  a  plot  of  black  locusts  to  provide  a  supply  of  poles;  they 
can  be  grown  large  enough  in  three  or  four  years,  and  have  not 
the  objectionable  thorns  that  the  Osage  has.  Over  ten  thou- 
sand can  be  grown  on  an  acre,  and  six  hundred  of  the  best  left 


296  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

for  timber,  and  the  bean  poles  will  pay  all  the  expense.  In  the 
chapter  on  "Timber  Growing"  directions  are  given  for  growing 
them.  The  beans  should  be  planted  in  hills  four  feet  apart  each 
way,  and  the  poles  set  at  least  a  foot  deep  so  that  they  will  bear 
the  weight  of  the  vines.  All  the  lima  beans  are  tender,  and 
should  not  be  planted  till  the  land  is  warm,  say  from  May  15th 
to  June  15th.  For  family  use  some  weeks  may  be  gained  by 
planting  a  few  hills  in  three-inch  pots  under  glass,  and  trans- 
planting to  the  open  ground  when  the  danger  of  frost  is  over. 
There  is  one  other  variety  of  bean  which  I  find  profitable  to  pole, 
the  "Dutch  Case-knife."  It  is  early  and  very  prolific,  and  is 
the  best  dry  bean  for  winter  use  that  I  am  acquainted  with. 
It  succeeds,  also,  very  well  on  corn. 

Beets. — The  cultivation  of  field  beets  is  treated  in  another 
chapter.  For  the  garden,  I  prefer  the  turnip-rooted  varieties, 
and  the  Early  Egyptian  and  Improved  Blood  Turnips  are  the 
best.  All  the  beets  are  hardy,  and  may  be  sown  as  early  as 
the  land  can  be  worked,  as  the  freezing  of  the  ground  after 
they  are  up  will  not  kill  them.  Early  sowing  will  give  the  lar- 
gest yield,  but  a  late  sowing — about  July  1st — will  give  a  bet- 
ter and  tenderer  table  beet  for  winter  use.  The  largest  yield 
of  beets  I  have  ever  seen  was  from  the  Early  Bassano.  This  is 
a  turnip  beet,  light  red  on  the  outside,  and  marbled,  with  red 
within,  and  is  recommended  for  fall  feeding  of  cows,  as  on  rich 
land,  with  good  culture,  they  will  grow  enormously  large.  They 
are  also  excellent  for  the  table  when  young,  but  not  so  at- 
tractive as  the  red  fleshed  varieties.  For  garden  culture  plant 
beets  in  rows  fifteen  inches  apart,  and  thin  to  six  or  eight  inches 
in  the  row.  The  thinnings  may  be  used  for  greens  the  same 
as  spinach. 

Cabbage. — The  varieties  of  cabbage  are  numerous.  Many 
of  our  seedsmen  describe  in  their  catalogues  from  forty  to  fifty, 
but  the  farmer  or  gardener  will  ordinarily  grow  less  than  a  half 
dozen.  The  Early  Jersey  Wakefield  is  the  best  and  earliest 
variety,  and  for  second  early  there  is,  perhaps,  none  better  than 
the  Winningstadt.  Other  good  summer  and  early  autumn  vari- 
eties are  Henderson's  Summer,  Fotler's  Brunswick,  and  Stone- 


GARDEN  AND  TRUCK  FARMING.  297 

mason.  Often  the  grower  will  succeed  best  with  these  summer 
varieties  for  winter  cabbage,  by  sowing  the  seed  late  in  May  or 
the  first  of  June.  For  the  main  crop  of  winter  cabbage,  the 
Premium  Flat  Dutch  succeeds  better  in  most  localities  than  any 
other,  and  on  very  rich  land  Marble  Head  Mammoth  will  grow 
the  largest  heads.  The  Savoy  cabbages  are  wrinkled  and  grow 
a  rather  loose  head.  They  have  a  more  delicate  flavor  than 
other  varieties,  and  are  recommended  for  the  South,  where 
others  do  not  head  well.  Red  Dutch  is  used  exclusively  for 
pickling.  It  is  very  hardy,  and  forms  a  solid  head,  which  keeps 
well.  It  is  a  late  variety,  and  requires  a  rich  soil  for  its  per- 
fect development. 

The  earliest  cabbages  are  usually  started  under  glass  or  in 
boxes  in  the  house,  but  as  the  cabbage  is  very  hardy,  I  succeed 
in  growing  them  nearly  as  early  and  with  much  less  trouble  in 
the  open  ground.  I  mix  a  little  Wakefield  cabbage  seed  with 
the  early  radish  seed,  which  I  sow  as  early  as  the  land  can  be 
worked,  and  as  we  begin  to  use  the  radishes,  we  pull  first  those 
near  the  cabbage  plants,  and  by  the  time  the  radishes  are  too  old 
for  use  we  have  a  row  of  fine,  stocky  cabbages.  Cabbage  plants 
grown  in  the  hot-bed  are  often  spindled,  and  have  long  stems. 
When  this  is  the  case,  they  should  always,  in  transplanting,  be 
set  in  the  ground  up  to  the  first  leaf,  no  matter  how  long  the  stem 
may  be.  The  gardener  can  often  make  the  growing  of  cabbage 
plants  very  profitable.  The  earliest  must  be  grown  under  glass, 
but  if  some  are  sown  in  the  open  ground  in  a  warm,  sheltered 
location  as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be  worked,  there  will  often 
be  sale  for  them.  For  winter  cabbage  make  two  sowings  in  the 
open  ground,  about  the  first  and  the  middle  of  M;i  v.  Never  sow 
them  near  where  you  are  growing  turnip  seed,  as  the  garden 
flea  breeds  on  the  turnips,  and  when  the  seed  is  cut  they  will 
destroy  the  cabbages,  even  after  they  have  attained  a  large 
growth.  Very  often  the  garden  flea  is  as  destructive  to  young 
cabbage  plants  as  the  striped  bug  is  to  melons,  and  the  utmost 
vigilance  will  be  required  to  save  them.  As  soon  as  the  plants 
are  up  so  as  to  be  seen  in  the  row,  they  should  be  dusted  with 
air-slaked  lime,  and  this  should  be  repeated  every  few  days  till 


298  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

they  are  of  good  size.  This  dusting  should  be  done  when  the 
dew  is  on.  I  have  had  a  hundred  thousand  plants  destroyed  in 
a  day  by  these  pests. 

Cabbage  seed  may  be  sown  with  the  seed  drill,  and  one  ounce 
of  seed  allowed  for  each  three  thousand  plants  wanted.  The 
plants  may  be  grown  in  rows  eighteen  inches  apart,  and  enough 
left  in  every  other  row  to  occupy  the  land  and  make  a  crop. 
The  Marblehead  Mammoth  is  said  to  do  much  better  when  grown 
from  the  seed  where  it  is  to  stand,  than  when  transplanted. 
Cabbages  do  best  on  heavily  manured  land,  but  thorough  culture 
will,  to  some  extent,  make  up  for  lack  of  manure.  The  summer 
varieties,  sown  late,  will  often  head  better  on  land  that  is  mod- 
erately rich,  than  the  large  late  varieties.  Joseph  Harris  says, 
in  speaking  of  the  cabbage  worm :  "  On  my  own  farm  I  do  noth- 
ing to  check  the  ravages  of  the  cabbage  worm  but  to  dust  the 
plants  when  the  dew  is  on  with  a  mixture  of  plaster  and  super- 
phosphate. I  am  not  sure  that  it  lessens  the  number  of  the 
worms,  but  at  any  rate  it  stimulates  the  growth  of  the  plant. 
The  only  practical  remedy  I  have  ever  tried  is  heavy  manuring 
and  thorough  cultivation  and  setting  out  plants  by  the  thousand 
instead  of  by  the  hundred." 

Winter  cabbages  may  be  set  out  in  July  on  the  land  which 
has  grown  peas  and  early  potatoes.  From  five  to  seven  thou- 
sand can  be  grown  per  acre,  which,  at  ordinary  prices,  will  give 
a  handsome  profit.  Cabbages  that  have  begun  to  head,  but  are 
not  large  enough  to  be  salable  at  the  close  of  the  growing  season, 
may  be  headed  in  pits  during  the  winter  so  as  to  be  solid  in 
the  spring.  Select  a  piece  of  ground  where  there  is  no  possi- 
bility of  flooding,  and  dig  a  trench  one  spade  deep  and  wide 
enough  for  four  or  five  rows  of  cabbage  set  in  as  close  as  it  is 
possible  to  pack  them.  There  should  be  plenty  of  good  soil  and 
a  little  fine  manure  under  them,  and  as  each  row  is  put  in,  the 
earth  should  be  tramped  on  to  the  roots.  They  should  be  in 
beds  not  over  four  feet  wide  and  as  long  as  necessary.  Set 
boards,  a  foot  wide,  on  edge  at  the  sides,  and  at  the  approach  of 
winter  cover  the  cabbage  with  leaves,  fine  hay,  or  cut  straw,  and 
then  above  this  with  corn  fodder  enough  to  keep  out  the  rain, 


GARDENING  AND  TRUCK  FARMING.  '299 

arranged  so  that  its  weight  will  rest  on  the  frame,  or,  if  pre- 
ferred, a  larger  quantity  of  straw  or  leaves  can  be  used,  and  a 
roof  of  boards  put  over  it;  managed  in  this  way  cabbages  that  are 
worthless  in  the  fall  will  grow  a  salable  head  during  the  winter. 

Carrots. — In  the  chapter  on  "  Root  Crops,"  I  have  given 
directions  for  growing  carrots  as  a  field  crop.  There  should  be 
a  small  bed  of  the  early  scarlet  Horn  planted  in  the  garden,  as 
they  are  useful  for  flavoring  soups.  As  they  are  great  yielders, 
and  bear  close  planting,  two  or  three  square  yards  will  suffice  for 
the  family.  If  there  is  a  demand  for  them  in  market,  it  will 
pay  to  grow  all  that  can  be  sold,  as  they  are  very  profitable. 
Among  the  Germans  they  are  in  great  demand. 

Celery. — This  plant  is  seldom  found  in  the  farmer's  garden. 
The  reason  for  this  is  probably  that  a  great  amount  of  labor  is 
supposed  to  be  necessary  in  growing  it.  A  family  supply  of 
celery  can  be  grown  with  but  little  more  labor  than  is  required 
to  grow  an  equal  amount  of  parsnips,  if  properly  managed. 
Peter  Henderson  says  of  it :  "I  know  of  no  vegetable  on 
the  cultivation  of  which  so  much  useless  labor  is  expended, 
with  such  unsatisfactory  results."  The  best  varieties  are  the 
dwarf,  as  they  can  be  planted  closer  and  will  require  less  labor. 
I  would  recommend  "  Crawford's  Half  Dwarf,"  "  Incomparable 
Dwarf,"  and  "  Boston  Market." 

Seed  should  be  sown  in  the  open  ground  early  in  April. 
The  land  should  be  rich  and  well  pulverized,  and  the  seed  sown 
in  drills  wide  enough  apart  to  admit  of  the  use  of  the  hoe. 
Cultivation  should  be  constant  and  thorough.  Cutting  the  tops 
back  once  or  twice  with  the  shears  induces  a  stocky  growth, 
and  enables  them  to  endure  transplanting  better.  Any  time  in 
July  the  plants  may  be  transplanted  to  the  garden,  and  may  be 
set  out  where  early  peas  or  potatoes  have  been  grown.  Make 
the  soil  rich  and  mellow,  as  it  will  require  but  little  land  to  grow 
a  family  supply,  and  the  more  rapid  the  growth,  the  better  the 
quality.  Plant  one  foot  apart  each  way  and  give  thorough  cul- 
tivation, and  plenty  of  water  if  the  weather  is  dry.  This  close 
planting  will  induce  an  upright  growth,  and  no  banking  or  earth- 
ing up  will  be  necessary ;  but  a  longer  growth  can  be  had  by  set- 


300  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

ting  boards  a  foot  wide  on  edge,  at  the  sides  of  the  bed,  and  fill- 
ing between  the  plants  with  earth.  The  last  of  October  take  up  a 
part  of  the  plants  and  put  in  the  cellar  to  blanch  for  use,  and 
the  middle  or  latter  part  of  November  the  remainder. 

Celery  will  endure  sharp  frost  without  injury,  but  should 
never  be  handled  when  frozen,  and  it  should  not  stand  out  till  the 
ground  freezes.  To  blanch  it  and  keep  it  for  winter  it  can  be 
put  in  old  barrels  or  narrow  boxes.  Put  a  few  inches  of  mel- 
low earth  in  the  bottom  and  set  the  roots  in  it,  pressing  the 
earth  to  them  as  if  transplanting  it,  and  set  in  the  cellar.  It  may 
be  packed  in  quite  closely,  and  from  twelve  to  twenty  plants 
can  be  put  in  a  barrel.  If  you  have  more  than  you  wish  to 
put  in  the  cellar,  a  part  can  be  kept  in  trenches.  Dig  as  nar- 
row as  you  can — not  to  exceed  twelve  inches — and  as  deep  as 
the  length  of  your  plants.  Place  the  celery  in  the  trench  as 
nearly  perpendicular  as  you  can,  and  as  closely  as  it  can  be 
packed.  No  earth  will  be  necessary  except  what  adheres  to  the 
roots.  It  should  always  be  handled  when  dry.  It  will  need 
no  covering  for  a  few  days,  but  the  material  should  be  on  the 
ground  so  as  to  be  ready  for  use,  and  should  be  added  gradually 
as  needed.  The  cleanest  and  best  material  is  sawdust,  and  a 
load  of  it  will  protect  a  large  amount  of  celery.  If  kept  dry, 
eight  or  ten  inches  of  sawdust  will  keep  out  the  frost  in  the 
coldest  wreather,  and  there  should  always  be  a  covering  of 
boards,  corn-fodder,  or  some  other  material,  to  keep  the  sawdust 
dry.  The  reason  for  making  the  trenches  narrow,  and  covering 
gradually,  is  to  prevent  the  celery  from  heating,  which  would  cause 
it  to  decay.  The  celery  after  being  placed  in  the  boxes  or  bar- 
rels in  the  cellar  or  in  the  pits,  will  be  fit  for  use  in  five  or  six 
weeks,  and  will  remain  in  good  condition  till  spring. 

Following  the  directions  here  given,  the  growing  of  celery  is 
so  simple  that  there  is  no  excuse  for  any  family  being  with- 
out it. 

Sweet  Corn. — The  growing  of  corn  is  an  easy  matter  if  one 
has  a  rich  soil,  and  sweet  corn  will  be  found  a  profitable  crop 
for  the  truck  farmer.  In  the  family  garden  I  would  advise  that 
the  first  planting  be  made  early  in  April,  or  as  soon  as  the 


GARDEXLVG  AND  TRUCK  FARMING.  :)01 

ground  is  warm.  Probably  three  years  out  of  four  you  will 
save  this  early  planting  and  gain  a  few  days'  time.  Do  not 
wait  to  see  if  it  is  killed  before  making  a  second  planting,  but 
plant  again  a  week  later,  and  at  this  second  planting  plant  an 
early  and  a  late  variety.  All  the  varieties  of  sweet  corn  require 
a  rich  soil,  and  especially  the  quick  maturing  kinds. 

I  think  a  thousand  dozen  ears  of  the  larger  varieties  can  be 
grown  on  an  acre,  and  the  smaller  kinds  can  be  planted  much 
closer.  Plant  the  larger  varieties  in  rows  three  and  a  half  feet 
apart,  and  the  stalks  one  foot  in  the  row.  This  will  give  over 
12,000  stalks  to  the  acre,  and  it  is  safe  to  estimate  that  one- 
fourth  of  them  will  bear  two  ears.  The  small  early  varieties 
will  bear  much  closer  planting — rows  three  feet  and  stalks  six 
inches,  which  would  make  over  28,000  stalks  to  the  acre.  Late 
corn  I  usually  find  the  most  profitable,  and  it  can  be  planted 
after  early  peas  or  a  crop  of  turnip  seed  has  matured.  In  my 
latitude,  the  last  week  in  June  and  the  first  in  July  is  the  time 
we  plant  the  late  crop,  using  the  large  varieties,  as  they  sell  best. 

For  family  use  the  early  varieties  may  be  planted  two  weeks 
later.  Where  dairying  and  truck  farming  are  combined,  sweet 
corn  is  a  very  profitable  crop,  for  the  fodder  will  pay  all  the 
expense,  and  all  the  corn  sold  is  clear  profit.  The  earliest 
varieties  are,  Early  Boynton — also  called  Tom  Thumb — Mar- 
blehead,  Early  Minnesota,  and  Early  Red  Narragansett.  These 
varieties  will  be  fit  for  the  table  in  from  eight  to  ten  weeks 
from  planting,  varying  with  the  weather  and  time  of  plant- 
ing. Stowell  Evergreen  is  the  standard  variety  for  the  main 
crop,  and  the  one  grown  almost  exclusively  for  the  canning 
establishments.  The  ears  are  large,  and  it  is  sweet  and  tender, 
and  remains  for  some  weeks  in  good  condition  and  produces 
heavy  crops.  Mammoth  Sweet  is  a  large  and  very  excellent 
variety,  sweet  and  tender,  and  with  ears  as  large  as  field  corn. 
Amber  Cream  is  a  productive,  vigorous  variety,  which  endures 
drought  better  than  most  kinds,  and  is  of  excellent  flavor — a 
good  family  variety.  There  are  a  score  more  of  varieties,  but 
those  named  I  believe  to  be  the  best. 

Pop-corn. — When  a  contract  can  be  made  for  its  sale,  or 


302  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

you  are  sure  of  a  market,  pop-corn  will  be  found  a  profitable 
crop.  It  bears  quite  close  planting,  and  much  of  it  will  produce 
two  or  more  ears  to  a  stalk.  As  it  comes  up  rather  weak,  and 
does  not  require  a  long  season,  it  is  best  to  defer  planting  till 
the  weather  is  settled  and  the  land  warm.  For  family  use  I  pre- 
fer the  Rice,  which  has  larger  ears  than  the  common  white, 
and  pointed  kernels.  It  is  very  tender  and  sweet.  When  grow- 
ing for  market  you  must  grow  that  which  will  sell  best. 

Cucumbers. — The  best  varieties  of  cucumbers  are  Early 
Russian,  White  Spine,  Early  Frame,  Early  Cluster,  and  Long 
Green.  If  I  was  to  choose  one  of  these  for  all  purposes,  I  would 
take  the  Cluster.  Probably  the  White  Spine  or  Long  Green  is 
nicer  for  slicing,  but  the  Cluster  makes  the  best  shaped  pickle, 
and  begins  bearing  very  young,  and  does  not  mat  the  ground 
with  vines  as  the  Long  Green  does.  The  earliest  cucumbers  are 
usually  grown  in  the  hot-bed,  one  hill  being  planted  to  each 
sash,  after  the  earlier  grown  plants  have  been  pulled  out.  For 
the  open  ground  they  may  be  started  in  three-inch  pots  in  the 
hot-bed  and  transplanted  after  the  weather  has  become  warm  and 
settled.  Another  way  in  which  some  weeks  may  be  gained,  is 
to  use  a  bottomless  box  a  foot  square,  at  each  hill.  Settle  the 
boxes  well  into  the  ground  and  tip  them  to  the  south,  and  have 
a  piece  of  board  to  cover  each  in  case  of  a  cold  rain  or  night. 
For  the  earliest  planting  a  single  pane  of  glass  can  be  used  on 
the  box.  These  boxes  will  be  a  protection  not  only  from  cold, 
but  also  from  the  striped  bug. 

To  grow  a  profitable  crop  of  cucumbers  plenty  of  manure 
and  thorough  cultivation  is-  necessary.  It  is  best  to  manure 
both  broad-cast  and  in  the  hill.  I  grow  them  very  successfully 
after  early  peas.  The  main  crop  for  pickles  may  be  planted  from 
June  15th  to  July  10th,  and  they  will  rarely  be  troubled  by  the 
striped  bug  after  the  first-named  date.  The  best  soil  for  cu- 
cumbers is  a  black,  loamy  clay,  and  I  think  they  will  produce 
double  on  this  that  they  will  on  an  equally  rich  soil  which  is  of 
a  lighter  color  and  heavier.  The  plant  requires  a  great  deal  of 
heat,  and  the  black  soil  absorbs  much  more  heat  than  the  lighter 
colored  one.  The  land  should  be  put  in  good  order  and  laid  off 


GARDENING  AND  TRUCK  FARMING.  303 

five  feet  apart  each  way.  A  large  shovel  full  of  fine  manure  to 
a  hill  is  none  too  much.  It  is  best  to  mix  the  manure  with  the 
earth,  and  there  should  be  three  or  four  inches  of  earth  above 
it.  The  hill  should  be  made  four  to  six  inches  above  the  level, 
or  the  plants  will  be  too  low,  for  in  planting  you  want  to  brush 
off  two  inches  of  the  hill,  so  as  to  drop  the  seed  on  fresh,  moist 
soil,  and  then  step  on  it  so  as  to  press  it  firmly  into  the  soil,  and 
this  will  settle  the  hill  two  or  three  inches  more.  All  the  cov- 
ering they  will  need  when  treated  in  this  way  will  be  a  little 
fresh  earth,  and  a  slight  motion  of  the  foot  covers  them.  An 
acre  can  be  planted  in  this  way  in  less  than  two  hours.  As  the 
vines  will  run  in  about  five  weeks  so  that  they  can  no  longer 
be  cultivated  with  a  horse,  it  is  best  to  cultivate  often;  twice  a 
week  is  not  too  much.  As  soon  as  fairly  in  the  rough  leaf,  thin 
to  four  plants,  leaving  those  most  stocky,  and  as  well  scattered 
as  possible.  If  weeds  start,  or  a  heavy  rain  packs  the  soil  after 
the  vines  have  run  so  as  to  prevent  horse  work,  it  will  pay  to 
hoe  the  ground  over  lightly.  At  the  final  working  I  always  sow 
turnips,  as  they  do  not  interfere  with  the  vines  in  the  least,  and 
will  make  a  fine  crop  after  the  cucumbers  are  done  bearing.  I 
very  seldom  fail  in  getting  a  good  turnip  crop  on  my  cucumber 
land. 

If  the  weather  is  good  you  can  begin  gathering  pickles  in 
six  weeks  from  planting,  and  if  warm,  they  must  be  picked 
every  day,  but  cold  nights  will  soon  check  their  bearing.  If 
you  are  growing  largely,  it  will  pay  to  have  a  foreman  for  each 
five  or  six  pickers,  to  follow  and  see  that  they  are  picked  clean 
and  to  empty  the  baskets.  The  vines  should  never  be  lifted  or 
disturbed  any  more  than  necessary,  and  boys  and  girls  with  bare 
feet  will  tramp  the  vines  less  than  men  with  heavy  boots.  The 
cleaner  they  are  picked,  and  the  more  carefully  handled,  the 
longer  they  will  continue  in  bearing,  and  every  cucumber  should 
be  removed  from  the  vines.  If  any  were  overlooked  the  pre- 
vious day,  and  are  too  large  for  pickles,  cut  them  and  tlirow 
them  away,  for  if  left  to  form  seed,  they  will  take  all  the 
strength  of  the  vine,  and  it  will  stop  bearing.  The  picklos 
should  be  assorted,  the  small  ones,  those  from  two  and  a  half 


304  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

to  three  inches  long  are  the  most  salable,  and  a  barrel  will  hold 
from  four  to  five  thousand  of  them.  The  price  at  the  factories 
varies  from  one  dollar  to  one  dollar  and  a  half  per  thousand, 
and  at  these  prices  the  crop  is  quite  profitable. 

Lettuce. — This  plant  is  very  hardy,  and  may  be  sown  in 
the  fall  and  protected  with  evergreen  brush  or  any  light  cover- 
ing. If  sown  in  spring,  put  the  seed  in  as  early  as  the  land 
can  be  worked.  To  grow  crisp,  tender  lettuce,  the  land  must  be 
very  rich  and  in  high  cultivation.  It  is  a  profitable  crop  to  grow 
under  glass  for  a  city  market.  If  you  expect  large,  well  de- 
veloped heads,  it  must  be  thinned  early,  before  the  plants  have 
become  spindled.  Thin  to  a  foot  in  the  row  for  the  large 
varieties.  There  are  many  farmers  who  have  never  seen  or 
eaten  good  lettuce,  because  they  allow  the  plants  to  be  so 
crowded  that  they  do  not  develop  perfectly.  On  rich  soil,  with 
plenty  of  room  and  good  culture,  any  of  the  large  varieties  may 
be  grown  so  that  one  plant  will  be  sufficient  for  a  meal  for  a 
family  of  ten. 

The  varieties  are  numerous,  but  a  few  will  be  sufficient  for 
the  family  or  market  gardener.  Among  the  best  kinds  are : 
Early  Tennis  Ball,  Simpson's  Early  Curled,  Early  Curled  Silesia, 
Large  Drumhead,  and  Prize  Head.  The  last  named  is  the  best 
summer  variety  I  have  ever  seen,  and  the  handsomest  plant. 
It  is  slow  to  run  up  to  seed  and  is  wonderfully  crisp  and  tender. 

Melons,  Musk. — The  same  general  directions  given  for 
growing  cucumbers,  will  apply  to  musk-melons.  There  is  no 
danger  of  getting  the  land  too  rich,  or  of  cultivating  too 
thoroughly.  Plant  a  little  wider  than  for  cucumbers.  Five  feet 
each  way  will  give  over  seventeen  hundred  hills  to  the  acre,  and 
the  Nutmeg  varieties  will  usually  yield  eight  or  ten  melons  to 
the  hill,  and  if  they  can  be  sold  at  an  average  of  two  cents  each, 
a  good  crop  will  pay  a  large  profit.  The  greatest  trouble  with 
melons  of  all  kinds  is  to  get  a  stand  early  enough  in  the  season, 
as  tne  striped  bug  is  nearly  sure  to  visit  them. 

By  constant  watchfulness  and  care  and  using  plenty  of  seed 
a  stand  can  be  secured.  Make  the  hills  rather  broad,  and  ele- 
vated three  or  four  inches  above  the  level,  so  that  a  heavy  rain 


GARDENING  AND  TRUCK  FARMING.  305 

will  not  flood  them,  then  with  the  finger  or  a  stick  draw  a 
mark  through  the  center  of  the  hill  each  way,  dividing  it  into 
four  equal  parts.  Plant  the  southwest  quarter  of  the  hill  as 
soon  as  the  land  is  warm,  which  will  be  often  in  this  latitude 
the  last  week  in  April  or  the  first  in  May.  Three  or  four  days 
later  plant  the  southeast  quarter,  and  follow  round  till  you 
have  made  four  plantings.  About  one  dollar's  worth  of  seed 
and  a  day's  work  to  the  acre  will  be  the  cost  of  these  three 
extra  plantings  and  you  will  be  almost  certain  to  save  one  of 
them.  If  your  soil  is  heavy,  I  advise  that  a  large  shovel  full 
of  sand  be  put  on  the  top  of  each  hill  before  planting. 

As  soon  as  the  plants  begin  to  come  up  visit  the  patch  every 
day  and  carefully  inspect  it,  and  when  a  hill  is  fairly  above 
ground,  apply  a  handful  of  bran  to  it;  dust  it  thickly  over  the 
top  of  the  plants  and  heap  it  around  the  stem  till  it  touches  the 
leaves.  It  will  often  save  them  from  the  bugs,  and  besides  is  a 
good  fertilizer.  Rev.  L.  L.  Langstroth,  who  is  a  careful  experi- 
menter in  every  thing  that  regards  insect  life,  recommends 
that  gritty  turnpike  dust  be  used.  It  should  be  sifted  and  then 
applied  liberally  when  the  dew  is  on,  and  should  be  applied  to 
the  stems  and  under  side  of  the  leaf  as  well  as  the  top.  These 
applications  should  be  made  as  soon  as  the  plants  are  fairly 
above  ground,  whether  any  bugs  are  to  be  seen  or  not,  for  pre- 
vention is  much  better  than  cure.  After  the  bugs  once  get  on 
a  hill  of  melons,  it  seldom  thrives,  for  if  they  do  not  kill  it  they 
poison  it  and  leave  it  unthrifty. 

Any  thing  that  you  can  do  to  hurry  the  growth  and  increase 
the  thrift  of  the  plant  will  be  a  help  and  shorten  the  time  of 
danger,  for  as  soon  as  fairly  in  the  rough  leaf  the  plants  are 
safe.  A  handful  of  fine,  rich  manure  near  the  surface  will 
hurry  the  plants,  but  if  superphosphate  or  chicken  manure  is 
used,  it  must  not  come  in  contact  with  the  seed,  or  it  may 
destroy  it.  Cow  manure  pulverized  so  that  it  can  be  sifted  is 
excellent  for  this  purpose.  It  will  pay  for  the  first  ten  days 
after  the  melons  come  up  to  work  them  every  other  day,  and 
the  best  implement  I  have  ever  seen  for  this  purpose  is  the 
Excelsior  Hand  Weeder.  With  it  you  can  loosen  the  soil  be- 

20 


306  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

tween  the  plants  and  work  in  a  little  fine  manure  if  desired 
without  disturbing  them.  If  melons  are 
managed  as  here  recommended  you  can 
hardly  fail  to  get  a  stand,  as  if  one 
planting  is  eaten  up  by  the  bugs  you 
EXCELSIOR  HAND  WEBBER,  have  others  coming  on  to  take  their  places. 
The  green-fleshed,  netted  varieties  are  the  most  prolific  and 
salable.  Jenny  Lind  is  the  earliest,  but  is  too  small  to  be 
profitable  for  market.  Green  nutmeg  is  the  popular  market 
variety.  Bay  View  and  Cassaba,  are  large,  green-fleshed  varie- 
ties, the  former  often  growing  to  a  length  of  sixteen  or 
eighteen  inches.  Early  Yellow  cantelope  and  Long  Yellow  are 
yellow-fleshed. 

"Watermelons. — The  same  general  directions  given  above 
will  apply  to  the  management  of  watermelons,  but  they 
should  be  planted  much  wider  apart,  not  less  than  eight  by 
ten  feet,  and  as  soon  as  the  vines  are  four  or  five  feet  in 
length  they  should  be  covered  with  earth  about  two  feet  from 
the  hill,  so  as  to  enable  them  to  take  root.  Next  to  the 
striped  bug  the  evil  most  common  with  watermelons  is  prema- 
ture dying  of  the  vines,  and  if  we  can  cause  the  vines  to 
strike  root  at  some  distance  from  the  hill  it  will  be  a  preventive 
of  this  trouble.  The  best  time  to  cover  the  vines  is  as  soon 
after  a  rain  as  the  land  will  work  nicely.  With  the  corner  of 
the  hoe  make  a  furrow  three  inches  deep  alongside  the  vine, 
and  carefully  lift  it  into  it.  Then  fill  the  furrow  with  fresh 
mellow  earth,  and  with  the  foot  press  it  firmly.  If  large 
melons  are  wanted,  but  few  specimens  must  be  allowed  to 
grow  on  a  hill,  and  the  ends  of  the  vines  nipped  a  few  joints 
beyond  the  fruit.  Another  cause  of  vines  dying  prematurely 
is  that  the  manure  used  in  the  hill  is  not  sufficiently  mixed 
with  earth. 

The  directions  given  for  planting  melons  are  often  errone- 
ous. The  planter  is  told  to  dig  a  hole  two  feet  in  diameter  and 
twelve  to  eighteen  inches  deep  and  fill  it  with  manure ;  if  this 
is  done  the  vines  are  almost  certain  to  perish  when  the  weather 
becomes  hot  and  dry.  The  same  amount  of  manure  spread  ovor 


GARDENING  AND  TRUCK  FARMING.  307 

a  space  six  or  eight  feet  in  diameter  and  thoroughly  worked 
into  the  soil  will  be  of  greater  benefit  to  the  vines.  A  gallon 
of  fine,  thoroughly  rotted  manure  is  enough  for  a  hill,  and  it 
should  be  partly  mixed  with  the  soil.  Although  I  use  the 
term  "  hill "  I  do  not  recommend  that  it  should  be  elevated 
much  above  the  level  of  the  field ;  an  inch  or  two,  so  that  there 
is  no  danger  of  the  hill  flooding,  is  better  than  a  high  hill. 
The  earlier  you  can  get  thrifty  vines  started  the  better,  but  if 
for  any  cause  you  have  no  early  vines,  I  would  plant  any  time 
in  June.  I  usually  pick  ripe  melons  in  twelve  weeks  from 
planting  when  it  is  deferred  till  the  weather  and  land  are  warm, 
and  often  vines  planted  from  the  first  to  the  fifteenth  of  June 
are  ahead  of  those  started  a  month  earlier. 

Phinney's  Early,  Peerless,  Mountain  Sweet,  Mountain  Sprout, 
and  Cuban  Queen,  are  the  leading  varieties.  Of  these  the 
Peerless  is  the  finest  flavored.  It  has  small,  white  seeds  and 
a  scarlet  flesh  solid  to  the  center,  and  very  sweet.  Phin- 
ney's Early,  small  drab  seeds,  and  scarlet  flesh  of  excellent 
quality.  Mountain  Sweet,  seeds  mahogany  color  and  rather 
large,  flesh  scarlet,  solid  and  delicious.  All  three  of  these  var- 
ieties are  superior  for  family  use  or  a  home  market,  but  all 
have  such  thin  and  brittle  rind,  that  they  are  not  suitable  for 
shipping.  Mountain  Sprout  has  the  qualities  for  shipping.  It 
is  of  large  size,  scarlet  flesh,  a  good  keeper,  and  bears  carriage 
well;  seeds  drab.  Cuban  Queen  is  the  largest  melon  grown. 
Specimens  have  been  produced  that  weighed  over  eighty 
pounds.  The  vine  is  vigorous,  requiring  wide  planting,  flesh 
red  and  of  fine  flavor.  It  bears  shipment  well. 

Onions  and  Potatoes. — As  onions  and  potatoes  are  field 
rather  than  garden  crops,  they  are  treated  in  the  chapter  on 
"Root  Crops." 

Parsnips. — As  far  as  a  market  can  be  had  for  them  there 
are  few  crops  that  will  give  a  better  profit  than  parsnips.  They 
start  with  a  much  stronger  growth  than  the  carrot,  require  less 
hand  weeding,  and  will  yield  as  many  bushels  to  the  acre. 
Another  advantage  of  the  crop  is,  that  it  can  be  left  in  the 
ground  all  winter  without  injury.  They  will  be  found  a  profit- 


308  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

able  crop  to  grow  for  feeding  to  stock,  in  the  spring,  as  five  hun- 
dred bushels  can  be  grown  on  an  acre,  and  on  rich  garden  soil 
this  has  often  been  exceeded  by  one-third. 

Planting  should  be  done  early,  but  not  until  the  ground  is  in 
good  condition.  If  the  soil  is  heavy  it  will  pay  to  use  sand  to 
cover  the  seed,  as  the  plants  are  not  strong  and  can  not  lift  a 
heavy,  packed  soil.  For  the  same  reason  the  seed  should  be 
sown  thickly,  so  that  they  will  help  each  other  through  the  soil. 
Before  they  become  spindled,  thin  to  about  four  inches,  or,  if  your 
land  is  not  very  rich,  six  inches.  Be  particular  that  the  plants 
stand  singly,  as  you  can  not  grow  good  shaped  roots  if  crowded. 
After  the  first  hoeing,  most  of  the  work  of  cultivation  can  be 
done  with  the  horse,  if  the  rows  are  twenty  inches  apart.  The 
best  implement  to  use  is  a  single  shovel  plow,  writh  a  long,  nar- 
row shovel,  or  bull-tongue,  as  it  is  called.  If  planted  as  close 
as  recommended,  the  plants  will  shade  the  land  and  keep  the 
weeds  from  growing,  after  the  middle  of  June.  It  is  important 
that  clean  land  be  selected  for  the  crop,  and  that  it  be  made 
deep  and  mellow.  Fall  plowing  of  the  land  into  beds  sixteen 
feet  wide  will  give  good  satisfaction,  for  although  you  will  lose 
a  row  or  two  where  the  dead  furrows  come,  the  deepening  of  the 
soil  and  the  good  surface  drainage  will  more  than  compensate 
for  it.  Deep  fall  plowing  will  give  cleaner  land,  if  weeds  have 
been  allowed  to  go  to  seed,  as  most  of  the  seed  will  be  turned 
down  so  deep  as  to  prevent  its  germination,  or  at  least  to  retard 
it  until  the  crop  has  a  good  start. 

Although  the  crop  will  keep  perfectly  in  the  ground,  it  is 
wise  to  dig  and  pit  a  part  of  it,  so  that  it  will  be  accessible  in 
frozen  weather,  as  there  will  often  be  a  good  demand  and  high 
prices  at  such  times,  and  the  gardener  who  can  market  his  crop 
will  realize  a  large  profit.  Peter  Henderson  once  realized  nearly 
eight  hundred  dollars  from  a  half  acre,  by  being  able  to  market 
his  crop  when  the  ground  was  hard  frozen.  Any  vegetable 
that  is  to  be  marketed  from  pits  in  the  winter  should  be  cov- 
ered with  corn-fodder,  straw,  or  coarse  manure,  so  that  the 
ground  over  them  can  not  freeze.  A  small  load  of  corn-fodder 
can  be  stacked  over  a  pit  containing  a  hundred  bushels  of  roots, 


GARDENING  AND  TRUCK  FARMING.  309 

so  as  to  protect  it  from  freezing,  and  without  any  damage  to  the 
fodder,  which  can  be  taken  to  the  barn  and  fed  in  the  spring. 
There  are  but  few  varieties  of  parsnips.  The  Long  Dutch  or 
Sugar,  and  Hollow  Crown  are  those  usually  grown,  and  on  my 
soil  I  have  never  been  able  to  detect  any  difference  between 
them. 

Peas. — These  are  a  valuable  garden  crop,  either  for  market 
or  the  family,  as  they  can  be  had  early,  and  by  judicious  selec- 
•tion  of  varieties  and  successive  plantings,  the  season  can  be  pro- 
longed for  many  weeks.  The  soil  can  not  be  made  too  rich  for 
the  small,  early  varieties,  nor  can  they  be  planted  too  early. 
The  tall,  later  varieties  will  bear  good  crops  on  land  only  mod- 
erately rich.  For  early  peas  always  plow  and  manure  the  land 
in  the  fall,  and  sow  as  soon  as  the  land  can  be  worked.  In  my 
latitude  the  earliest  I  ever  sowed  was  February  23d,  and  the 
earliest  date  at  which  we  have  had  them  for  use,  May  23d,  and 
in  backward  seasons  it  is  sometimes  as  late  as  June  8th  or  10th 
before  we  get  the  first  mess.  The  early,  smooth  varieties  should 
be  used  for  the  first  planting,  as  the  wrinkled  kinds  are  not  so 
hardy. 

We  have  now  so  many  excellent  dwarf  varieties  that  I  do 
not  plant  those  which  require  sticks.  These  varieties  may  be 
planted  very  thick,  rows  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  apart,  and  a 
pea  to  the  inch,  in  the  row.  Planted  in  this  way  I  have  often 
gathered  a  bushel  in  the  pod,  to  the  square  rod.  At  a  second 
planting,  about  the  first  of  April,  plant  again  of  the  early  kinds, 
and  at  the  same  time  some  of  the  large,  late  varieties.  A  third 
planting,  about  the  middle  of  May,  should  be  made  of  late  kinds, 
as  the  early  ones  do  not  do  well  during  the  heat  of  summer. 
My  diary  shows  that  a  planting  of  Champion  of  England  and 
Marrowfats,  made  May  16th,  gave  a  supply  from  the  middle 
of  July  till  into  August.  I  have  not  bushed  a  pea  for  years, 
and  never  expect  to  again,  for  even  the  tallest  varieties  will  pro- 
duce a  fair  crop  without  it.  They  grow  up  about  three  feef 
high  and  fall  down  and  form  an  elbow,  and  grow  up  again  and 
produce  a  crop.  You  will  not  get  as  many  peas  as  if  you  stick 
them,  but  land  is  usually  cheaper  than  the  labor.  Two  rows, 


310  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

twelve  rods  long,  without  sticks,  furnished  a  family  of  ten  with 
all  they  could  use  while  they  lasted.  I  have  been  told  by 
market  men  from  Boston  and  New  York,  and  also  London,  Eng- 
land, that  the  tallest  varieties  are  never  bushed. 

The  best  dwarf  varieties  are :  Tom  Thumb,  McLean's  Little 
Gem,  Blue  Peter  or  Blue  Tom  Thumb,  and  American  Wonder. 
The  Tom  Thumb  is  a  little  the  earliest,  and  the  American  Won- 
der the  best  flavored.  It  and  McLean's  Little  Gem  are  wrinkled 
varieties.  There  are  several  early  varieties  which  grow  from  two 
to  three  feet  high,  such  as  Daniel  O'Rourke,  Early  May,  Early 
Philadelphia,  etc.,  but  none  of  them  possess  any  greater  merit 
than  the  dwarf  kinds  named  above,  and  as  these  bear  closer 
planting  and  can  be  gathered  much  more  rapidly,  I  give  them 
the  preference.  For  the  late,  tall  growing  varieties,  the  Cham- 
pion of  England  and  Marrowfat  I  have  never  found  surpassed. 
The  Sugar  pea  with  edible  pod,  is  thought  by  some  desirable  for 
the  private  garden,  but  is  seldom  grown  for  market.  About  two 
bushels  of  seed  of  the  dwarf  early  kinds  is  required  for  an  acre, 
but  as  the  tall  kinds  must  be  planted  in  wide  rows  and  not  so 
thick  in  the  row,  one-fourth  as  much  seed  will  be  sufficient. 

Peppers. — Mango  peppers  are  in  considerable  demand,  and 
are  a  profitable  market  crop;  they  are  usually  sold  green  by 
measure  or  count.  They  should  be  started  early  in  hot-beds 
and  set  in  rows  wide  enough  to  admit  of  horse  culture,  and 
about  fifteen  inches  apart  in  the  row.  The  Bull  Nose,  or  Bell, 
Squash,  and  Sweet  Mountain  are  the  varieties  most  commonly 
grown.  The  small,  pungent  Cayenne  Pepper  requires  the  same 
treatment,  but  may  be  planted  much  closer.  They  are  usually 
pulled  up  by  the  roots  and  sold  in  market  on  the  plant. 

Radishes. — There  are  few  garden  crops  that  will  give  so 
large  a  profit  from  a  small  amount  of  land  as  radishes.  The 
land  should  be  plowed  in  the  fall  for  the  early  crop,  and  if 
heavy  should  have  a  liberal  dressing  of  sand,  or  of  leaf  mold  from 
the  woods  or  both.  The  manure  should  be  fine  and  spread  over 
the  surface  in  the  fall,  and  it  will  pay  to  dress  with  superphos- 
phate. Well-rotted  chip  dirt  is  one  of  the  best  fertilizers  for 
radishes.  The  quicker  a  radish  can  be  grown,  the  sweeter  and 


GARDENING  AND  TRUCK  FARMING.  311 

tenderer  it  will  be.  The  earliest  sowing  may  be  made  as  .soon 
as  the  land  can  be  worked;  but  as  these  are  sometimes  killed, 
sow  again  in  a  few  days,  and  every  two  weeks  for  a  succession. 
The  best  varieties  are  French  Breakfast,  Early  Olive-shaped, 
Long  Scarlet,  and  White  and  Scarlet  Turnip.  We  have,  also, 
several  varieties  of  winter  radish,  which  may  be  sown  in  August 
and  used  through  the  winter.  The  best  of  these  are  the  Chi- 
nese Rose,  Chinese  White,  California  Mammoth,  White  and 
Black  Spanish. 

Rhubarb. — Whether  for  the  family  or  market,  rhubarb  is 
a  valuable  crop.  It  comes  into  use  earlier  than  any  other  prod- 
uct of  the  garden,  and  at  a  season  when  the  system  craves 
something  tart.  The  land  should  be  plowed  as  deep  as  possi- 
ble, and  made  very  rich  for  this  plant,  and  it  should  be  covered 
with  manure  every  fall  so  as  to  protect  it  from  Trost,  and  enable 
it  to  start  early  in  the  spring.  The  crop  is  a  profitable  one  and 
will  bring  several  hundred  dollars  per  acre.  The  common  method 
of  propagating  is  by  subdividing  the  roots,  but  after  many  years 
experience  in  growing  it  from  seed,  I  would  recommend  this 
method :  Seed  should  be  sown  in  May  in  a  rich,  fine  soil.  If 
thoroughly  cultivated,  the  plants  will  usually  grow  large  enough 
by  fall  so  that  good  sized  stems  for  table  use  can  be  had  from 
them,  and  if  not  transplanted  will  yield  a  half  crop  the  next 
spring.  If  transplanted  it  is  best  not  to  use  from  it  till  the 
second  year.  The  plants  may  be  grown  within  six  inches  of 
each  other  in  the  nursery  bed,  but  should  be  thinned  to  four 
feet  the  following  spring.  Rhubarb  may  be  had  very  early  in 
the  spring  if  well  covered  with  manure  in  the  fall,  and  about 
the  middle  of  February  the  manure  is  removed  from  the  crown 
and  an  old  barrel,  with  both  heads  knocked  out,  placed  over  it 
and  banked  round  the  outside  with  warm,  fresh  manure. 

The  varieties  most  in  use  are  the  Linnaeus,  Victoria,  and 
Cahoon.  The  first  named  is  the  earliest,  and  is  of  excellent 
flavor,  and  less  acid  than  any  other.  The  Victoria  is  later,  but 
very  large,  and  is  the  most  profitable  for  the  main  crop.  The 
Cahoon  is  a  large,  late  variety,  and  was  extensively  sold  under 
the  name  of  Wine  Plant  some  years  ago. 


312  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Salsify. — This  is  also  called  Vegetable  Oyster.  It  is  seldom 
grown,  but  as  its  cultivation  is  easy,  and  it  is  healthful  and  deli- 
cious when  properly  cooked,  it  should  be  oftener  found  in  the 
garden.  Its  management  is  precisely  the  same  as  the  parsnip, 
and  like  it  can  be  left  in  the  ground  all  winter.  It  is  cooked 
like  the  parsnip,  and  is  also  used  in  soups,  to  which  it  gives  a 
decided  oyster  flavor.  There  is  but  one  variety. 

Spinach. — No  vegetable  is  more  easily  grown  than  this, 
and  yet  it  is  not  found  in  one  garden  out  of  ten  among  farmers, 
but  all  market  gardeners  know  its  value,  and  find  it  a  very 
profitable  crop.  It  is  very  hardy,  and  may  be  sown  in  the  fall 
if  lightly  protected  with  evergreen  brush,  leaves,  or  straw,  or  it 
may  be  sown  as  early  as  the  land  can  be  worked.  A  second 
sowing  may  be  made  two  weeks  later.  It  makes  delicious 
greens,  and  a  very  small  bed  will  supply  a  family.  It  runs  up 
to  seed  early,. and  as  soon  as  past  use,  the  land  should  be 
cleared  and  some  other  crop  sown.  There  are  two  varieties,  the 
Round  and  Prickly  Seeded,  but  the  first  named  is  the  best. 

Squash. — The  summer  squashes  are  of  easy  cultivation. 
They  require  a  rich  soil  and  good  culture,  and  it  will  pay  to  use 
a  gill  of  superphosphate  in  a  hill,  as  it  gives  them  an  early  start; 
it  must  not  come  in  contact  with  the  seed,  but  should  be  thor- 
oughly mixed  with  the  soil.  Most  of  the  summer  varieties  do 
not  run,  and  may  be  planted  four  feet  apart.  There  are  two  va- 
rieties, the  Crook-neck,  which  is  yellow  and  covered  with  warty 
excrescences,  and  from  seven  to  nine  inches  long,  and  is  consid- 
ered the  best  flavored,  and  the  Scalloped.  This  variety  is  grown 
exclusively  at  the  South,  where  they  are  called  Cymbals.  There 
are  two  colors,  white  and  yellow. 

Squash,  Winter. — We  have  several  good  varieties  of  win- 
ter squash,  among  which  are  the  Boston  Marrow,  Turban,  Hub- 
bard,  Marblehead,  and  Winter  Crook-neck.  I  find  the  Hubbard 
the  best  for  market,  and  the  Crook-neck  the  most  profitable  for 
stock.  One  point  in  favor  of  growing  squashes  is  that  they  can 
be  grown  after  early  potatoes,  and  make  a  full  crop,  and  so  cost 
nothing  for  ground  rent.  I  have  never  been  successful  with  the 
Hubbard  squash  when  planted  alone,  as  the  striped  bugs  would 


GARDENING  AND  TRUCK  FARMING.  313 

always  destroy  them.  Whether  the  bugs  do  not  find  them  among 
the  potatoes,  or  there  is  something  about  potato  vines  that  is 
distasteful  to  them,  I  do  not  know ;  the  fact  remains  that  I  have 
never  had  them  disturbed  when  planted  in  this  way.  The  crook- 
neck  squash  is  more  hardy,  and  is  seldom  disturbed  by  the  bugs, 
and  may  be  planted  after  early  peas  or  among  sweet  corn. 

Squashes  do  not  require  a  long  season,  and  may  be  planted 
the  latter  part  of  June.  My  "  Hubbards"  were  planted  this 
year  the  26th  of  June,  and  on  September  20th,  twelve  weeks 
from  planting,  were  matured  so  as  to  be  out  of  the  way  of  frost. 
During  the  three  weeks  ending  August  14th,  one  of  these  vines 
ran  fourteen  feet.  Wherever  a  market  can  be  had  for  them  the 
Hubbard  squashes  can  be  made  very  profitable,  as  they  are  ex- 
cellent keepers  and  can  be  marketed  at  any  time  during  the 
winter.  Care  should  be  taken  in  gathering  them  to  cut  the 
stem  and  leave  most  of  it  on  the  squash,  for  if  broken  from  the 
squashes  they  are  likely  to  rot.  They  should  also  be  handled 
carefully  so  as  not  to  bruise  them.  They  should  be  stored 
where  the  temperature  can  be  kept  uniform,  and  forty  degrees 
is  the  best  temperature ;  but  some  range  is  allowable.  Enough 
for  family  use  can  be  kept  in  a  dry  cellar,  but  when  grown  in 
large  quantities  for  a  winter  market,  they  should  be  stored  in  a 
room  where  fire  can  be  made  in  damp  or  very  cold  weather. 
If  they  are  to  be  put  in  the  cellar,  it  is  best  to  keep  them  in  an 
upper  room  or  out-building  for  a  few  weeks  first.  They  should 
always  be  gathered  when  perfectly  dry. 

Tomatoes. — To  have  this  crop  early  requires  starting  in  the 
hot-bed.  The  seed  may  be  sown  quite  thickly,  about  the  first 
of  March,  and  the  plants,  when  about  four  weeks  old,  pricked 
out  into  other  beds,  setting  them  four  or  five  inches  apart. 
Enough  plants  can  be  started  under  one  sash  to  fill  fifty  when 
transplanted.  By  giving  plenty  of  room,  these  transplanted 
plants  can  be  kept  in  the  hot-bed  till  they  are  in  blossom,  and 
then  if  watered  copiously  the  night  before,  nnd  taken  up  care- 
fully with  a  ball  of  earth,  they  will  be  checked  but  little  in 
their  growth,  and  will  fruit  quite  early.  I  can  get  ripe  tomatoes 
early  in  July  by  this  treatment.  For  the  main  crop  this  trouble 


314  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

and  expense  is  not  necessary,  but  the  seed  may  be  sown  in  a 
cold  frame  the  middle  of  April,  and  no  sash  used.  Boards  or 
mats  must  be  provided,  however,  to  cover  them  in  case  there  is 
danger  of  frost.  The  plants  must  be  thinned  so  as  to  prevent 
them  from  becoming  spindled. 

The  m;iin  crop  may  be  grown  on  ordinary  land — by  which  I 
mean  that  rich  garden  soil  is  not  necessary — by  manuring  the 
hills  well.  It  is  claimed  by  those  who  grow  the  crop  largely 
for  the  factories,  that  they  bear  better  on  rather  thin  land,  the 
manure  giving  the  plant  a  thrifty  start,  and  when  the  roots  ex- 
tend beyond  it  and  reach  the  poor  soil,  the  check  in  its  growth 
induces  fruitfulness.  From  two  to  four  hundred  bushels  to  the 
acre  can  be  grown  in  field  culture,  and  I  have  known  market  gar- 
deners, by  extra  care,  to  sell  an  average  of  a  bushel  from  each 
plant  on  a  plot  containing  several  hundred  plants. 

I  would  never  plant  closer  than  four  feet  apart  each  way, 
and  on  rich  soil  they  will  cover  the  ground  if  planted  five  feet. 
In  growing  them  largely  it  is  wise  to  leave  a  road  for  the 
wagons  every  ten  rows.  The  roads  can  be  used  for  growing 
some  early-maturing  crop,  so  that  the  land  need  not  be  idle. 
The  advantage  of  this  is  that  you  need  not  carry  the  tomatoes 
far,  and  as  they  are  very  heavy,  this  will  be  a  great  relief  in 
the  labor  of  gathering  them.  The  first  week  in  June  is  season- 
able for  planting  the  main  crop,  and  as  it  often  happens  that 
the  late  gathered  fruit  brings  a  high  price,  it  is  wise  for  the 
gardener  to  plant  late  as  well  as  earl}''. 

There  are  few  garden  products  that  vary  more  in  price  than 
tomatoes,  the  earliest  bringing  almost  any  price  you  may  ask 
for  them.  In  the  flush  of  the  season  the  market  is  often  glutted, 
and  the  price  is  sometimes  down  to  twenty-five  cents  a  bushel. 
At  forty  cents  they  are  a  profitable  crop,  and  as  the  very  early 
and  late  ones  will  sell  high,  the  average  price  will  usually  be 
considerably  above  forty  cents.  New  varieties  have  been 
brought  out  nearly  every  year,  with  claims  that  they  were 
earlier  than  any  that  had  preceded  them,  but  on  trial,  very  little 
difference  in  this  respect  is  found  among  the  leading  varie- 
ties, the  earliness  depending  more  on  the  treatment  the  plants 


GARDENING  AND  TRUCK  FARMING.  315 

receive  than  the  variety  grown.  If  I  was  confined  to  one  variety 
I  would  choose  the  Acme,  as  it  is  early,  large,  and  prolific.  It 
continues  to  bear  till  frost,  and  is  invariably  round,  smooth,  and 
of  good  size.  It  ripens  evenly  and  bears  shipping  well.  Among 
other  desirable  varieties  are,  Hatha way's  Excelsior,  Early  Large, 
Smooth  Red,  Essex  Hybrid,  Paragon,  and  Trophy. 

Turnips. — You  will  find  the  cultivation  of  the  flat  turnip 
described  in  the  chapter  on  "  Root  Culture,"  but  as  the  Ruta 
Baga  or  Swede  turnip  is  usually  grown  as  a  garden  crop,  it  is 
treated  here.  They  require  a  rich,  well-worked  soil.  In  addi- 
tion to  stable  manure,  it  will  pay  to  use  some  superphosphate,  as 
this  is  especially  adapted  to  the  turnip.  It  is  well  to  seed 
heavily,  as  the  garden  flea,  the  same  that  destroys  cabbage 
plants,  often  attacks  them.  As  soon  as  they  can  be  seen  break- 
ing ground,  apply  plaster  to  them,  and  repeat  after  each  rain. 

The  seed  should  be  sown  in  May  or  the  first  of  June,  in  rows 
far  enough  apart  to  work  with  the  horse ;  about  two  feet  will 
answer.  They  may  be  sown  on  level  land  or  in  low  ridges ;  in 
the  latter  case  they  must  be  thirty  inches  apart.  As  soon  as 
they  are  in  the  rough  leaf  thin  to  ten  or  twelve  inches  in  the 
row.  They  will  need  to  be  thoroughly  cultivated,  and  under 
favorable  circumstances  will  yield  one  thousand  bushels  to  the 
acre.  The  best  time  to  market  them  is  in  the  spring,  as  they 
are  excellent  keepers  and  will  be  in  good  condition  after  the  flat 
turnips  are  past  use.  They  can  be  wintered  in  pits  as  described 
for  other  vegetables. 


316  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  RARN1,  GARDEN, 
AND  ORCHARD.* 

THE  present  chapter  is  arranged  with  the  express  desire 
that  it  may  become  a  practical  aid  to  the  agriculturist. 
It  is  intended  solely  as  an  insect  manual  to  the  farmer, 
gardener,  and  fruit-grower,  which  shall  give  all  possible  informa- 
tion as  to  the  best  means  to  ward  off  insect  enemies,  and  will 
be  pruned  of  all  scientific  terms  and  technicalities  not  absolutely 
needed  for  the  accomplishment  of  the  desired  end.  It  is  greatly 
hoped  that  in  spreading  this  information  broadcast  all  our  tillers 
may  be  stimulated  to  practice  the  measures  recommended,  for 
without  concerted  action  to  the  fullest  extent,  this  important 
problem  of  insect  injuries  can  never  be  perfectly  solved.  Will 
not  every  farmer  into  whose  hands  it  may  fall,  every  grange, 
club,  and  society,  horticultural  and  agricultural,  if  only  for  sel- 
fish ends,  see  that  every  farmer  in  the  vicinity  procure  it,  and 
then  all  work  together  to  make  it  in  the  largest  degree  useful  ? 

Those  insects  which  attack  our  field  crops  are  first  consid- 
ered, next  the  insect  pests  of  our  gardens,  and  lastly,  the  ene- 
mies of  our  orchards  and  vineyards.  In  each  division  the 
insects  are  considered  somewhat  in  the  order  of  their  im- 
portance. 

The  scientific  name  of  each  insect  will  be  placed  in  a  par- 
enthesis, and  can  be  passed  over  when  desired. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  manual,  free  use  has  been  made 
of  the  valuable  reports  of  Messrs.  Riley,  Fitch,  Le  Baron,  and 
Walsh ;  the  American  Entomologist,  "  Practical  Entomologist," 
and  the  important  works  of  Harris,  Curtiss,  Packard,  Saun- 
ders,  and  Treat. 


*By  PROFESSOR  A.  J.  COOK,  of  the  Michigan  State  Agricultural  College. 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS.  317 

The  illustrations  are  mostly  from  drawings  made  by  Pro- 
fessor Riley,  and  so  need  no  praise. 

When  we  remember  that  more  than  one  hundred  insects 
attack  the  apple  tree,  we  see  how  impossible  it  is  to  treat 
of  them  all  at  this  time.  Only  the  more  destructive  can  re- 
ceive attention.  In  lieu  of  fuller  information  our  readers  are 
referred  to  Packard's  Guide  to  the  study  of  Insects,  Harris'  "  In- 
jurious Insects,"  Saunders'  "Insects  Injurious  to  Fruits,"  and 
"Injurious  Insects  of  the  Farm  and  Garden,"  by  Mrs.  Treat. 
All  of  these  works  are  well  worth  a  place  in  the  library  of 
every  practical  agriculturist. 

Colorado  Potato  Beetle. — Doryphora  IQ-lineata,  Say. 
Order,  Coleoptera.  Family,  Chrysomelida.  From  the  importance 
of  the  potato,  the  prevalence  of  this  insect,  and  the  extent  of  its 
ravages  every  season,  it  deserves  a  first  place  in  our  discus- 
sion. Though  in  this  case  we  have  a  very  cheap  and  perfectly 
effective  remedy,  still,  actual  observation  and  the  high  price  of 
potatoes  prove  that  barely  half,  our  farmers  make  use  of  it. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  should  this  article  induce  all  our 
farmers  "  to  fight  the  potato  beetle  by  the  most  approved 
method,"  it  would  add  greatly  to  the  agricultural  wealth  of  the 
country. 

HISTORY. — The  history  of  this  beetle,  that  it  is  a  native  of 
Colorado,  where  it  was  discovered,  named,  and  described  by 
Say,  many  years  ago ;  how,  on  a  bridge  of  potato  vines,  it 
invested  our  Western  States  less  than  a  score  of  years  since, 
and  from  thence  spread  rapidly  eastward  till  it  now  has  actu- 
ally gained  our  Atlantic  coast,  where  it  only  awaits  opportunity 
to  take  passage  for  Europe,  where  it  will  continue  its  dreaded 
ravages  in  the  green  fields  of  the  Emerald  Isle, — all  this  is 
already  well  known. 

NATURAL  HISTORY. — The  natural  history  of  the  potato  beetle 
is  also  familiar  to  most  of  our  farmers.  It  comes  forth  out  of 
the  earth  as  a  beetle  just  as  the  potato  vines  are  peering  from 
the  ground.  Sometimes,  as  the  creature  stands  over  the  hill,  it 
seems  fairly  to  grin  in  expectant  longing  for  the  rich,  tender 
feast  which  nature  is  about  to  spread.  With  the  coming  of 


318 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


warm  days  the  female  (Fig.  1,  d)  lays  her  clusters  of  orange  eggs 
(Fig.  1,  a),  sometimes  to  the  number  of  a  thousand — a  single 
beetle  which  I  confined  laid  over  eleven  hundred  eggs, — either 
on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  of  the  potato  vines,  or  on 
blades  of  grass  or  other  vegetables  near  by. 

These  soon  hatch,  when  the  young  or  larvse  (Fig.  1,  #)  are 
found  to  eat  quite  as  voraciously  as  the  mature  beetle.  In 
about  fifteen  days  the  young  become  fully  developed,  when 


FlQ  1. — a,  Eggs.    6,  Larva,    c,  Pupa,    d,  linage,    e,  Wing-cover,  magnified.    /,  Leg. 

they  pass  into  the  ground  to  pupate  (Fig.  1,  c).  After  about 
ten  days  of  such  quiet  they  come  forth  in  the  beetle  state,  and 
from  their  freshness  it  might  be  thought  that  the  old-time 
beetles  had  been  absent  to  get  a  new  suit,  and  had  just  re- 
turned to  show  their  finery. 

These  beetles,  with  their  bright  bands  of  yellow  and  black, 
mate,  deposit  eggs,  and  soon  die,  behaving  in  all  respects  as  be- 
fore. So,  too,  the  larvae  and  pupae.  These  again  are  followed 
by  a  third  brood,  which  completes  the  ruinous  work  of  the  sea- 
son; but  the  pupae  of  this  last  brood  do  not  come  forth  in  ten 
days,  nor  do  they  die ;  but,  resting  quietly  beneath  the  earth, 
seem  to  be  gathering  strength  for  a  miserable  repetition  of  the 
previous  year's  abomination. 

WILL  THEY  REMAIN  WITH  Us  ? — It  is  hoped  by  many  that 
these  incorrigible  pests  will  not  be  long  among  us,  reasoning  from 
analogy,  as  many  insects  (like  the  Hessian  fly)  have  been  quite 


INJ  URIO  US  INSECTS.  3  1  9 

us  destructive  for  a  time,  and  then  have  almost  entirely  van- 
ished. We  may  reasonably  hope  that  the  insect  enemies  of  this 
beetle,  which  are  rapidly  increasing,  will  lessen  its  numbers 
yearly;  but  that  we  shall  ever  be  rid  of  it  is  -reckoning  with- 
out our  host.  It  will  probably  remain  with  us  for  all  time, 
though  as  its  natural  enemies  become  more  numerous  they 
will  doubtless  hold  it  in  check  so  that  some  years  the  evil  will 
be  very  slight.  Still  it  is  safe  to  conclude  that  we  shall  have 
to  be  ever  ready  to  give  it  battle,  and  well  may  we  be  grateful 
that  such  efficient  weapons  are  at  our  command. 

REMEDIES. — Inasmuch  as  Paris  green  is  so  practical,  so  effi- 
cient, and  so  cheap  a  remedy  for  this  pest,  I  shall,  in  this  place, 
do  what  every  farmer  had  better  do  on  his  farm — ignore  all 
other  means,  such  as  hand  picking,  machinery,  etc.,  as  too  ex- 
pensive, and  not  sufficiently  thorough.  Paris  green,  or  London 
purple,  which  is  just  as  efficient,  are  entirely  safe  if  care  is 
exercised  in  their  use,  and  are  sovereign  remedies.  As  these 
arsenites  are  very  useful  as  specifics  against  many  other  nox- 
ious insects,  I  will  give  the  methods  of  application  once  for  all. 
The  poison  may  be  used  dry,  when  it  may  be  mixed  with  plas- 
ter, one  part  to  twenty,  or  even  fifty,  of  the  adulterant,  or  if 
the  weather  is  wet  and  rainy,  mixed  with  flour,  one  to  eight, 
and  put  on  when  the  plants  are  dry,  and  in  such  small  quanti- 
ties as  just  to  show  on  the  plants.  The  quantity  is  sufficient 
to  kill  the  insects,  though  the  amount  is  so  small  as  not  in  the 
least  to  injure  the  vines.  The  flour  with  the  first  de\v.  forms 
a  paste  which  can  not  be  washed  oft'  by  even  a  heavy  ruin.  This 
is  sifted  on  when  there  is  no  dew  on  the  vines,  either  through 
a  muslin  bag  suspended  to  a  convenient  handle,  that  it  may  be 
carried  and  shaken  over  the  vines,  the  person  making  the  appli- 
cation walking  upright,  or  with  a  pail,  the  bottom  being  of  fine 
wire  gauze  or  finely  perforated  tin.  Another  way  to  apply  the 
arsenites  is  to  mix  with  water,  one  pound  to  one  hundred  gallons 
or  an  even  table-spoonful  to  two  gallons.  This  is  a  mixture,  not 
a  solution,  and  as  the  poison  tends  to  settle,  must  be  frequently 
stirred.  To  apply  this  we  may  use  a  common  sprinkler  with  a 
fine  rose,  or  a  Whitman's  fountain  pump.  This  pump  is  very 


320  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

excellent  for  spraying  trees,  and  can  be  used  with  good  success 
even  in  spraying  potato  plants. 

The  advantages  of  the  water  mixture  are  ease,  safety,  even 
with  the  careless,  and  rapidity  of  application,  and  that,  too,  even 
if  the  day  is  windy.  Its  disadvantages  are  waste  of  material, 
as  nearly  one-third  of  the  water  does  not  touch  the  vines,  and  of 
course  is  lost;  danger  of  not  stirring  the  mixture  sufficiently 
often,  when  the  green,  being  only  held  in  suspension,  not  dis- 
solved, settles  to  the  bottom,  and  the  preparation  becomes  too 
dilute ;  ease  with  which  the  green  when  thus  applied  is  washed 
off  by  heavy  rains,  and  the  danger  of  not  applying  evenly,  as 
the  powder  suspended  in  the  water  is  amassed  wherever  the 
drops  of  water  settle.  Yet  from  its  convenience,  and  the  ease 
with  which  the  application  may  be  made,  this  will  quite  likely 
be  the  favorite  method. 

After  careful  experimenting,  I  have  found  the  flour  mixture 
preferable  to  all  other  preparations.  The  flour  makes  the  green 
adhere  to  the  vines  so  that  the  heaviest  rain  is  powerless  to 
remove  it.  No  second  application  is  needed  till  enlarged  growth 
of  vines  demands  it.  I  make  the  mixture  strong — one  of  pow- 
der to  eight  of  flour — so  that  in  making  the  application  we  need 
add  only  just  enough  of  the  mixture  that  we  may  be  able  to 
see  it  on  the  vines.  The  danger  of  using  the  flour  mixture 
consists  in  the  fact  that  unless  used  sparingly,  the  paste  will 
destroy  the  vines.  But  it  is  perfectly  easy  and  entirely  safe  to 
use  it  if  the  least  possible  amount  be  used.  I  repeat,  add  only 
enough  that  it  may  be  seen. 

I  have  thus  been  enabled  to  safely  apply  this  mixture  even 
to  our  tender  melon  and  cucumber  vines.  I  would  not  apply  it 
when  the  dew  is  on,  as  the  application  will  be  more  even  if  the 
vines  are  dry,  and  with  the  strength  recommended  above  will 
always  prove  effectual.  I  think  this  is  the  most  economical 
method  yet  recommended.  .  By  using  the  flour  mixture  I  have 
found  that  two  applications  are  always  sufficient  for  our  early 
varieties,  and  frequently  for  later  ones;  and  three  applications 
are  in  any  case  all  that  are  needed,  even  in  seasons  of  heaviest 
rains.  Some  prefer  to  use  plaster  instead  of  flour,  using  forty 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS.  321 

or  fifty  parts  of  plaster  by  measure  to  one  of  the  green.  This 
does  not  form  a  paste,  and  can  be  added  in  quantity  without 
danger  to  the  vines — indeed  the  plaster  may  be  useful — but 
the  first  heavy  rain  will  wash  it  off. 

ENEMIES. — I  might  enumerate  and  describe  the  score  or  more 
of  natural  enemies,  birds  and  insects,  which  attack  and  destroy 
this  potato  beetle ;  but  as  they  will  not  for  long  years,  if  ever, 
make  the  use  of  the  Paris  green  unnecessary,  and  as  this  article 
is  only  to  deal  with  practical  problems,  I  will  omit  this  inter- 
esting part  of  the  subject. 

Cut-worms. — Agrotians.  Family,  Noctuidce.  Order,  Lep- 
idopetera. — Little,  if  any,  inferior  to  the  potato  beetle  in  its  de- 
struction to  our  field  crops  is  the  cut-worm.  The  cut-worms 
(for  there  are  several  species  which  claim  tribute  from  the  grain- 
grower),  are  not  confined  in  their  operations  to  a  single  staple, 
for  nearly  all  our  cereals,  grasses,  and  especially  our  corn  crops, 
are  made  to  contribute  to  their  support. 

The  cut-worms  are  so  named  from  their  prodigal  habits  of 
cutting  off  plants ;  not  taking  their  fill  on  a  single  plant,  leaving 
all  uneaten  undisturbed,  but,  as  if  totally  depraved,  rejoicing 
in  rioting  and  wantonness,  they  simply  cut  the  plants  asunder, 
thus  ruining  every  plant  that  they  attack. 

These  destroyers  are  called  surface  caterpillars  in  England, 
doubtless  from  the  fact  that 
they  lie  concealed  by  day  just 
beneath  the  earth  surface.  In 
Kurope  they  are  dreaded  from 
their  effect  on  grasses,  and  such 
injury  in  this  country,  though 
less  patent  than  that  done  to 
corn,  is  by  no  means  inconsid-  FI°-  2-A*">lta  s»bgothica. 

erable.  In  Europe  the  loss  of  a  third  of  a  crop  is  ruinous;  here 
it  is  common,  and  hardly  causes  comment. 

The  cut-worms  are  no  foreigners,  "being  to  the  manor 
born."  Even  the  Indians  found  in  them  a  foe  fully  as  persist- 
ent if  not  as  formidable  as  the  white  man. 

NATURAL  HISTORY. — The    natural    history   of    these    insects 

21 


322  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

(and  this  will  apply  to  those  which  ravage  our  gardens  and 
orchards  as  well  as  those  attacking  field  crops),  is  as  follows: 
Some  time,  usually  late  in  the  season,  the  moths,  which  are 
always  of  a  sober  hue,  gray  or  brown,  with  two  conspicuous 
spots  on  their  front  wings,  may  be  seen  in  concealed  places 
about  our  houses,  as  being  attracted  by  lights  they  come  into 
our  houses  by  night,  and,  being  night  moths,  seek  to  hide  by  day. 
It  is  probable  that  the  moths,  after  pairing,  seek  some  grass 
spot  on  which  to  deposit  eggs,  for  true  it  is  that  we  find  the 
caterpillars,  in  fall  and  spring,  amidst  the  roots  of  grass,  on 
which  they  appear  to  feed,  though  even  these  immature  larvae 
may,  like  the  mature  one,  come  forth  for  the  more  succulent 

blade  and  leaf.  And  among 
all  insects  there  is  a  strange 
instinct  which  seldom  errs, 
which  secures  egg-laying  in 
close  proximity  to  the  food 

FIG.  3.— Agrotls  Cochrani,— Larva  and  Imago,      of   the    larV88. 

The  young  cut-worms,  perhaps  from  their  small  size  and 
abundant  food,  seem  to  attract  little  attention  because  of 
their  injuries  till  the  succeeding  May,  when  the  full  grown 
larvae,  now  over  an  inch  in  length,  greasy,  and  in  sober  garb 
of  gray,  brown,  or  striped  with  light  and 
dark,  depending  on  the  species,  come  forth 
to  nip  our  crops  and  blast  our  hopes. 

After   the  larvse  growth  is   complete 
they    become    chrysalids   in    an    earthen  FIG.  4.-pupa. 

cocoon,  a  few  inches  from  the  surface,  and  in  summer  and 
autumn  the  moths  again  appear,  when  the  same  cycle  of 
growth,  changes,  and  destruction  is  again  repeated. 

I  might  describe  here,  as  before,  many  predaceous  and  par- 
asitic insects  which  help  to  hold  these  dread  destroyers  in  check, 
but  as  they  are  unable,  without  aid,  to  wholly  accomplish  the 
good  work,  I  will  at  once  proceed  to  the  more  practical  duty  of 
detailing  artificial  means  to  preclude  these  injuries. 

REMEDIES. — I  am  fully  persuaded  that  there  is  no  more  sure 
way  to  ward  off  cut-worm  injuries  than  to  enter  into  partnership 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS.  323 

with  the  birds,  in  which  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  party  of  the 
first  part  to  plow  the  land  early  in  the  fall,  so  that  blue-bird, 
robin,  and  grakle  may  have  a  cut-worm  feast  before  leaving  for 
more  genial  climes.  Deep  harrowing  will  aid  the  party  of  the 
second  part,  while  a  repetition  of  the  same  as  early  in  the  spring 
as  the  season  will  permit  will  insure  a  thanksgiving  repast  of 
the  same  nature.  I  feel  very  certain  that  from  this  cause,  and 
not  freezing  of  the  larvae,  has  originated  the  unquestionable  fact 
that  fall  plowing  is  an  advantage.  When  unprotected  larva)  can 
survive  a  temperature  of  30°,  as  I  have  proved  the  past  winter, 
we  may  be  slow  to  credit  the  freezing  method  of  destruction. 

Our  early  spring  birds  are  much  put  to  it  to  gain  sufficient 
food  for  themselves  and  brood,  and  with  the  opportunity  will 
become  chief  abettors  in  cut-worm  destruction.  That  the  three 
birds  above  named  do  merit  loudest  praise  for  such  valuable 
service  I  have  personal  proof. 

The  only  method  to  supplement  the  above  measures  when 
they  are  not  adequate  to  remove  the  evil,  with  our  field  crops, 
is  digging  out  by  hand  and  destroying.  This  is  by  no  means 
so  tedious  a  procedure  as  would  be  thought  at  first,  as  by  passing 
along  the  corn-field  early  in  the  morning  the  cut  stalk  will  reveal 
the  whereabouts  of  the  night-marauder,  which,  by  digging  around 
the  stub,  may  soon  be  found  and  crushed.  As  this  plan  implies 
the  loss  of  at  least  a  single  stock  to  a  larva,  it  would  be  very 
well  in  planting  to  practice  the  advice  of  the  poet :  "  Two  for  the 
blackbird,  two  for  the  crow  (they  have  earned  them),  two  for 
the  cut-worm,  and  four  to  grow."  This  advice  will  be  all  the 
more  pertinent  if  the  corn  is  to  be  planted  after  late  spring- 
plowed  greensward ;  I  need  hardly  say  late,  as  our  wet  springs 
usually  necessitate  late  spring  plowing. 

If  our  farmers  will  heed  the  above,  and  give  the  go-by  to 
all  those  quack  remedies  which  obtain  annually  an  unmerited 
place  in  our  periodicals,  such  as  salt,  plaster,  etc.  (though  all  fer- 
tilizers which  promote  rapid  growth  are  always  to  be  commended 
as  aids  in  the  work  of  insect  destruction),  this  cut-worm  evil  will 
soon  assume  less  importance. 

The  following  are  the  species  which  T  have  found  injurious 


324  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

to  our  corn  crops  in  this  State:  Agrotis  nigricans,  Linn.;  Agrotis 
devastator,  Brace;  Agrotis  subgothica  (see  Fig.  2d),  Haworth;  and 
Hadena  amputatrix,  Fitch. 

The  May  Beetle. — Lachnosterna  fusca,  Frohl.  Family, 
ScarabceidcB.  Order,  Coleoptera.  Few  farmers  will  need  a  de- 
scription of  that  sleek  old  culprit,  the  white  grub, — still  less  to 
be  assured  of  its  destructive  powers,  as  the  damage  to  our 
meadows  and  other  products  are  becoming  yearly  more  alarming. 
NATURAL  HISTORY. — I  need  hardly  say  that  in  May  and  Juno 
the  beetles  (3  and  4,  Fig.  5),  all  brown  and  plump,  come  forth 
from  the  ground,  and  at  early  twilight,  and  on  into  the  night, 
fly  forth  in  such  numbers  as  to  sound  like  the  swarming  of  bees, 
often  annoying  us  by  thumping  at  our  windows  or  lumbering 

into  our  rooms,  to  be  felled 
by  bumping  the  walls ; 
hence  the  name  dor-beetle, 
and  the  expressions  "bee- 
tle-headed," and  "blind  as 
a  beetle."  These  beetles 
often  do  no  inconsiderable 
damage  by  eating  the  foliage 
from  our  fruit  trees,  though 
in  some  localities  they  have 
seemed  to  prefer  the  oak 
leaves.  Would  that  they 

FIG.  5.-1,  pupa;  2,  larva;  3  and  4,  Im^as.  might  regt  content  With  the 

completion  of  such  mischief.  After  pairing,  the  females  lay 
their  eggs,  fifty  or  more,  probably  in  the  ground,  near  the  roots 
of  grass  or  other  plants. 

The  grub,  white,  wrinkled,  with  a  brown  head  (2,  Fig.  5), 
feeds  on  the  roots  of  grass,  wheat,  corn,  and  other  plants  for 
three  years,  when  it  becomes  full-grown,  having  attained  nearly 
one  and  one-half  inches  in  length.  In  the  third  autumn  it  forms 
a  cocoon  of  earth,  in  which  it  pupates  (1,  Fig.  5).  The  next 
May  or  June  the  beetles  come  forth  to  enjoy  a  brief  riot,  and 
prepare  for  another  round  of  mischief  under  ground. 

REMEDIES. — As  the   number  of  these  beetles  and  grubs  are 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS.  325 

frequently  so  alarmingly  great,  and  their  mischief  so  wide  spread 
and  extensive,  we  can  only  hope  to  ward  off  their  ravages  iu 
our  pastures  and  meadows  by  wholesale  remedies.  So  soon  as 
the  meadow  turns  sear,  and  we  have  the  further  evidence  that 
the  white  grub  is  the  culprit  in  the  grass,  now  rootless,  freely 
yielding  to  the  hand  or  rake ;  or,  still  better,  finding  the  sleek 
old  gormand  beneath  by  a  little  digging — if  this  state  of  things 
is  so  extensive  as  to  create  uneasiness,  the  field  better  be  given 
over  at  once  to  the  swine,  and  the  more  swine  the  better.  It 
may  be  as  profitable  to  turn  the  grass  into  pork,  indirectly 
through  the  aid  of  the  white  grub,  as  to  change  it  directly  into 
beef  or  mutton ;  besides,  we  then  are  sure  to  destroy  a  grievous 
pest.  If  a  meadow  is  the  seat  of  the  evil,  it  may  pay  best  to 
cut  the  hay  first.  Early  fall  plowing  will  enable  the  birds  to 
aid  the  swine,  and  possibly  kill  the  grubs  by  destroying  their 
food.  Frequent  harrowing  will  give  the  birds  a  still  better 
chance  to  indulge  in  this  "  feast  of  fat  things." 

In  protecting  our  wheat  and  corn,  the  same  remedies  would 
apply  as  those  recommended  to  destroy  the  cut-worm. 

As  yet,  we  know  no  method  to  fight  these  pests  of  our 
meadows,  except  the  one  given  above;  and  if  the  ravages  ap- 
pear while  the  grub  is  in  the  first  or  second  year's  operation, 
which  can  be  ascertained  by  the  size,  the  above  method  of  pro- 
cedure will  be  still  more  desirable. 

These  white  grubs  often  do  great  damage  to  strawberry  plan- 
tations. Strawberries  should  not  be  planted  immediately  after 
turning  the  sod,  nor  left  to  be  matted  down  with  grass.  If 
planted  on  land  which  has  been  kept  clean  of  weeds,  etc.,  by 
hoeing,  there  will  be  little  loss  from  these  grubs. 

The  Wheat  Midge. — Cccidomyia  tritici,  Kirb.  Family, 
Cecidomyidce.  Order,  Dipt  era.  Like  its  near  relative,  the  Hes- 
sian fly  (Cecidomyia  destructor],  the  midge,  or  wheat  berry  fly,  is 
not  yet  driven  from  among  us,  though  UK  many  insect  enemies 
have  so  depleted  its  numbers,  that  it  no  longer  fills  our  agricul- 
turists with  forebodings  as  to  the  future  of  our  wheat  interests. 

NATURAL  HISTORY. — The  natural  history  of  the  midge  is  as 
follows :  The  little  orange  fly,  so  small  as  to  almost  escape 


326 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


notice,  appears  in  June.  The  eggs  are  laid  on  the  chaff  of  the 
berry.  Upon  hatching,  the  orange-colored  maggot  lies  between 
the  chaff  and  berry,  and  by  absorbing  the  juices,  ruins  the  ker- 
nel, and  thus  an  insignificant  larval  fly  does  immense  damage. 

REMEDIES. — This  important  enemy,  which  does  no  great  dam- 
age in  Europe,  because  of  the  numerous  parasites  which  prey 
upon  it,  is  fast  losing  its  terrors  here,  and  so  I  will  only  men- 
tion the  very  commonly  understood  preventives. 

If  they  are  troublesome,  get  the  variety  of  grain  which  is 
least  affected  and  most  vigorous,  and  then  sow  fall  wheat  so  early, 
and  spring  wheat  so  late,  that  the  former  may  mature  too  early 
to  be  injured;  the  latter,  too  late.  By  great  pains  in  cultivation 
the  fall  wheat  may  be  urged  on  so  as  to  be  free  from  danger. 

Hessian  Fly. — Cecidomyia  destructor.  Say.  Family  and 
order  as  above.  This  insect,  doubtless  owing  to  its  numerous 
insect  enemies,  is  very  irregular  in  its  injuries.  It  will  seem  to 
disappear  entirely,  and  then  all  at  once  come  forth  in  myriads,  to 
bring  ruin  to  the  wheat  fields.  After  a  little  it  again  seems  to 
go  away.  It  has  not  gone;  only  held  in  check  by  its  many  foes. 
NATURAL  HISTORY. — The  little  gray  fly,  looking  almost  ex- 
actly like  a  small  mosquito  (Fig.  6),  lays  its  rows  of  eggs  on 

the  inside  of  the  leaves,  in  num- 
ber from  one  to  five  in  each  string. 
These  are  laid  in  September  and 
May,    as    the    insect    is    double 
brooded.     As    soon    as    hatched, 
the    maggots    (Fig.    6,    a)    work 
down   between   the   leaf  and  the 
stalk,  and  by  absorbing 
the  juice,  so  weaken  the   plant  that  it 
y          languishes,   and    frequently   dies.      The 
maggot  is  white.     The  attack  of  the  sec- 
§  ond  brood  causes  the  stalk  to  bend  over. 

3.         The  pupae — the  so-called  flax-seed  (Fig. 

FIG. 6.— a,  Maggot.     m  .       ...          . 

&.PUPR.  c, imago.  7)  — look  like  brown  seeds,  and  may 
often  be  found  by  pulling  back  the  leaves,  to  the 
number  of  five  or  six,  sometimes  fairly  imbedded  in  the  stalk. 


Fir,.  7. 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS.  327 

REMEDY. — Late  sowing — after  the  20th  of  September — is 
usually  found  very  wise.  Some  prefer  to  sow  early,  and  then, 
by  excellent  cultivation  and  thorough  fertilization — sowing  only 
the  most  vigorous  varieties — they  hope  to  so  increase  the  vigor 
of  the  crop  that  it  will  not  materially  suffer. 

Wire  Worm. — Elater.  Family,  Elateridce.  Order,  Coleop- 
tera.  Few  insects  are  more  dreaded  in  many  parts  of  the  coun- 
try than  are  the  wire  worms.  If  we  except  beans,  peas,  and 
buckwheat,  we  can  hardly  mention  a  crop  that  they  do  not 
often  seriously  injure.  They  are  only  bad,  however,  on  crops 
the  second  and  third  year  after  sod  is  plowed  under. 

NATURAL  HISTORY. — Wire  worms,  the  larvae  of  elater  (Fig.  8), 
or  spring  beetles,  usually  feed  on  rotten  wood,  so  that  we  can. 
^^^^r^pCjjSt^^^   hardly  raise  a  piece  of  bark  on  a  de- 
Fia.8.  caying  log,  or  turn  over  a  rotten  log, 

without  finding  them.  Would  that  all  were  content  with  such  a 
diet;  but  not  so,  for,  as  too  many  know  by  disheartening  experi- 
ence, some  of  them  attack  the  newly  planted  potatoes  in  a  per- 
fectly ruinous  manner,  so  that  to  have  a  crop  demands  a  second 
planting.  Nor  do  they  behave  better  towards  the  fresh  corn 
plants.  These  wire-worms  are  well  named,  as  they 
much  resemble  in  form  both  a  worm  and  a  wire. 
They  have  the  six  usual  jointed  legs,  and  thus  may 
be  easily  told  from  the  myriapods,  which  they  some- 
what resemble,  but  which  have  many  legs.  They 
work  for  several  years  and  pupate  in  an  earthen 
cocoon.  The  beetles  (Fig.  9)  which  come  from  these 
grubs,  are  the  well  known  elaters,  or  spring  beetles,  which  pos- 
sess such  a  power  of  springing  up,  if,  perchance,  they  fall  on 
their  back.  This  habit,  no  less  than  their  peculiar  form,  will 
serve  to  distinguish  them  wherever  seen.  I  am  not  able  to  state 
what  species  are  injurious  when  in  the  larvae  state. 

REMEDIES. — The  same  course  as  that  recommended  for  cut- 
worms and  the  white  grub — fall  plowing  and  frequent  harrowing, 
to  give  the  fall  and  spring  birds  a  good  chance,  will  also  serve 
here.  In  England,  where  they  are  greatly  troubled  with  these 
same  or  similar  insects,  it  is  common  to  bury  potatoes  with  a 


328  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

long  stick  stuck  through  them  to  mark  their  whereabouts.  This 
is  done  early — some  time  before  planting.  The  grubs  collect  on 
these  to  feed,  when  they  are  gathered  and  destroyed.  Gas-lime 
and  salt  are  also  highly  recommended  by  experienced  gardeners 
of  Europe.  These  are  placed  with  the  seed  in  planting. 

If  the  wire-worms  seem  very  abundant  and  harmful,  I  would 
advise  the  sowing  of  buckwheat  the  second  year  after  plowing 
under  sod.  The  first  year  they  seem  to  prefer  the  decaying 
grass  roots,  and  buckwheat  seems  distasteful  or  poisonous  to 
them.  The  same  is  but  little  less  true  of  beans  and  peas. 

Pea  "Weevil. — Bruchus  pisi,  Linn.  Family,  Bruchidce.  Or- 
der, Coleoptera.  This  little  insect,  though  doing  little  damage 
to  garden  peas,  for  in  green  peas  it  is  not  only  too  small  to  es- 
sentially change  the  flavor,  but  even  to  attract  the  eye,  but  in 
field  crops,  where  peas  are  raised  to  feed  after  they  are  fully 
matured,  there  is  very  serious  injury,  for  this  little  weevil,  so 
generally  distributed,  and  so  persistent  in  its  yearly  attacks, 
consumes,  while  yet  a  larva,  all  the  nutritious  material  of  the 
pea;  leaving  only  the  germ  and  a  mere  shell  outside.  Hence, 
affected  peas  will  sometimes  (though  only  rarely)  grow,  but,  of 
course,  with  bated  vigor,  as  the  needed  starch  pabulum  is  want- 
ing in  those  early  days,  the  precarious  time  with  all  life ;  but  to 
feed,  they  are  almost  entirely  useless. 

NATURAL  HISTORY. — The  little  brown  weevil,  with  the  wing- 
covers  so  short  that  some  light  markings,  somewhat  resembling 

the  letter  T,  are  seen  just  back  of  them 
(Fig.  10. — Bruchus  pisi.  Linn.),  comes 
_^__^_^  through  the  winter  in  the  peas,  having 

•    >^  JIBPilV    a  ^^e  °PenmS  (Fig-  10?  b)>  a  door  of 
/^•MHM^i  ^  exit,  already  prepared,  where  they  not 
infrequently  remain  even  to  the  day  of 
sowing.     I   have    seen    them   thick  as 

Fio.  10. — a.  Imago  magnified.    6, 

Pea.  c,  Natural  size.  bees  above  the  ground  where  peas  were 

being  sowed.  Just  as  soon  as  the  pods  are  formed  and  the 
seeds  set  within  them,  the  weevil,  big  with  eggs,  if  not  with 
mischievous  intent,  pierces  the  pod  opposite  each  pea,  and  inserts 
an  egg  within  each  puncture,  so  that  every  pea  may  contain 


INJ  L'RKt  CX  IXHEC  TS.  3  '2  \) 

within  the  seed  of  its  own  destruction.  The  larvae,  which  soon 
hatch  from  these  eggs,  though  grubs,  being  the  young  of  beetles, 
are  legless,  and  hence  resemble  maggots — the  larvae  of  two- 
winged  flies,  which  name  is  frequently  applied  to  them.  These 
larvae  find  the  young  tender  peas  rich  feeding,  and  by  the  time 
the  peas  are  large  enough  for  table  use,  are  sleek  and  plump, 
-and  can  easily  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye;  and  with  a  glass, 
their  good  feeding  qualities  are  quickly  discerned,  as  their  ten- 
der skins  seem  ready  to  burst.  By  the  time  the  peas  are  hard, 
having  already  eaten  a  hole  through  the  shell  (Fig.  10,  b),  thus 
showing  a  foresight  not  rare  among  insects,  they  assume  the 
pupa  state,  and  change  to  images  before  the  time  for  sowing  or 
planting  the  next  spring. 

REMEDIES. — As  these  insects  are  in  the  peas  in  the  winter  and 
in  the  spring,  if  the  same  be  kept  over  one  year,  in  perfectly 
close  barrels,  bags,  cans,  or  bottles,  of  course  the  insects  thus 
confined  will  all  die.  Hence,  if  these  pea  weevils  are  sufficiently 
annoying  to  cause  disturbance,  there  can  be  a  most  effectual 
estoppel  put  upon  their  mischief  by  thus  putting  all  our  peas  in 
close  vessels,  any  time  in  the  winter,  and  keeping  them  thus 
close  for  one  season.  If  all  would  do  this — and  we  must  have 
concerted  action  in  this  insect  wrarfare — we  should  soon  be  rid 
of  this  enemy.  But  the  evil  will  be  mitigated  if  we  practice  the 
above  simply  as  individuals ;  for  if  the  insects  do  find  their  way 
to  our  fields  from  those  of  our  careless  neighbors,  they  will 
doubtless  come  in  far  less  numbers,  and  those  that  do  coine  will 
very  likely  be  too  late  to  do  damage,  while  we  may  escape  en- 
tirely. If  the  peas  be  put  into  boiling  water  early  in  spring,  or 
if  a  little  bi-sulphide  of  carbon  be  put  into  a  close  box  with  the 
peas,  and  the  box  quickly  closed,  the  weevils  will  be  destroyed. 
As  bi-sulphide  of  carbon  is  very  explosive  if  the  vapor  comes  in 
contact  with  a  flame,  caution  is  required.  Its  pungent  odor  tells 
so  quickly,  however,  of  its  presence,  and  it  is  so  rapidly  dis- 
persed with  ventilation,  that  carelessness  alone  can  be  credited 
with  any  accident  that  may  occur. 

Bean  Weevil. — Bruchus,  Fab.c.  This  insect  attacks  the 
bean,  just  as  the  above  attacks  the  pea,  only  several  instead  of 


330  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

one  are  often  found  in  a  single  bean.     What  has  been  said  above 
as  to  remedies  also  applies  here. 

The  Squash  Bug. — Coreus  tristis,  De  Geer.  Family, 
Corcidce.  Order,  Hemiptera.  This  old-time  enemy  is  so  well- 
known  that  the  figure  is  all  that  is  necessary  to  bring  his  image 
and  evil  doings  to  mind. 

NATURAL  HISTORY. — The  squash  bug,  in  common  with  all  bugs, 
passes  through  partial  or  incomplete  transformations,  by  which 
we  mean  that  they  are  quite  alike  at  all  stages  of  growth,  so 
that  usually,  at  any  stage  of  growth,  the  species  would  be  recog- 
nized by  even  the  unskilled  in  entomology.  The  larva,  unlike 
the  caterpillar,  the  grub,  and  the  maggot,  is  so  like  the  imago  that 
the  relation  of  child  and  parent  is  easily  recognized.  The  ma- 
ture insect  (Fig.  11)  hibernates  during  winter,  but 
by  the  time  the  melon,  squash,  or  pumpkin  vines 
are  well  up,  their  dusky  forms,  ocher  yellow  be- 
neath, may  be  seen  feeding  on  the  leaves  by  day, 
and  hid  under  some  chip,  clod,  or  in  some  crevice  by 
night.  Soon  the  brown  eggs  are  laid  in  clusters 
FIG.  ii.-imago.  glued  to  the  under  side  of  the  leaves,  and  the 
greenish  larvae,  which  soon  become  grayish,  which  hatch  from 
these,  commence  a  thorough  work  of  despoliation,  in  which  they 
are  aided  by  their  parents,  which  seem  unwilling  to  die  with  so 
much  good  provision  at  hand.  After  a  time,  stubs  of  wings 
appear,  which,  with  increased  growth,  is  all  that  serves  to  dis- 
tinguish these  pupae  from  their  former  larval  condition.  Nor 
can  these  afford  time  for  quiet,  like  most  pupae.  On  the  other 
hand,  they  continue  to  gorge  themselves  with  the  juices  which 
they  suck  from  the  plant.  Soon  they  attain  full  growth,  and 
fully  developed  wings,  and  are  called  imagos.  These  images 
live  through  the  winter,  and  are  ready  to  repeat  the  same  ruin- 
ous work  another  season. 

REMEDIES. — The  habit  that  these  squash  bugs  have  of  con- 
cealment suggests  a  very  practical  means  to  capture  them,  which 
was  tried  here  at  the  college  the  past  season  with  perfect  success. 
It  is  similar  to  the  Ransom  process  for  capturing  the  plum  cur- 
culio,  and  consists  simply  in  placing  small  pieces,  boards,  chips, 


INJURIO  US  INSECTS-  331 

or  even  green  leaves,  on  the  ground,  close  around  the  vines. 
The  bugs  appropriate  these  as  hiding  places  during  the  night. 
We  may  then  go  around  each  morning,  early  in  the  season,  be- 
fore the  eggs  are  laid,  and  gather  and  destroy  the  bugs  thus 
concealed,  and  soon  extirpate  the  cause  of  the  evil.  These 
morning  visits  must  be  so  early  that  the  insects  will  not  have 
yet  left  their  hiding  places.  If  the  eggs  are  laid  before  we  cap- 
ture the  bugs,  we  should  either  gather  the  eggs  from  beneath 
the  leaves,  or  continue  the  same  process  narrated  above  to  get 
rid  of  the  young. 

In  all  cases  where  mature  insects  come  forth  in  the  spring, 
of  course  in  limited  numbers,  as  with  the  potato  beetle,  the 
squash  bug,  etc.,  we  shall  save  very  much  by  early  battle ;  and 
if  we  can  persuade  our  neighbors  to  engage  with  us,  the  late 
battles  and  the  battles  of  succeeding  years  will  be  but  skir- 
mishes. 

The  past  summer  I  have  killed  several  bugs  by  use  of  kero- 
sene oil.  Bugs  do  not  eat,  but  insert  their  beaks,  and  sip  the 
juices  of  the  plants.  So  we  can  not  poison  them  by  use  of  the 
arsenites,  etc.  Neither  do  they  care  for  pyrethrum.  Here,  then, 
we  may  be  glad  of  kerosene.  To  apply  this,  dilute  with  sour 
milk — one  of  oil  to  five  of  milk — stir  thoroughly,  and  apply 
with  fountain  pump.  This  may  also  be  used  successfully  in  kill- 
ing the  striped  bug — Capsus  quadarivitfatus,  Harr — which  often 
does  great  harm  to  potatoes,  wheat,  corn,  and  others  of  our  farm 
and  garden  plants.  This  beautiful  little  bug  is  yellow,  with 
four  black  bands,  and  is  about  three-eighths  of  an  inch  long. 

The  tarnished  plant  bug — Lygus  lineolaris,  Boauv. — which  r; 
very  commonly  distributed  through  the  country,  is  also  indis- 
criminate as  a  feeder.  This  is  the  bug  that  destroyed  thousands 
of  dollars'  worth  of  strawberries  in  Southern  Illinois  the  past 
season,  sucking  the  juice  and  vitality  from  the  unripe  fruit.  It 
is  probable  that  kerosene  and  milk  will  fix  them.  Care  is  re- 
quisite that  the  mixture  be  not  too  strong,  or  the  plants  may  be 
killed. 

Professor  Forbes  has  found  kerosene  an  excellent  specific 
against  the  terrible  chinch-bug  of  Illinois  and  the  West.  Aside 


332 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


from  destroying  rubbish,  etc.,  that  the  imago  may  have  no  suita- 
ble place  to  hibernate,  this  is  about  the  only  known  cure  for 
this  terrible  pest. 

Squash  Vine  Root  Borer. — MeliUia  cucurbitce,  Harr. 
Family,  jfEgereidce.  Order,  Lepidoptera.  This  insect,  a  near 
relative  of  the  peach-tree  borer  and  currant  borer,  is  no  new 
«nemy,  having  worked  in  Massachusetts  and  other  States  East 
for  many  years. 

NATURAL  HISTORY. — The  moth,  which  is  a  beautiful  orange, 
with  deep  blue  wings,  in  common  with  all  of  this  family,  flies  dur- 
ing the  hottest  ^ — >^  sunshine,  and  with  great 
swiftness.  She  /  \  lays  her  eggs  during  July 
and  August,  on  I  /"\  \  the  vine,  close  to  the  ground. 
The  larva,  which  I  uj  |  |  would  be  known  as  a  cater- 


pillar from  its  possessing  sixteen   legs,  bores  the 

base    of   the    stem    and  roots,  and  thus  entirely 

destroys    the    vines.  They  pupate  in  a  rough 

cocoon  of  earth,  about  the  roots.  Dr.  Packard  has  noticed  their 
forming  their  cocoon  in  the  stem.  These  are  formed  in  autumn. 
The  imago  comes  forth  the  next  summer  to  inaugurate  the  same 
round  of  ruin. 

REMEDIES. — To  dig  out  the  borers  so  soon  as  discovered  is  a 
sure  but  tedious  method,  and  the  vines  are  often  ruined  before 
the  presence  of  the  larva  is  discovered.  It  is  asserted  that 
•covering  the  stem  and  insect  with  earth  prevents  further  dam- 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS.  333 

age.  It  would  be  well  to  try  this.  It  has  been  recommended 
to  catch  the  moths;  also  to  carefully  gather  the  eggs.  But  I 
much  doubt  the  practicability  of  these  methods,  especially  the 
latter.  It  is  possible,  and  certainly  very  desirable,  that  we 
might  discover  some  preparation  with  which  to  surround  the 
vine,  that  would  be  so  obnoxious  to  the  moth  as  to  prevent 
egg-laying.  Limited  trials  of  gas-lime,  whale-oil  soap,  weak 
solution  of  carbolic  acid,  and  other  insecticides  might  be  made. 
It  would  be  very  well  to  try  the  remedy  given  by  Secretary 
Bateham,  of  Ohio,  to  prevent  the  work  of  the  peach  borer,  which 
is  given  in  the  description  of  that  pest. 

Tomato  "Worm. — Macrosila  quinquemaculata,  Haw.  All 
who  grow  that  beautiful  and  savory  vegetable,  the  tomato,  are 
acquainted  with  the  formidable  pest  which,  unless  prevented,  too 
often  brings  all  our  hopes  of  satisfied  tomato  appetites  to  naught. 
Who  has  not  seen  the  beautiful  larva,  so  fat  and  gay  in  its 
robes  of  deepest  green,  trimmed  with  yellow  or  white  and  beaded 
with  the  same,  and  who  has  not  heard  of  the  utterly  groundless 
stories  of  its  fatal  horn,  whose  poisonous  thrust  it  is  said  brings 
pain  and  death. 

NATURAL  HISTORY. — In  July,  the  beautiful  large  gray  moths 
(Fig.  12)  appear,  lay  their 
eggs  on  the  leaves  of  the 
tomato,  not  refusing  potato 
vines  in  the  absence  of 
tomato  plants,  which  they 
evidently  prefer,  at  which  FlG  13 

work  they  may  be  seen  early  in  the  evening.  I  have  fre- 
quently caught  these  so-called  humming-bird  moths  around  the 

tomato  plants,  or  poised 
above  flowers,  where,  with 
their  long  sucking-tube, 
they  seem  engaged  in  ex- 
tra c  ting  nectar.  The 
Fm  •"•  greenish  larvae  (Fig.  13), 

though  they  are  not  infrequently  dark  brown,  eat  voraciously, 
grow  rapidly,  and  by  the  last  of  August  they  have  not  only 


334  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

stripped  the  plants  of  their  foliage,  but  have  become  full  grown, 
when  they  measure  three  inches  in  length.  They  then  go 
into  the  earth,  where  they  pupate  in  an  earthen  cocoon.  The 
peculiar  form  of  the  pupa  is  a  marked  character  of  this  family 
(Fig  14).  These  brown  pupae  may  be  found  in  the  earth,  a  few 
inches  beneath  the  surface,  until  the  following  summer,  when 
the  fine  moth  again  comes  forth. 

REMEDIES. — Hand-picking  is  a  quick,  easy,  and  sure  preven- 
tive. The  only  objection  to  this,  so  far  as  I  know,  is  that  it  is 
disagreeable,  and  sometimes  prevented  by  timidity.  Yet  I  pre- 
sume that  a  good  pair  of  gloves  will  insure  the  temerity  neces- 
sary to  its  successful  practice.  As  before  intimated,  the  fear  is 
entirely  groundless,  for  there  are  no  more  harmless  creatures  in 
existence.  To  be  sure  they  can  give  quite  a  sharp  pinch  with 
their  strong  jaws,  which  they  will  attempt  to  do  if  held,  and 
which  I  have  often  experienced  while  handling  them,  but  this  is 
almost  painless  and  entirely  harmless.  They  never  use  their 
caudal  horn,  the  supposed  weapon  of  immemorial  dread.  So 
hand-picking,  with  or  without  gloves,  is  entirely  safe,  and  as 
effectual  as  safe.  Of  course,  the  disfigured  leaves  will  guide  us 
in  our  search. 

I  have  found  that  skunks  are  powerful  aids  in  this  fight,  as 
they  feed  extensively  on  the  pupae. 

Cabbage  Cut-Worms. — Agrotis  devastator,  Harr.  As  a 
full  account  of  the  natural  history  of  the  Agrotians  has  already 
been  given  in  connection  with  field  crops  (see  page  322),  we 
need  say  but  little  of  the  species  which  is  often  so  ruinous  to 
our  cabbage  and  tomato  plants. 

As  will  be  remembered,  the  larvae  generally  lie  concealed  by 
day  just  beneath  the  soil,  and  come  forth,  cloaked  in  darkness, 
to  do  their  evil  work.  This  is  not  strictly  true,  as  frequently, 
on  cloudy  days,  their  eager  appetites,  or  else  an  innate  longing 
for  destruction  (for  these  cut-worms  do  seem  the  most  totally 
depraved  of  all  insects),  impel  them  forth  to  work  havoc.  I 
have  known  sixty  tomato  plants  cut  off  between  the  hours  of  3 
And  6  P.  M. 

Sandy  gardens,  and  those  near  meadows,  pastures,  or  lawns, 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS.  335 

where  the  insects  have  commenced  and  nearly  completed  their 
growth  by  feeding  on  the  grass  or  its  roots,  are  by  far  the  most 
liable  to  attack. 

REMEDIES. — After  the  ground  is  well  fitted  for  the  plants, 
great  advantage  will  result  from  placing  newly  mown  grass,  fresh 
cornstalks,  etc.,  in  heaps  about  the  plat.  Coming  to  these  by 
night,  the  larvae  will  feed  and  crawl  beneath,  and  may  be  cap- 
tured and  destroyed  each  morning.  I  have  known  large  num- 
bers to  be  thus  entrapped.  Securing  those  immediately  within 
the  ground  to  be  planted,  however,  is  not  alone  sufficient.  These 
larvae  have  not  sixteen  legs  for  nothing,  and  especially  is  there 
danger  from  immigrants  if  grass  is  grown  contiguous  to  the 
ground  planted.  It  might  be  well  to  continue,  in  such  a  case, 
to  place  the  bunches  of  grass  around  the  border  of  the  planted 
area,  to  still  attract  these  night  marauders. 

Sized  paper,  such  as  we  usually  write  on,  wound  closely 
about  the  plants,  and  held  in  place  by  banking  slightly  about 
the  base  with  earth,  is  a  sure  preventive,  as  the  larvae  can  not 
pass  up  its  smooth  surface.  I  .have  known  this  to  be  practiced 
with  the  happiest  results.  Care  is  only  necessary  that  the  paper 
may  closely  encircle  the  plant,  and  that  the  banking  be  so 
efficient  as  to  surely  hold  it  in  place. 

Hand-work,  digging  out  the  larvae,  is  always  to  be  com- 
mended. No  more  injury  need  be  expected  from  these  trouble- 
some "  worms,"  if  they  are  once  in  the  grasp  of  an  irate  gardener, 
who  is  disgusted  at  seeing  his  plants  prostrate  upon  the  earth. 
And  it  must  give  rare  satisfaction  to  dig  the  culprits  out  from 
beneath  the  plants  which  their  rapacity  has  simply  cut  asunder 
and  left  to  wilt,  and  aggravate  the  owner  who  had  already 
reckoned  up  and  planned  to  expend  the  proceeds  from  the  same 
mutilated  plants. 

Here,  too,  especially  on  light  soils,  it  will  be  wise  to  set  a 
superfluous  number  of  plants. 

Cabbage  Leaf-Roller. —  Phitella  cruciferarum.  Family, 
Tortricidce.  Order,  Lepidoptcra.  While  treating  of  cabbage 
insects,  I  might  describe  the  cabbage  leaf-roller,  or  Cabbage 
tineid  (Plutella  cruciferaruni),  which  little  green  "worms,"  or  more 


336  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

properly  caterpillars,  mine  the  cabbage  leaves  quite  disastrously  r 
and  which  gray  moths,  with  a  white  stripe  along  the  back,  are 
quite  too  small  to  produce  alarm,  and  yet  are  the  parents  of  the 
same  green  larvae.  But  I  will  only  say  that  I  have  never  been 
troubled  with  them,  nor  have  I  seen  much  of  their  work.  If 
they  are  annoying,  it  would  be  well  to  try  plaster  with  a  little 
turpentine  mixed  in,  whale-oil  soap  solution,  or  lime ;  nor  should 
I  fear  to  experiment  with  a  little  powdered  white  hellebore. 
All  of  the  leaf-rollers,  several  of  which  are  quite  destructive 
to  the  apple  foliage,  are  quickly  destroyed  by  use  of  the  arse- 
nites;  but  it  is  unsafe  to  use  these  on  the  cabbages.  Pyrethrum, 
which,  as  we  shall  show,  is  a  most  satisfactory  specific  against 
the  cabbage  caterpillar,  would  doubtless  also  destroy  the  insect 
just  described. 

Striped  Flea-Beetle. — Hattica  striolata,  Fabr.  Family, 
Chrysomelidce.  Order,  Colcojitcra.  There  is  a  flen-bcetle,  too 
(Haliica  striolata,  Fabr.),  which  I  have  found  to  puncture  the 
leaves  of  cabbages,  and  is  thus  quite  destructive  to  young  plants. 
It  also  works  on  radishes,  turnips,  etc. 

NATURAL  HISTORY. — This  beetle  is  of  a  shining  black  color, 
with  two  waving  lines  of  buff  along  the  back,  one  on 
each  side,  is  very  small,  less  than  one-tenth  of  an  inch 
in  length,  but  is  so  active,  briskly  leaping  away  at  the 
least  disturbance,  that,  though  so  small,  it  can  hardly 
escape  notice.      (Fig.   15.)      These   beetles   often  fairly     Fio  15 
swarm  on  young  plants,  and  at  such  times  do  considerable  damage. 

REMEDIES. — In  England,  where  a  nearly  related  beetle  has 
long  given  annoyance  by  attacking  cruciferous  plants,  lime,  soot, 
and  even  ashes,  are  recommended  as  securing  the  plants  against 
the  ravages  of  these  pests.  I  have  tried  these  remedies,  but 
without  perfect  success.  Still  I  think  they  are  to  be  recom- 
mended. Quick  lime  will  do  even  more  to  protect  the  plants. 
Any  thing  which  promotes  vigor  of  growth  is,  of  course,  desir- 
able, for  vigorous  plants  are  far  less  liable  to  suffer  destruction. 

By  sweeping  a  fine  gauze  net  over  the  plants,  large  numbers 
of  the  insects  may  be  caught  and  destroyed. 

The  grape  flea-beetle  (Ilaltica  chalybea),  a  small,  steel-blue 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS 


337 


beetle  is  closely  related  to  the  above  in  style  and  habits,  though 
not  in  color.  Eats  the  buds  from  the  grapes  in  early  spring, 
and  the  grubs  destroy  the  foliage  later.  I  have  found  that  the 
arsenites  and  kerosene  used  as  already  described  are  both 
entirely  satisfactory  in  destroying  this  enemy  of  the  grape. 

Other  Cabbage  Moths. — I  might  speak  of  the  larvae  of 
various  moths  which  feed  on  the  leaves  of  the  cabbage ;  but  for 
lack  of  space  I  will  only  say  that  pyrethrum  will  destroy  all 
or  nearly  all.  Should  it  fail,  kerosene  or  hand  picking  should 
be  tried. 

Cabbage  Fly. — So,  too,  I  might  discuss  the  cabbage  mag- 
got (Anthomyia  Irassicce, 
Bouche) ;  but  this,  as  also 
the  onion  maggot  (Anthomyia 
ccparum,  see  Fig.  16),  both 
of  which  are  in  our  State, 
are  so  similar  to  the  radish 
fly  and  maggot  {Anthomyia 
raphani)  that  what  I  shall  _ 

•*  FIG.  16.— a.  larva,  natural  size.    ft.  Same  magnified. 

Say  as  to  the  natural  history  c-  lmugo-    *be  lines  beuealh  show  the  natural  8ize- 

and  habits  of  that  species  will  apply  to  both  of  the  others. 

Aside  from  the  carbolic  acid  remedy  recommended  in  fighting 
the  radish  maggot,  I  have  found  bisulphide  of  carbon  a  certain 
destroyer  of  the  cabbage  maggot,  which  has  done  serious  damage 
in  this  vicinity.  By  use  of  a  cane  I  made  a  hole  in  the  earth 
close  beside  the  cabbage  two  or  three  inches  deep,  in  which  I 
turned  a  half  teaspoonful  of  the  explosive,  and  quickly  filled 

the  hole  with  earth,  which  was 
firmly  pressed  down  by  stepping 
on  it.  The  vapor  spreads  and  kills 
the  maggots  at  once. 

Rape  Butterfly. — Pieris  rapce, 
S  c  h  r  a  n  k  .      Family,   Papilionidce. 
Fl°  17  Order,  Lepidoptera.     This  insect,  so 

recently  imported,  is  now  widely  extended  in  our  country,  and  a 
most  serious  pest. 

DESCRIPTION. — This    butterfly  is  white,  spotted   with   black, 

22 


338  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

resembling  very  much  our  old  speckled  white  cabbage  butterfly 
(Pieris  protodice,  Boisd.),  though,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  figures 
(Fig.  17,  male,  Fig.  18,  female),  the  spots  are  better  defined, 
while  usually  there  is  less  black. 

This  larva  (Fig.  19,  a)  is  pale  green,  finely  dotted  with 
black,  and  when  mature,  one  and  one-half  inches  in  length, 
while  the  larva  of  our  old  spotted 
butterfly  is  blue,  striped  with  yellow. 
The  chrysalis  (Fig.  19,  #),  which 
fastens  under  a  board  or  clod,  at- 
taches at  one  end,  and  fastens  a 
silken  band  around  near  the  other  ex- 
tremity. It  is  brown,  while  the  old  FIG.  is. 
one  is  gray.  I  am  thus  particular  in  this  description,  as  it  is 
imperative,  that  we  may  know  the  enemy  at  the  first  onset,  so 
as  to  give  quick  battle. 

NATURAL  HISTORY. — These  butterflies,  like  both  species  of  our 
common  white  ones,  are  two-brooded.  The  first  butterflies  ap- 
pear early  in  spring,  in  April  or  May.  After  pair- 
ing, the  eggs  are  deposited  on  the  under  side  of 
the  cabbage  leaves.  These  hatch,  and  the  larvae 
feed  on  the  leaves,  assume  the  chrysalis  state, 
and  the  imagoes  come  forth  again  in  June  or  July. 
The  second  brood  behave  similarly,  except  that 
they  remain  as  pupa  or  chrysalids  through  the 
winter. 

REMEDIES. — As  pyrethrum  is  so  fatal  to  these- 
pests  and  so  entirely  non-poisonous  to  higher 
animals,  it  alone  is  all  the  remedy  needed.  Mixed  one  to 
twenty  with  flour,  or  one  tablespoonful  to  two  gallons  of 
water — the  first  to  be  blown  on  by  use  of  a  hand  bellows, 
the  latter  forced  on  by  use  of  a  fountain  pump — I  have 
found  it  quick  death  to  these  pests  of  the  cabbage  grower. 
This  pyrethrum,  which  is  the  powdered  flowers  of  a  com- 
dosite  plant,  Pyrethrum  cineraricefolium,  is  now  extensively 
grown  in  California,  and  sold  at  reasonable  prices.  We  find 
it  admirable  to  kill  house  flies.  We  darken  the  rest  of  the 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS.  339 

house,  and  make  the  kitchen  light.  After  getting  the  kitchen  as 
full  of  flies  as  possible,  we  blow  a  little  of  the  pyrethrum  into 
the  room,  and  in  an  hour  have  the  pleasure  of  sweeping  up  the 
flies  and  burning  them  in  the  stove.  They  all  fall  in  a  stupor  to 
the  floor.  Unless  burned  a  few  may  recover.  To  breathe  or 
even  to  eat  it  is  entirely  harmless  to  man  and  the  higher  animals. 
I  have  also  used,  the  past  season,  kerosene  to  kill  these  insects. 
It  can  be  mixed  with  sour  milk  or  with  soft  soap,  as  before 
described. 

The  evil  from  the  cabbage  butterfly  is  likely  to  be  greatly 
mitigated  among  us  by  a  parasite,  which  also  pupates  in  the  pupa 
skin  of  the  butterfly.  No  pupa  containing  these  should  be  de- 
stroyed. Such  chrysalids  may  be  known  by  their  darker  color. 

The  Radish  Fly. — Anthomyia  raphani,  Haw.  Family, 
Muscidce.  Order,  Diptera. 

NATURAL  HISTORY. — The  small,  ash-colored  flies,  very  like  the 
onion  fly  (Fig.  16),  doubtless  hibernate,  though  some  may  pass 
the  winter  as  pupae.  However  this  may  be,  the  flies  are  around 
early  in  the  spring,  for  our  earliest  radishes  are  the  ones  most 
liable  to  suffer  from  attacks.  The  eggs  are  laid  on  the  stem 
close  to  the  ground.  These  soon  hatch,  and  the  whitish,  footless, 
conical  larvae,  very  like  the  onion  maggot  (Fig.  16),  feed  on  the 
roots,  forming  grooves  all  over  its  surface,  which  induces  decay, 
and  renders  the  roots  unfit  for  use.  In  June  they  tranform  to 
pupae  and  to  images,  and  are  ready  to  make  a  new  deposit  of 
eggs.  Hence  we  see  why  our  early  radishes  are  so  very  liable 
to  attack,  while  later  ones  are  often  free  from  injury,  though 
some  years  none  seem  to  escape.  Whether  there  are  more  than 
two  broods  a  year,  and  whether  they  attack  other  plants  than 
radishes,  are,  so  far  as  I  know,  still  open  questions. 

REMEDIES. — The  late  Dr.  Walsh  recommended  hot  water  as 
fatal  to  these  maggots  and  harmless  to  the  plants.  I  have  tried 
this  with  some,  though  not  satisfactory  success.  I  have  suc- 
ceeded better  by  use  of  a  carbolic  acid  mixture — the  same  that 
I  would  recommend  to  repel  the  peach  borer  moth  and  the 
squash  borer  moth.  I  mix  one  quart  of  soft  soap  and  one  gallon 
of  water.  Heat  till  the  mixture  boils,  and  then  add  one  pint  of 


340 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


Fro.  20.—  c.  Male  and  female  antennae  of  b.  d.  Same  of  a. 


crude  carbolic  acid.  This  may  be  diluted  with  from  twenty  to 
fifty  parts  of  water,  and  either  sprinkled  on  to  the  young  rad- 
ishes or  turned  into  a  trench  made  close  beside  the  row.  This 
preparation  is  also  good  to  use  about  stables  to  keep  the  flies 
away,  and  in  poultry  houses  to  destroy  lice  and  mites.  For  these 
last  I  have  replaced  the  carbolic  acid  with  kerosene.  It  is  easier, 
however,  to  mix  kerosene  with  sour  milk. 

Blister   Beetles.  —  Lytta  cinerea,  Fabr.,  and  Lytta  atrata, 

Fabr.     Family,     Meloidce. 

Order,  Coleoptera.     These 

soft  -shell,     long  -necked, 
--  trim  beetles  —  the  one  ash- 

colored  (Fig.  20,  a),  the 
^J_  other  coal-black  (Fig.  20, 

b]  —  are    frequently   very 

iT-iniio    fr»  voriOUS  Vege- 

tables and  flowers.  They  sometimes  attack  beans  and  asters, 
and  make  quick  work  of  whatever  falls  a  prey  to  their  vora- 
cious habits. 

NATURAL  HISTORY.  —  The  larval  condition  of  these  beetles  has 
been  unknown  or  involved  in  doubt.  It  is  now  known  that 
allied  species  have  a  very  strange  and  intricate  metamorphosis, 
and  are  parasite  on  bees. 

The  beetles  appear  in  early  summer  and  in  autumn,  and  are 
very  voracious  feeders. 

REMEDIES.  —  These  beetles  have  the  habit  of  falling  off  of  the 
plants  whenever  the  latter  are  suddenly  jarred.  So  in  case  the 
plants  are  tall  enough  to  receive  a  sheet  beneath,  or  can  be  bent 
over  an  umbrella,  the  beetles  may  be  readily  gathered,  and  then 
destroyed  by  scalding  or  crushing. 

A  striped  blister  beetle  (Lytta  vittata)  is  often  called  the  old 
potato  beetle,  from  its  attacks  on  the  potato.  All  of  these 
beetles  can  be  killed  by  use  of  Paris  green  or  London  purple. 

The  Striped  Cucumber  Beetle.  —  Diabrotica 
vittata,  Fabr.  Family,  Chrysomeh'dce.  Order,  Coleoptera. 
This  beautiful  little  beetle,  yellow  with  black  stripes 
(Fig.  21),  which  seems  suddenly  to  fairly  swarm 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS. 


341 


1 


Fio.  22. 


on  the  cucumber  and  melon  vines,  is  often  the  cause  of  great 
vexation  to  the  gardener. 

NATURAL  HISTORY. — The  larvae  (1,  Fig.  22)  feed  on  the  roots 
and  underground  stems,  inuture  in  about 
a  month,  pupate  in  the  ground,  in  which 
state    they   continue    about    two    weeks, 
when  the  imagos  appear.     There  are  two 
broods   a   year,   and    may   be   three.      It  -r 
passes  the  winter  in  the  pupa  state.    The  \ 
first  imagos  of  the  season  attack  the  young  1 
vines,  and  in  a   single   day  may  destroy 
them  utterly.      The  later  insects  do  not 
do  so  much  damage,  as   the  vines,  from 
increased   growth,  are  able  to   stand  the 
attack. 

REMEDIES. — Boxes  covered  with  glass  or  millinet  and  placed 
over  the  vines  are  sure  protection,  providing  the  beetles  do  not 
get  inside.  If  glass  is  used,  care  must  be  taken  to  shade  from 
the  hot  sunshine,  or  the  plants  may  be  ruined.  These  will  form 
miniature  hot-beds,  and  will  hasten  growth  if  rightly  managed. 

Paris  green  is  a  certain  preventive,  and  in  careful  hands  is 
harmless  to  the  vines.  I  have  used  this  remedy  with  the  very 
best  success.  I  would  put  one  part  green  to  eight  parts  flour, 
apply  when  the  vines  are  dry,  and  add  just  as  little  as  I  could 
and  see  it  on  the  vines.  Add  a  little  too  much,  and  the  vines 
are  sure  to  be  killed.  The  past  summer  I  found  that  the  kero- 
sene and  milk,  one  to  ten,  worked  well  in  combating  these 
insects. 

The  Codling  Moth. — Carpocapsa pomonella,  Linn.  Family, 
Tortricidce.  Order,  Lepidoptera. — All  will  concede  that  this 
insect  holds  first  rank  among  our  insect  pests. 

NATURAL  HISTORY. — The  little  gray  moths  (Fig.  23,/andy), 
come  forth  in  May  and  June,  are  wholly  nocturnal,  and  therefore 
seldom  seen.  As  soon  as  the  fruit  forms,  a  single  egg  is  laid 
on  the  blossom  end  of  the  fruit  (Fig.  23,  #),  and  as  soon  as  the 
egg  hatches,  the  larva  (Fig.  23,  c]  enters  the  apple.  All  know 
the  subsequent  history  of  the  larva  in  the  fruit,  for  who  has 


342 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


not  seen  the  tiny  white  caterpillar,  with  its  black  head,  min- 
ing away  at  the  rich  pulp,  which  it  replaces  with  filth  ?  In  three 

weeks  the  larva  matures,  leaves 
the  apple,  and  in  some  concealed 
place  spins  a  silken  cocoon  (Fig. 
23,  /)  and  assumes  the  chry- 
salis state  (Fig.  23,  d) .  In  from 
nine  to  fifteen  days,  varying 
with  the  temperature,  the  moth 
issues.  The  apples  are  again 
stocked  with  eggs  as  before,  after 
which  comes  a  recurrence  of 
all  the  disgusting  work  narrated 
above,  except  that  the  larva;, 

FIG.  23  -a,  Work  in   Apple,    b.  Place  of  En'    UDOU    leaving   the    apple,     simply 
trance,  d,  Pupa,   e,  L;irva.  /  and  g,  Images- 

h,  Head  or  Larva,  t,  cocoon.  Sp^n  cocoons,  in  which  they  re- 

main till  spring,  when  they  pupate,  and  in  about  two  weeks  the 
first  moths  appear. 

The  time  when  the  first  moths  come  forth  varies  from  May 
1st  till  July  1st;  so  that  moths  will  be  issuing  from  May  1st  till 
August  1st,  and  the  "worms"  will  be  leaving  the  apples  from 
the  last  of  June  till  the  fruit  is  gathered.  My  own  experience 
seems  to  show  that  no  pupae  are  formed  after  the  last  week  of 
August,  as,  so  far  as  I  have  examined,  all  larvae  that  leave  the 
apple  after  that  time  simply  spin  a  cocoon,  in  which  they  remain 
as  larvae  till  the  next  spring.  Some  of  the  observing  fruit  mem 
of  our  State  think  that  during  the  past  season  many  of  these 
insects  pupated  after  that  time.  Such  cases  come  not  within 
my  observation. 

Of  those  larvae  which  leave  the  apple  while  it  still  hangs  in 
the  tree,  about  one-half  crawl  down,  till  beneath  some  bark  or 
in  some  crevice  they  find  seclusion  in  which  to  spin  unobserved. 
Those  which  fall  to  the  ground  with  the  fruit  crawl  out,  and  if 
the  ground  is  free  from  all  rubbish,  stumps,  etc.,  they  crawl  up 
the  tree  and  hide  as  before. 

REMEDIES. — The  old  method  of  placing  bands  around  the 
tree  was  not  satisfactory,  so  many  would  not  practice  it,  and  so 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS. 


343 


many  who  did  put  the  bauds  in  place,  neglected  to  examine 
them  and  kill  the  worms,  that  this  plan  justly  lost  favor.  A 
better  method  is  to  turn  hogs  and  sheep  into  the  orchard.  They 
will  eat  the  major  half  of  the  affected  fruit.  By 
discreet  thinning,  using  a  forked  stick,  we  can 
give  the  hogs  nearly  all  the  wormy  fruit,  and 
the  increased  size  of  the  remaining  fruit  will 
pay  for  the  thinning.  The  best  way  is  to  sprinkle 
all  bearing  trees  with  the  arsenites  two  weeks 
after  the  trees  bloom,  and 
then  two  and  four  weeks 
later.  Enough  poison  lodges 
on  the  apples  to  kill  the 
worms;  but  it  is  all  washed 
off  long  before  the  fruit  is 
fit  to  use.  Three  years' trial 
proves  this  remedy  most  ex- 
cellent. I  use  one  pound  of 
London  purple  to  one  hun- 
dred gallons  of  water ;  draw 
it  through  the  orchard  in  an  open  barrel  with  a  float  to  pre- 
vent slopping,  and  distribute  by  means  of  Whitman's  Fountain 
Pump.  The  practice  of  this  method  makes  it  less  necessary  to 
place  close  wire  screens  over  the  cellar  windows  in  May,  June, 
and  July.  Fires,  or  bottles  of  sweetened  water,  or  vessels  of 
sour  milk,  so  often  recommended  to  destroy  these  insects,  will 
do  no  good  whatever. 

Old  Apple-tree  Borer. — Saperda  Candida,  Fab.  Family 
Cerambycidce.  Order,  Colcoptera. — This  pest,  which  has  been 
so  long  in  our  country,  is  widely  distributed  in  our  State. 
Very  few,  if  any,  orchards  are  exempt  from  its  attacks. 
Not  that  it  always,  or  generally,  totally  destroys  the  trees; 
still,  those  suffering  from  its  attacks  are  always  lessened  in 
vitality,  and  it  not  unfrequently  happens  that  the  trunks 
become  so  riddled  with  their  tunnels  that  the  tree  becomes  a 
prey  to  the  hard  winds,  which  are  sure  to  come  with  each  re- 
turning year. 


FIG.  24.— Whitman's  Fountain  Pump. 


344 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


NATURAL  HISTORY. — The  beautiful  brown  beetle  (Fig.  25,  c), 
with  its  two  stripes  of  white,  appears  early  in  June,  and  thence  on 
through  July.  So  the  egg-laying  is  principally  done  in  these  two 

months.  The 
grub  (Fig.  25, 
a)  whitish,  with 
a  round  black 
head,  eats 
through  the 
bark,  and  then 
usually  passes 
in  and  up,  fre- 
quently eating  through  the  branches  far  out  toward  the  extremity. 
I  have  frequently  found  apple-tree  limbs  no  larger  than  my 
thumbs,  with  a  tunnel  as  large  as  a  pipe-stem.  These  larvae 
push  their  saw-dust  like  particles  back  of  them  and  out  of  the 
hole  where  they  first  entered,  so  that  it  is  not  difficult  to  find 
them.  They  live  and  feed  on  the  wood  of  the  tree  for  three 
years;  hence,  we  see  how  that  a  single  larva  may  bore,  if  left 
undisturbed,  for  a  distance  of  several  feet.  They  finally  bore  a 
hole  for  exit,  fill  it  slightly  with  their  sawdust,  and  a  little  back 
of  the  same  make  a  cocoon  of  their  own  chips,  in  which  they 
pupate  (Fig.  25,  b).  Soon  after,  in  June  and  July,  the  beetles 
again  appear. 

REMEDIES. — Soapy  mixtures  are  found  to  be  obnoxious  to 
these  beetles,  so  that  in  their  egg-laying  they  are  found  to  avoid 
trees  to  which  such  an  application  has  been  made.  Thus  we 
may  hope  to  escape  all  danger  by  washing  the  smooth  trunks 
of  our  trees  early  in  June,  and  again  early  in  July,  with  soft 
soap  or  a  very  strong  solution  of  the  same.  T.  T.  Lyon,  now  of 
South  Haven,  whose  judgment  is  very  reliable  in  such  matters, 
urges  that  we  always  use  the  soap  itself.  I  have  found  the  car- 
bolic acid  mixture,  recommended  for  the  radish  maggot,  undi- 
luted even  better  than  clear  soft  soap.  Its  obnoxious  principle  is 
more  lasting.  We  should  always  examine  the  trees  carefully  in 
September,  and  wherever  we  find  this  pernicious  grub's  saw-dust 
shingle  out,  we  should  give  him  a  call.  Perhaps  we  may  reach 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS.  345 

him  with  a  wire  thrust  into  the  hole,  and  by  a  vigorous  ram- 
ming crush  the  culprit.  If  we  have  doubt  as  to  the  crushing, 
we  should  follow  him  with  a  knife ;  but  in  cutting  out  the  borers 
too  great  care  can  not  be  taken  to  wound  the  tree  just  as  little 
as  possible.  This  heroic  method  is  sure,  and  requires  very  little 
time,  and  no  person  who  takes  pride  in  his  orchard,  or  looks  to 
it  as  a  source  of  profit,  can  afford  to  neglect  this  September 
examination,  nor  the  previous  application  of  soap,  to  which  it 
is  supplementary. 

The  Flat-Headed  Borer. —  Chrysobothi-is  femorata,  Fab. 
Family,  Buprestidce.  Order,  Coleoptera.  At  present  this  borer 
is  quite  as  ruinous  as  the  preceding  one,  and  I  should  not  think 
it  strange  if  in  a  well  balanced  account  it  was  found  even 
to  surpass  the  other  in  the  evil  which  it  works  to  our  fruit  in- 
terests. I  have  seen  young  orchards  nearly  ruined  the  first 
summer  after  setting,  by  this  devastator.  Not  long  since  a 
nurseryman  came  from  a  distant  part  of  the  State  to  consult  me 
as  to  the  ravages  of  this  pest.  He  said  that  during  the  past 
summer,  in  some  regions  of  the  State,  more  than  half  the  trees 
he  sold  were  killed  by  this  scourge,  and  of  course  he  was  un- 
justly blamed.  At  present,  no  nurseryman  should  sell  trees 
without  throwing  in  advice  in  regard  to  protecting  against  this 
devastator;  for,  as  we  shall  see,  such  trees  are  peculiarly  liable 
to  attack. 

These  borers  are  not  confined  to  the  apple-trees,  as  I  have 
found  them  working  in  oak,  maple,  and  other  trees  of  our 
forests. 

NATURAL  HISTORY. — This  brownish  beetle   (Fig.  26),  with  a 
coppery  luster,  is   found  from  May  till  August,  though  I  have 
found  them  more  common  in  June  and  July.    As  with  the  striped 
Saperda,  the  eggs  are  laid  on  the  bark.     The  whitish 
grubs  (Fig.  27),  with  their  enormous  front,  brown  head, 
and  curled  tail,  usually  bore  only  superficially,  eating 
the  inner  bark  and   sapwood;    yet  I  have   seen,  and 
have  now  on  exhibition  here  at  the  college,  sections 
of  young   trees    over   an   inch    in   diameter,  bored   completely 
through  by  these  big-headed   rascals.     They  eat  but  a  single 


e  striped 

m 


346  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

season,  pupate  as  in  the  preceding  case,  arid  come  forth  as 
imagoes  early  in  the  spring. 

They  usually  work  on  the  trunk,  though  sometimes  in  the 
branches,  almost  always  on  the  south,  the  west,  or  the  south- 
west sides  of  the  tree ;  and  their  whereabouts  may 
always  be  ascertained,  not  only  by  the  saw-dust,  but 
also,  and  more  certainly,  by  the  black  color  of  the 
bark.  When  the  black  color  offers  the  suggestion  of 

FiG.27.  the  presence  of  this  borer,  we  can  quickly  become 
assured  by  striking  a  knife  into  the  same.  If  the  blade  pierces 
the  bark  and  goes  on  still  a  little  further,  we  may  be  sure  of  the 
enemy's  presence. 

This  borer  is  far  more  liable  to  attack  feeble  trees.  Any 
thing,  therefore,  which  serves  to  diminish  the  vitality  of  the 
trees  promotes  the  ravages  of  this  borer.  Hence,  after  such  a 
winter  as  we  have  just  experienced,  or  after  having  the  growth 
of  our  trees  interrupted  by  the  removal  from  the  nursery  to  our 
orchards,  we  are  in  special  danger  of  harm  from  these  destructive 
borers.  Hence,  the  coming  season,  when  loss  will  be  inevitable, 
we  should  more  than  ever  be  on  the  alert  to  mitigate  the  dam- 
age by  our  vigilance  and  care,  and  by  the  timely  application  of 

REMEDIES. — The  remedies  for  the  flat-headed  borer  are  the 
same  as  those  given  for  the  old  borer — though  these  grubs  may 
be  found  in  July  and  August,  and  to  delay  the  cutting  out  till 
September  would  often  be  fatal,  especially  to  trees  in  newly  set 
orchards.  I  have  known  cases  where  labor  of  this  kind  in  July 
would  have  paid  more  than  $100  a  day,  besides  saving  a  great 
amount  of  vexation. 

Apple-Tree  Bark  Louse. — Mytilaspis  conchiformis,  Gme- 
lin.  Family,  Coccidce.  Order,  Ilcmiptera.  This  old  enemy, 
though  less  destructive  than  formerly  (probably  because  of  par- 
asites and  mites  which  prey  upon  it,  so  that,  like  the  Hessian  fly, 
wheat  midge,  and  many  other  insects,  it  has  probably  done  its 
worst  work),  yet,  to  leave  it  to  itself  at  the  present  time  would 
be  to  yield  the  strife  prematurely. 

NATURAL  HISTORY. — The  bark-colored,  oblong  scales  (Fig.  28), 
so  harmless  in  appearance,  serve  from  August  to  May  only  for 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS. 


347 


protection  to  the  60  or  70  wee  white  eggs  (1,  Fig.  29)  which 
are  found  underneath.  About  the  first  of  June  the  young  lice 
(2,  Fig.  29)  appear, — so  small  that,  though  clad  in  yellow,  they 

can  hardly  be  seen  without  a 
glass.   Coming  forth  from  under 
the  scale,  they  roam  about  for  a 
F:O.  js.  few  days,— are  sometimes  blown 

to  other  trees,  thus  spreading  their  evil  work, — but  very  soon 
settle  down  to  earnest  business.  This  consists  in  inserting  their 
tiny  beak  and  sucking  the  vitality  from  the  trees.  Very  soon  a 
scale  (3,  4,  5,  and  6,  Fig.  29,  different  stages  of  development  of 
scale)  commences  to  form  around  them,  from  an  exudation  which 
is  a  secretion  from  the  general  surface.  By  August  the  imper- 
vious scale  is  complete  (7,  Fig.  29).  The  eggs  are  then  soon 
deposited,  and  the  parent  louse  dries  up  and  shrinks  away  to 
nothingness. 

REMEDIES. — 
As  the  scale  is 
impervious  to 
most  fluids, 
though  oils  will 
penetrate  it  and 
destroy  the 
eggs,  the  best 

time  to  fight  these  insects  is  just  after  the  eggs  hatch.  Hence, 
the  same  remedy  recommended  for  the  borers  just  described  will 
prove  effective  here.  The  time  of  application  is  the  same.  Here 
then,  three  "birds  are  killed  with  one  stone." 

Twig  Borers. — There  are  two  species  of  beetles  which 
bore  into  the  twigs  of  the  apple  tree  and  cause  them  to  wither, 
one  as  a  larva,  the  other  when  mature.  Space  will  only  permit 
me  to  state  that  to  fight  these  we  have  but  to  cut  off  and  burn 
the  blighted  twigs. 

Canker  "Worm. — Anisopteryx  vcmafa,  Peck.  Family  Pha- 
Icenidce.  Order,  Lcpidoptera.  This  insect  is  widely  prevalent 
in  the  United  States,  and  once  in  an  orchard,  must  be  destroyed 
or  the  orchard  will  be. 


348 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


FIG.  31. 


NATURAL  HISTORY. — The  wingless  female  moth  (Fig.  30,  b),  and 
the  trim  male  (Fig.  30,  a),  with  his  ample  wings,  both  gray  or  ash 

color,  the  female  being  a  little 
the  darker,  come  forth  from  the 

ground  early  in  the  sPrins:— l 

have  °ften  Seen  the  males  dul" 
ing  warm  winter  days.  The  fe- 
male crawls  up  the  trunks  of  the  apple  trees,  and  after  meeting 
the  male,  lays  her  cluster  of  eggs  (Fig.  31,  #),  often  to  the  num- 
ber of  one  hundred.  If  the  female  fails  for  any  reason  to  gain 
access  to  the  tree,  she  fastens  these  egg 
clusters  to  any  convenient  object.  I  have 
often  seen  them  in  Cambridge,  Massachu- 
setts, fastened  to  the  pickets  or  boards  of 
fences.  After  egg-laying  these  insects  soon 
die.  Just  as  the  leaves  begin  to  burst 
forth,  the  larvae  (Fig.  31,  a)  begin  to  come  forth.  The  larvae 
(Fig.  31,  a)  vary  very  much  in  color.  At  first  they  are  very 
dark,  with  faint,  yellowish  stripes.  When  full-grown  they  are 
striped  with  ash  color,  black,  and  yellow,  and  are  about  one  inch 
in  length.  These  larvae  belong  to  the  loopers,  or  measuring 
worms,  both  names  referring  to  their  peculiar  method  of  locomo- 
tion. They  do  not  have  the  usual  number  of  legs  for  caterpillars 
(16),  but  must  be  content  with  only  ten.  Hence  their  looping 
gait.  They  are  also  called  drop  worms,  because  of  the  habit  of 
swinging  from  the  tree  by  a  thread  when  disturbed,  or  when 
they  desire  to  go  to  the  ground  to  pupate.  As  they  are  often 
seen  thus  suspended,  it  has  been  supposed  that  they  frequently 
swing  just  for  the  pleasure  of  the  thing.  It  may  be  that  some 
disturbing  wind  or  bird  induced  this  strange  maneuver. 

About  the  middle  of  June  the  larvae  are  full  fed,  the  tree 
fully  denuded  of  its  foliage,  and  that,  too,  at  the  worst  possible 
time,  the  growing  season,  when  the  "  worms  "  make  for  the  ground, 
some  creeping  down  the  trunk,  others  dropping  down  by  a  silken 
thread  spun  for  the  purpose.  Upon  reaching  the  ground  they 
burrow  to  the  depth  of  four  or  five  inches,  and  in  an  earthen 
cocoon  change  to  pupae.  The  chrysalis  is  of  a  light  brown  color. 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS. 


349 


This  destructive  insect  is  not  content  to  injure  the  apple  tree 
alone,  but  is  equally  ready  to  attack  the  elm,  and  not  infrequently 
attacks  cherry,  plum,  and  other  fruit  and  forest  trees. 

REMEDIES. — The  many  old-time  remedies  must  all  sink  before 
the  use  of  the  arsenites,  just  as  advised  for  the  codling  moth. 
In  fact,  fighting  these  insects  gave  us  the  knowledge  of  our  best 
remedy  for  the  apple-worm.  As  soon  as  the  blighted  leaves 
show  that  the  enemy  has  come,  the  poison  should  be  applied. 
It  is  easy,  safe,  sure,  and  what  more  can  we  desire?  Here  too, 
if  the  trees  are  in  bearing,  "  we  kill  two  birds  with  one  stone," 
the  codling  moth  and  the  canker  worm. 

Tent  Caterpillar. — Clisiocampa  Americana,  Harr.  Family, 
Bombycidce.  Order,  Lepidoptera.  These  familiar  insects,  so  sure 
to  fix  their  silken  tents  within  our  trees,  come  just  at  the  right 
time  to  do  the  greatest  harm,  and  should  never  be  left  to  their 
miserable  work  of  despoilation. 

NATURAL  HISTORY. — These  pretty  moths  (Fig.  32),  brown  in 

color,  the  female  a  little 
lighter  and  larger  than  the 
male,  with  two  light  bands 
running  obliquely  across  the 
fore  wings,  appear  in  June 
and  July.  For  the  past  four 


years  I  have  taken  the  first 
of  these  during  the  first  week 
of  July,  and  those  reared  in 
confinement  came  forth  at 
the  same  time.  These  moths, 
unlike  the  codling  moth,  are 
attracted  by  lights,  and  very 
frequently  fly  into  our  rooms 
during  our  warm  July  evenings.  After  pniring,  the  female  moths 


Fio.  32. 


350  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

lay  their  eggs  (c,  Fig.  32)  in  a  compact  cluster  about  the  small 
twigs,  covering  them  with  a  glistening  glue,  so  that  they  are 
impervious  to  water.  These  eggs — three  hundred  or  four  hun- 
dred in  a  cluster — hatch  just  as  the  leaves  of  the  apple  and 
cherry  are  putting  forth,  on  both  of  which  trees  they  are  wont 
to  engage  in  their  ruinous  work,  seeming  rather  to  prefer  the 
wild  cherry.  They  immediately  weave  their  tents,  and  become 
conspicuous  objects  in  the  orchard.  They  remain  huddled  in 
these  tents,  except  when  going  forth  to  feed.  They  are  quite 
regular  in  taking  their  meals,  and  usually  all  go  forth  at  once. 
These  larvae  or  caterpillars  («,  Fig.  32),  variously  striped  with 
white,  yellow,  black  and  blue,  are  very  handsome,  feed  vora- 
ciously, so  that  by  the  middle  of  June  they  are  not  only  ma- 
tured in  size — being  now  two  inches  HI  length — but  have 
managed  to  strip  the  trees  pretty  thoroughly  of  their  leaves. 
They  then  disperse,  seeking  in  all  directions  for  some  crevice  in 
which  they  may  form  their  closely  woven  cocoons  undisturbed 
and  unseen.  They  pupate  almost  immediately.  In  about  two 
weeks  they  come  forth  as  moths.  And  thus,  the  cycle  of 
growth  and  change  completed,  the  moth  sallies  forth  to  again 
prepare  for  future  evil. 

REMEDIES. — Among  the  many  suggestions  to  destroy  these 
pests,  but  one  is  worthy  of  adoption.  As  soon  as  the  webs 
appear,  go  when  the  worms  are  in  the  tents,  and  by  use  of  the 
hand,  crush  all  the  worms.  This  is  easy,  quick,  and  sure,  and 
should  never  be  neglected,  as  to  strip  the  trees  of  leaves  early 
in  the  season  is  very  harmful. 

The  Fall  Web  Worm. — This  insect  comes  in  August; 
eats  other  leaves  than  those  of  the  apple;  feeds  only  while 
in  the  tent,  and  only  eats  the  cuticle  of  the  leaf.  While 
these,  coming  so  late,  do  little  harm,  compared  with  the  tent 
caterpillar,  they  should  be  destroyed  in  the  same  way  that  we 
destroy  that  insect,  for  even  neatness  demands  the  death  war- 
rant, and  they  do  harm  the  trees. 

Plant  Lice. — Aphides.  Family,  Aphidce.  Order,  Hcmiptcra. 
As  plant  lice,  some  species  of  which  attack  nearly  every  kind 
of  plant,  are  so  preyed  upon  by  natural  enemies  that  they 


INJ  URIO  US  INSECTS.  351 

are  of  little  importance  as  enemies  to  out-door  plants,  I  shall  not 
discuss  them  in  detail,  only  remarking  that  tobacco  water,  whale 
oil  soap  solution,  or  a  weak  solution  of  petroleum,  will  destroy 
them. 

The  kerosene  and  sour  milk  mixture  is  an  excellent  specific 
against  plant  lice.  I  have  used  one  of  kerosene  to  three  of 
milk,  without  injuring  the  foliage,  and  yet  all  lice  were  killed. 
One  to  five  I  think  perfectly  safe  on  nearly  all  kinds  of  out- 
door plants.  The  mixture  should  be  well  stirred  before  use. 

Plum  Curculio. — Conotrachelus  nenuphar,  Ilerbst.  Fam- 
ily, Curculionidce.  Order,  Coleoptera.  This  little  beetle,  though 
so  small,  certainly  ranks  very  high  as  an  orchard  pest.  It  is 
he  that  has  almost  banished  plum  culture  in  our  State.  It  is 
he  that  ruins  our  cherries,  often  by  wholesale.  It  is  he  that  has 
a  tooth  for  the  luscious  peach;  and  unless  prevented,  materially 
lessens  the  profits.  And  even  our  king  of  fruits,  the  apple, 
is  frequently  made  to  contribute  to  the  support  of  the  little 
Turk.  His  presence  in  wind-fall  apples  has  misled  some  good 
observers  into  thinking  that  the  codling  moth  larvae  had  worked 
slightly  on  the  apple  and  then  left  it.  If  this  report  could  in- 
duce the  restoration  of  plum  culture  in  our  country,  by  show- 
ing how  easily  we  can  secure  our  crops,  it  would  pay  its  cost 
a  million  times  over. 

HABITS. — The  curculio  (Fig.  33  c)  hibernates  during  the  win- 
ter in  the  mature  state.  In  early  spring,  and  even  later,  he 
lies  concealed  by  day  under  boards,  clods,  etc.  This  weevil  is 
nocturnal,  being  active  at  night.  So  soon  as  our  plums,  peaches, 
and  cherries  set,  the  curculio,  a  little  brown  beetle,  commences 
operations,  imprinting  the  familiar  crescent  (Fig.  33,  d)  and 
placing  an  egg  inside.  This  egg-laying  continues  even  to  July. 
As  the  weather  becomes  warmer  the  insect  forsakes  its  habit  of 
going  down  to  the  ground  by  day  to  hide,  but  remains  in  the 
tree.  These  beetles  are  not  solely  engaged  in  pairing  and  egg- 
laying,  for  they  are  good  feeders,  and  gouge  out  many  a  hole  in 
our  fruits  to  satisfy  their  appetites.  The  eggs  soon  hatch,  when 
the  young  larvte  bore  into  the  fruit  and  continue  to  eat.  As 
these  are  sometimes,  though  quite  rarely,  found  in  apples,  1 


352 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


would  state  that  they  can  be  easily  told  from  the  codling  moth 
larvae,  as  they  are  without  legs,  thus  resembling  maggots. 
They  grow  rapidly  to  maturity  (Fig.  33,  #),  thus  causing 
plums,  apples,  and  peaches  to  fall  prematurely,  though  cher- 
ries usually  remain  on  the  tree.  The 
earliest  larvae  are  ready  to  go  into  the 
ground  and  pupate  (Fig.  33,  #)  by 
the  last  of  June.  As  egg-laying  goes 
on  even  till  July,  it  will  readily  be 
seen  that  larvae  will  be  found  in  the 
fruit  all  through  the  summer,  and  I 
have  found  them  in  peaches  even  in 
September.  All  of  these  pupae  change 
into  mature  insects  during  summer  and  autumn,  so  the  in- 
sects all  pass  the  winter  as  mature  beetles,  concealed  either 
under  boards,  or  in  crevices,  or  even  in  the  ground.  In  May 
they  commence  coming  forth,  and  continue  to  put  in  an  appear- 
ance even  to  mid-summer.  We  see,  then,  that  the  old  disputed 
question  is  settled — that  these  insects  are  single  brooded,  and 
that  the  old  notion  that  they  were  double  brooded,  arose  from 
the  fact  that  some  are  so  early,  while  others  are  very  tardy 
in  coming  from  their  winter  retreat;  though  it  may  be  that 
those  insects  that  appear  so  late  in  our  orchards  come  from 
other  orchards,  or  even  from  the  forests. 

As  was  said  above,  these  insects  are  nocturnal,  though  they 
will  fly  in  the  hot  sunshine.  Yet  they  will  fly  more  freely  at 
night,  and  seem  far  less  timid. 

It  is  a  fortunate  peculiarity  of  this  beetle  to  fall  from  the 
tree  if  it  is  suddenly  jarred.  In  this  condition,  when  it  seems 
to  contract  itself  to  the  utmost,  it  has  been  compared  not  inaptly 
to  a  dried  bud. 

REMEDIES. — Early  in  the  season  the  curculio  hides  during 
the  day  beneath  chip  or  clod  at  the  base  of  the  tree.  Hence 
the  peach  growers  of  the  "  Michigan  Fruit  Belt "  trap  these 
weevils  under  chips  early  in  the  season.  During  the  day  (hey 
are  gathered  and  destroyed.  The  gathering  must  not  be  com- 
menced too  early  or  delayed  too  late  or  we  may  fail  to  find  all. 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS.  353 

The  jarring  process  alone  will  prove  successful  late  in  the 
season,  and  many  use  it  exclusively.  This  consists  in  passing 
through  the  orchard,  morning  or  evening,  placing  under  each  tree 
a  sheet,  and  then  giving  the  tree  a  sharp  blow  with  a  mallet, 
whereupon  the  insects  will  fall  upon  the  sheet  and  can  be  gath- 
ered and  destroyed.  The  sheet  had  best  be  fastened  to  a  frame 
in  the  shape  of  an  inverted  umbrella,  and  carried  on  one  or  two 
wheels,  if  it  is  to  be  used  extensively.  A  slit  in  the  front, 
opposite  the  handles,  allows  the  sheet  to  be  brought  under  the 
tree.  The  size  of  the  wheels  and  the  sheet  can  be  adjusted  to 
suit  the  ideas  of  the  orchardist  and  the  size  of  his  trees.  If 
there  are  but  few  trees,  the  sheet  can  be  tacked  to  a  frame  and 
carried  by  two  persons.  The  mallet  should  be  of  rubber,  so  as 
not  to  mar  the  trees,  though  some  saw  off  a  limb  or  drive  in  a 
spike,  in  which  case  the  blow  will  cause  no  injury  to  the  tree. 

In  case  of  a  few  plum  trees,  it  is  well  to  have  chickens  con- 
fined beneath  them.  The  jarring  winds  will  bring  the  beetles 
down,  when  the  chickens  will  pick  them  up.  There  is  consider- 
able evidence  in  favor  of  this  plan.  Still,  with  the  present  high 
price  of  plums,  no  one  can  afford  to  be  without  these  trees,  nor 
can  we  afford  to  leave  them  solely  to  the  care  of  fowls,  but 
should  always  practice  the  other  method,  which  will  insure  good 
crops  of  this  luscious  fruit,  and  thus  give  us  a  luxury  for  our 
tables  and  money  for  our  pockets. 

I  have  had  a  fine  annual  crop  of  plums  for  several  years.  I  use 
a  padded  mallet  and  a  square  sheet,  tacked  on  one  side  to  a  pine 
strip  as  long  as  the  side 
of  the  sheet.  From  the 
middle  of  the  opposite  side 
it  is  slitted  to  the  center, 
and  to  the  edge  each  side 
of  the  slit  a  light  pine 
strip,  half  the  length  of 
the  other  strip,  is  tacked. 

This  is    light,    easily  hand-  FIG.  34.-a,  Male,    ft,  Femnle.    c,  Antenna*. 

led,  and  convenient  to  bring  immediately  under  the  tree.     As 
many  know,   we    are  greatly  aided  in  our  attempts  to  baffle  the 

23 


354  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

evil  attempts  of  injurious  insects,  by  a  host  of  parasites,  chief 
among  which  are  the  ichneumon  flies,  which  may  readily  be 
known  by  their  long,  compressed  abdomens,  and  long,  ex- 
serted  ovipositors.  It  is  wonderful,  the  instinct  that  guides 
these  insect  destroyers  to  their  enemies.  Even  the  plum  cur- 
culio,  secluded,  as  he  is,  and  seemingly  so  exempt  from  moles- 
tation as  a  larva,  has  more  than  one  of  these  wily  foes  to 
cut  short  his  work  of  destruction.  One  of  these  (Fig.  34),  the 
Sigalphus  curculonis,  Fitch,  has  been  known  to  work  on  the  cur- 
culio  for  a  number  of  years.  The  female  in  the  illustration 
shows  the  attitude  in  which  the  fatal  thrust  is  made.  It  is  very 
interesting  to  watch  the  operation  of  egg-laying,  as  I  have  fre- 
quently done,  of  another  ichneumon  during  the  past  summer, 
on  our  currant  "  worms." 

Peach  Borer. — JEgeria  exitosa,  Say.  Family,  JEgereidce. 
Order,  Lepidoptera. — This  beautiful,  slender,  blue  moth,  which 
flies  in  the  bright  sunshine,  is  not  as  well  known  as  the 
whitish  caterpillar  which  does  such  pernicious  work  boring  into 
our  peach  trees.  In  the  recent  statements  from  leading  fruit 
men  in  Indiana  and  Michigan,  where  this  pest  has.  been  so  per- 
sistently and  vigorously  fought  that  it  seems  to  be  nearly  exter- 
minated, we  have  encouraging  intimation  of  what  concerted 
action,  which  this  report  is  aiming  to  promote,  will  do  in  de- 
stroying any  of  our  insects.  Such  news  items  should  encourage 
all  to  enlist  and  press  forward  in  the  good  work. 

NATURAL  HISTORY. — These  gay  moths  (Fig.  35),  resembling 
wasps  in  appearance,  come  forth  in  July,  August,  and  Septem- 
ber.    I   have   hatched  them   in 
all  of  these  months.  They  soon 
pair,  and  then  egg-laying  com- 
mences.    The  eggs  are  laid  just 
at  the  base  of  the  trunk.     Soon 
FIQ.  35.-i,  Male.  2,  Female.  after  the  whitish  larvae  will  be 

found,  as  they  have  commenced  boring  in  the  bark  and  sap- 
wood  just  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Wherever  they 
work,  just  beneath  the  earth  will  be  found  a  sticky  mass  formed 
of  the  oozing  gum  and  their  chip-dust,  which  gives  quick  indi- 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS.  355 

cation  of  their  presence.  These  larvao  are  found  of  varying 
sizes,  which  is  easily  understood,  from  the  fact  of  the  length 
of  time  at  which  the  moths  come  forth,  from  July  to  Septem- 
ber. These  larvae  will  be  found  at  work  till  about  the  first  week 
of  July,  when  we  will  often  only  find  a  pupa  incased  in  a 
rough  cocoon  of  chip-dust,  earth,  and  gum.  By  seeking  out 
these  oval  cocoons,  any  one  may,  by  keeping  them  in  earth 
in  a  close  box,  rear  the  beautiful  moths.  The  female  (1,  Fig. 
35),  is  larger,  darker,  than  the  male,  and  has  a  bright,  yellow 
band  across  her  abdomen.  The  male  (2,  Fig.  35),  expands 
about  an  inch.  In  hatching  a  large  number,  I  have  found 
that  the  ratio  of  males  to  females  is  about  one  to  five,  which 
would  seem  to  indicate  that  polygamy  reigned  among  insects. 
In  pushing  out  of  their  cocoon,  ihe  pupa  skin  is  always  left  pro- 
jecting from  the  opening.  Perhaps  the  split  cocoon  serves  them 
as  a  vise,  thus  aiding  them  to  gain  their  freedom. 

REMEDIES. — It  has  been  recommended  to  mound  the  trees  with 
earth  in  summer.  Of  course,  the  caterpillars  will  still  work  near 
the  top  of  the  mound.  In  fall,  say  the  last  of  September,  these 
mounds  are  pulled  down,  and  the  hot  sun  kills  the  tender-skinned 
larvae.  There  are  three  objections  to  this  plan :  1st.  The 
mounds  interfere  with  the  Ransom  process  of  fighting  the  cur- 
culio.  2d.  Removing  the  earth  in  autumn  endangers  the  trees 
during  our  severe  winters.  3d.  It  is  not  absolutely  safe. 

The  best  method,  and  I  believe  a  cheaper  than  the  above,  is 
to  dig  them  out  in  the  fall,  the  last  of  September.  The  oozing 
gum  leads  to  their  quick  detection,  when  they  can  be  easily 
crushed.  Our  best  pomologists,  for  fear  some  wee  depredators 
escaped  detection,  go  over  the  trees  again  in  May. 

This  is  not  a  tedious  process,  and  should  never  be  neglected. 
I  have  seen  whole  orchards  languishing,  and  many  trees  killed 
outright  by  neglect  to  destroy  these  hateful  miners.  Such  neg- 
lect in  case  of  a  fruit  so  rare,  so  delicious,  and  so  profitable 
wherever  it  can  be  successfully  grown,  is  most  unwise. 

Judge  J.  G.  Ramsdell,  so  well  and  favorably  known  as  a 
pomologist,  tells  me  of  a  new  method  of  mounding  which  is 
without  the  usual  objections,  and  he  claims  a  great  saving  of 


356  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

labor.  lie  hooks  tins  around  the  trees — the  same  used  to  keep 
the  cut-worm  at  bay.  These  are  some  larger  than  the  tree,  and 
four  or  five  inches  wide.  He  fills  in  between  them  and  the 
tree  with  earth.  This  is  done  about  the  first  week  of  July, 
after  the  cut-worms  have  ceased  work,  and  in  time  for  the  first 
eggs  of  the  borer.  In  September  he  removes  the  tins  and  de- 
stroys the  caterpillars,  which  can  be  done  with  far  less  labor 
than  when  we  have  to  dig  them  from  beneath  the  earth  at  its 
usual  level. 

The  late  Secretary  Bateham,  of  Ohio,  was  the  first  to  recom- 
mend the  carbolic  acid  mixture,  already  referred  to  in  treating 
of  the  radish  maggot  and  apple  tree  borers,  to  repel  the  peach 
borer.  It  should  be  turned  on  the  earth  at  the  base  of  the 
tree  in  July  and  August.  It  prevents  the  moth  from  egg- 
laying. 

Pear  or  Cherry  Tree  Slugs. — Selandria  cerasi,  Peck. 
Family,  Tenthredinidce.  Order,  Hymenoptera.  The  destructive 
proclivities  of  these  slimy  "  worms "  are  far  too  well  known 
in  our  State.  I  have  seen  cherry  trees  in  various  localities 
badly  injured  by  them,  and  the  pear  trees  of  one  of  our  first 
pomologists  almost  destroyed.  Few  insects  are  so  easily  over- 
come; so  with  knowledge,  vigilance,  and  promptness  we  may 
expect  to  soon  be  rid  of  a  grievous  pest. 

NATURAL  HISTORY. — The  shining  black  fly,  less  than  one- 
fourth  of  an  inch-long,  appears  in  early  and  late  summer.  The 
eggs  are  deposited  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves.  The 
larvae  are  brown,  possess  twenty  feet,  taper  posteriorly,  and  are 
covered  with  a  viscid,  olive-colored  slime,  hence  the  name  slug. 
Not  all  so-called  slugs  among  insect  larvae  are  characterized  by 
this  unctuous  covering,  but  all  the  larvae  of  this  destructive 
family  may  be  quickly  determined  by  the  excessive  number  of 
legs,  as  they  never  contain  less  than  eighteen,  and  sometimes  as 
many  as  twenty-two.  No  other  insect  larvae  have  to  exceed 
sixteen,  the  number  generally  possessed  by  caterpillars.  These 
larvae  only  eat  the  cuticle  of  the  leaf,  thus  causing  it  to  turn 
brown  and  sere.  In  three  or  four  weeks  the  larvae  have  ma- 
tured, and  pass  down  the  tree  and  enter  the  earth,  where  they 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS.  357 

pupate,  the  flies  of  the  first  brood  appearing  late  in  August, 
those  of  the  second  late  in  May  or  early  in  June.  These 
destructive  insects  belong  to  the  very  destructive  family  known 
as  saw-flies,  so  named  because  of  the  wonderful  organs  terminat- 
ing their  bodies,  which  they  use  to  form  the  groove  for  their 
eggs.  As  they  may  be  seen  in  the  microscope,  these  organs 
are  very  beautiful,  and  would  serve  well  for  models  of  our 
instruments  of  the  same  name.  These  cherry-tree  slugs  have 
been  known  to  work  on  the  plum  tree,  and  some  other  of  our 
shrubs. 

REMEDIES. — The  slime  of  these  insects  makes  them  peculiarly 
susceptible  to  any  application  like  ashes,  road  dust  (some  deny 
that  road  dust  is  effectual),  or  lime.  Hence,  throwing  any  of 
the  above  substances  into  the  tree  where  these  insects  are  at 
work  is  sure  to  check  their  ravages.  Such  treatment  goes  to  the 
root  of  the  matter  by  destroying  the  source  of  the  evil.  These 
larvae,  as  also  those  of  other  slugs,  as  the  rose  slug,  so  destruc- 
tive in  our  State,  and  the  pine  tree  slug,  are  destroyed  by  such 
solutions  as  white  hellebore,  quassia,  Paris  green  with  water, 
whale  oil  soap,  carbolic  acid,  or  coal  oil.  These  last,  of  course, 
must  be  applied  very  weak,  or  the  tree  or  plant  will  be  injured. 
My  friend,  E.  Reynolds,  has  killed  the  pine  tree  slug  with  Paris 
green,  applied  at  my  suggestion,  one-half  tablespoonful  to  a  pail 
of  water.  The  same  remedy  will  banish  the  rose  slug.  The 
past  season  I  have  destroyed  the  rose  slug,  raspberry  slug,  and 
currant  slug  by  use  of  pyrethrum,  as  recommended  for  cabbage- 
butterfly,  and  also  by  kerosene  and  sour  milk,  as  used  for 
squash-bug. 

Plant  Lice. — Aphis  mali,  Fabr.,  A.  cerasi,  Fabr.  Family, 
Aphidce.  Order,  Ilemiptera.  All  our  fruit  men  are  familiar 
with  the  plant  lice,  as  hardly  a  plant  but  suffers  from  the  at- 
tack of  some  species.  Yet,  doubtless  owing  to  the  many  natu- 
ral enemies,  and  notwithstanding  their  wonderfully  prolific  ten- 
dencies, they  are  rarely  very  destructive.  Sometimes  they  will 
attack  a  tree,  and  seem  to  draw  heavily  upon  its  vitality,  and  the 
very  next  year  not  a  single  louse  will  be  found  on  the  tree.  I 
have  noticed  this  repeatedly. 


358  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

NATURAL  HISTORY. — These  aphides,  sometimes  green,  as  is  the 
case  with  the  apple  and  rose  aphis,  and  sometimes  black,  as  seen 
in  the  species  attacking  the  cherry,  pass  the  winter  as  eggs.  I 
speak  of  those  left  out  of  doors.  These  hatch  into  females,  which 
keep  producing  young,  without  any  appearance  of  males,  all  sum- 
mer through;  so  that  the  number  of  insects  which  may  come 
from  a  single  egg  in  a  season  is  alarmingly  prodigious.  This 
may  continue  for  eight  or  nine  generations.  But  with  the  last 
brood  in  autumn  there  come  forth  true  males  and  females. 
These  pair  and  lay  the  eggs  which  are  to  produce  the  females  in 
the  succeeding  spring.  This  kind  of  reproduction  is  not  confined 
to  plant  lice.  Other  insects  show  the  same  peculiarity.  In  fact, 
it  is  a  well  demonstrated  fact  that  drone  bees  are  the  product 
of  unfertilized  eggs.  The  two  projecting  tubes  from  the  posterior 
parts  of  the  flask-shaped  bodies  of  these  lice  are  called  nectaries, 
as  there  exudes  therefrom  a  sweet  substance.  This  sweet  secre- 
tion attracts  the  ants,  hence  the  reason  that  we  usually  see 
plants  attacked  by  lice  also  covered  with  ants.  The  lice  and 
ants  seem  to  dwell  together  very  amicably.  In  fact,  there  seems 
to  be  an  affection,  not  disinterested,  to  be  sure,  between  them,  as 
the  ants  caress  the  lice  in  a  very  loving  manner,  and  in  case  of 
disturbance  are  very  eager  in  their  efforts  to  protect  and  care  for 
the  lice. 

REMEDIES. — Syringing  the  plants  with  tobacco  water  is  sure 
destruction  to  these  insects.  If  limbs  of  small  trees  are  alone 
attacked,  they  may  be  dipped  in  the  fluid.  Whale  oil  soap  so- 
lution, and  even  common  soap-suds  are  beneficial,  while  the  kero- 
sene and  sour  milk  already  recommended,  is  a  sure  remedy.  I 
think  that  these  insects,  where  they  are  exposed  to  our  cold 
winters  and  to  the  host  of  lice  destroyers,  will  never  do  great 
mischief;  but  in  our  green-houses  and  on  our  house  plants  they 
have  full  chance  to  work  their  ruin.  But  in  these  cases  tobacco 
water  and  tobacco  smoke  are  effectual  preventives,  and  where 
else  can  this  article,  tobacco,  be  so  appropriately  used  as  in  the 
destruction  of  these  miserable  lice? 

Imported  Currant  Borer.  — JEgeria  tipultformis,  Linn. 
Family,  JEycridfp.  Order,  Lepi.dnptp.ra.  This  moth  is  widely 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS.  359 

distributed  through  the  United  States,  as  the  weak  and  dying 
currant  bushes  with  their  hollow  stems  clearly  prove.  As  will 
be  noticed,  this  beautiful  wasp-like  moth  belongs  to  the  same 
family  and  genus  as  the  peach  borer.  The  moths  af  this  family 
may  be  readily  told  by  their  trim  form,  quick  movements,  diurnal 
habits,  flying  in  the  hot  sunshine,  and  especially  by  the  brush- 
like  character  of  the  tip  of  the  body.  This  last  character  will 
serve  to  distinguish  them  from  the  wasps, — an  important  fact, 
as  even  entomologists  of  considerable  experience  are  liable  to  be 
deceived,  so  striking  is  the  resemblance.  The  larvae  of  the 
family,  so  far  as  I  know,  are  without  exception  borers.  They 
are  white  with  a  brownish  head,  and  generally  pupate  in  a  co- 
coon made  of  their  own  chips  or  dust. 

DESCRIPTION  AND  NATURAL  HISTORY. — The  moth  is  a  little  less 
than  one-half  inch  long,  and  expands  three-fourths  of  an  inch. 
The  color  is  deep  blue,  with  three  yellow  bands  across  the  ab- 
domen, a  yellow  collar,  and  yellow  mixed  with  blue  marking  the 
legs.  These  yellow  bands,  so  like  the  same  in  many  of  our 
wasps,  render  this  species  all  the  more  liable  to  be  mistaken, 
especially  as  they  mingle  with  the  wasps,  making  a  gay  company 
in  the  bright  sunshine.  Yet  the  tufted  extremity,  in  lieu  of  a 
pointed  one  tipped  with  a  dreaded  spear,  will  quickly  un- 
deceive us. 

These  moths  appear  in  June  and  July.  They  deposit  their 
eggs  near  a  bud,  at  which  work  they  seem  very  busily  engaged 
during  the  heat  of  the  day.  These  eggs  soon  hatch,  and  the 
tiny  caterpillar  at  once  bores  to  the  center  of  the  stem.  These 
larvae  may  be  found  in  the  stem  from  June  to  July  the  fol- 
lowing year.  I  have  taken  the  moth  from  the  bushes  with 
my  net,  and  the  nearly  full-grown  larvae  from  the  hollow  stem 
the  same  day,  June  22d. 

A  curious  example  of  wise  foresight  is  afforded  by  these 
larvae  in  their  eating  through  the  hard  wood  and  bark  before 
assuming  the  pupa  state,  as  without  such  forecast  and  action 
the  hollow  stem  would  be  a  fatal  dungeon  to  the  moth,  whose 
slender  sucking  tube  and  wanting  jaws  would  render  their  escape 
hopeless. 


360 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


These  insects  seem  to  attack  the  red  currant  more  generally, 
yet  the  black  variety,  and  even  the  gooseberry,  is  not  exempt 
from  its  blasting  work.  Not  only  do  the  broken  stems,  so  weak- 
ened as  to  be  unable  to  stand  upright,  but  also  the  sickly  ap- 
pearance of  the  foliage  tell  of  this  insect's  presence  and  work. 
Bending  the  stocks  will  also  generally  give  the  needed  informa- 
tion, as  the  affected  ones  bend  more  readily.  The  hollows  in 
stocks  cut  across  will  inform  us  of  their  previous  or  present 
work. 

REMEDIES. — It  has  been  suggested  that  we  catch  the  moths. 
I  think  this  is  not  a  practical  remedy.  The  moths  are  so  small, 
so  quick,  so  wasp-like,  that  I  should  despair  of  this  ever  becom- 
ing generally  practiced.  I  would  suggest  letting  the  bushes 
sprout  up  pretty  freely,  and  then  each  spring  practice  heavy 
pruning,  taking  pains  to  cut  and  burn  the  feeble  and  limber 
stocks.  This  should  be  done  about  May  20th;  if  later,  some  of 
the  earlier  moths  might  escape,  if  earlier,  the  pruner  could  not 
discriminate  so  wisely  between  healthy  and  diseased  stems. 

Imported  Gooseberry  Saw-Fly. — Nematus  ventricosus, 
Klug.  Family,  Tenthredinidce.  Order,  Hymenoptera.  This 
gooseberry  (or  currant)  slug  is  a  fearful  devastator,  often  com- 
pletely defoliating  the  bushes  the 
first  year  that  it  appears. 

NATURAL  HISTORY. — The  yellow 
>«.  female    saw-fly   (Fig  36,  #),  about 

*        \  the   size    of    the    house-fly,   with 

black  head,  meets  the  smaller  male 
(Fig.  37,  a)  which  has  more  black, 
and  commences  laying  her  whitish 
transparent  eggs  along  the  veins 
underneath  the  leaf,  about  the 

If  Y  first    °f     May.     These    hatch     in 

I  three   or  four  days,  and  the  green 

twenty-legged  "  worms  "  (Fig  37,  a) 


FIG.  36. 


dotted  with  black  until  the  last  moult,  when  they  are  entirely 
green,  commence  immediately  to  feed  on  the  leaves.  These 
larvae  eat  voraciously,  and  soon  become  full  grown,  being  then 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS. 


361 


three-fourths  of  an  inch  long.  These  larvae  either  go  into  the 
earth,  under  leaves,  or  remain  attached  to  the  bushes,  and  spin 
a  cocoon  of  brownish  silk.  The  larvae  will  be  found  at  work 
till  in  July,  as  there  are  two  broods  each  season.  They  remain 
as  pupae  till  the  following  spring,  when  the  flies  come  forth  to 
repeat  the  round  of  mischief. 

REMEDIES. — Prevention  being  universally  conceded  to  be  bet- 
ter than  cure,  all  should  be  certain  not  to  import  these  insects 
in  procuring  the  plants.  As 
the  cocoons  are  hid  in  spring 
among  the  roots,  these  should 
be  carefully  washed  and  the 
material  washed  off  and 
burned.  The  absence  of 
such  precautionary  measures 
accounts  for  the  rapid  spread 
of  these  pests.  The  leaves 
when  first  worked  on  are 
perforated  with  small  holes 
(Fig.  37).  As  there  are 
comparatively  few,  the  eggs 
being  so  compactly  placed  that  but  few  leaves  receive  them,  they 
can  be  gathered  and  burned.  But  if  we  have  failed,  either 
through  ignorance  or  neglect,  to  destroy  these  destroyers  till 
they  become  scattered  over  the  bushes,  we  still  can  offer  effec- 
tual battle.  White  hellebore,  dusted  upon  the  vine  in  the  same 
manner  that  we  would  recommend  for  applying  the  Paris  green 
mixture  on  the  potato,  is  sure  destruction  to  these  "  worms." 
This  is  the  best  applied  when  there  is  little  or  no  wind  ;  and, 
though  poisonous,  is  entirely  safe  if  used  cautiously.  If  it  is 
preferred,  as  in  most  cases  it  doubtless  will  be,  the  hellebore 
may  be  mixed  with  water  and  applied  with  a  sprinkler,  in  which 
case  we  are  independent  of  wind,  and  can  not  inhale  it.  An 
ounce  to  a  pail  of  water  is  sufficient.  As  it  costs^  but  forty 
cents  per  pound,  it  will  be  seen  that  it  is  not  expensive. 

Climbing    Cut-Worms. — Ay  rot  is  mcssoria,  Harr.     Were 
the    climbing   cut-worms  as   destructive   in  all   sections  of    our 


FIG.  37. 


362  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

country  as  they  are  in  some  places  these  insects  would  rank 
next  to  the  codling  moth  as  a  pest  of  the  orchardist,  and  even 
now  they  occupy  no  inferior  position.  They  not  only  strip  the 
buds  from  our  fruit  trees,  but  the  various  vines  also  minister  to 
their  appetites. 

NATURAL  Hisiory. — Little  need  be  said  on  this  subject  far- 
ther than  what  has  been  said  in  reference  to  field  cut-worms,  as 
the  characters  of  the  various  cut-worms  are  very  similar,  as  also 
their  habits;  yet,  just  before  the  larvae  mature,  the  climbing 
species  exhibit  a  strange  peculiarity,  as  during  the  warm  summer 
nights  they  come  forth  from  their  earthen  retreats,  not  to  nip 
the  tender  corn  or  tomato  plant,  but  to  climb  some  apple,  pear, 
or  peach  tree,  or  some  grape  vine,  and  eat  out  the  tender  buds, 
thus  frequently  doing  irreparable  damage.  The  owner  sees  the 
damage,  but  not  the  enemy,  and  all  ignorant  of  the  true  cause, 
says  hard  things  of  his  bird  friends.  These  larvae  hide  by  day 
just  beneath  the  ground,  where  they  may  be  found  by  a  little 
digging.  They  may  also  be  seen  by  climbing  into  the  trees  by 
night  or  by  shaking  the  same,  when  the  "  worms  "  will  fall  to  the 
earth.  There  are  two  or  three  species  in  our  State  that  I  am 
sure  have  this  climbing  habit ;  there  may  be  several. 

REMEDIES. — In  addition  to  the  process  of  digging  out  by  hand, 
recommended  to  destroy  field  cut-worms,  and  placing  armfuls  of 
fresh  clover  to  entrap  the  larvae,  as  already  suggested  to  the 
gardener,  there  are  still  other  methods  to  fight  or  ward  off  the 
climbing  species.  They  can  be  caught  by  using  the  sheet  and 
mallet  at  night,  as  in  fighting  the  curculio  when  they  are  in  the 
tree.  They  may  also  be  kept  from  gaining  access  to  the  tree 
or  vines  at  all.  To  protect  vines  Professor  Tracy  recommends 
using  stiff,  smooth  paper,  about  four  inches  wide.  He  winds 
this  about  the  trunk,  gathering  in  at  the  top,  and  tying  about 
this  gathered  portion  with  a  cord,  drawing  it  tightly.  The 
lower  portion  is  permitted  to  stand  out  a  little  from  the  tree, 
so  the  whole  resembles  an  inverted  tunnel.  For  larger  trees, 
and  indeed  for  small  trees  and  vines,  the  same  is  often  used,  but 
tin  bands  will  be  most  desirable.  The  tin  should  be  thin  and 
bright,  and  should  be  cut  into  strips  about  three  inches  wide, 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS.  363 

and  of  a  length  to  correspond  to  the  size  of  the  trees  to  be  pro- 
tected. When  these  are  drawn  closely  about  the  tree  they 
should  lap  sufficiently  to  be  tacked  or  nailed  through  the  lap : 
a  hole  should  be  made  through  one  end  of  the  tins  with  a 
punch,  then  in  placing  the  tins  on  the  tree  the  end  with  the 
hole  should  lap  over  the  other  end,  and  if  a  lath  nail  is  used 
this  may  be  made  by  a  smart  blow  to  pass  through  the  other 
end,  and  into  the  tree.  The  nail  should  only  be  driven  par- 
tially in  so  as  to  be  easily  pulled  out  when  the  tins  are  to  be 
laid  away.  By  making  a  narrow  slit  in  the  other  end  of  the 
tin  to  correspond  with  the  hole  when  the  tin  is  lapped,  it  can 
be  fastened  by  a  common  carpet  tack,  in  which  case  the  tack 
should  only  be  driven  partially  into  the  tree.  Professor  Tracy 
recommends  that  the  tin  be  tacked  or  nailed  near  the  upper 
edge.  This  tin  is  a  sure  preventive,  for  the  cut-worm  can  not 
pass  over  the  surface  of  smooth  tin.  Judge  Ramsdell  would 
have  the  tins  longer,  and  fasten  by  hooking,  as  the  ends  are 
bent  for  that  purpose.  He  thinks  there  is  little  danger  of  the 
larva  passing  between  the  band  and  tree.  He  uses  these  same 
bands  in  fighting  the  peach-borer,  as  already  described. 

As  these  pests  work  far  worse  on  sandy  land,  those  having 
orchards  on  light  soil  will  have  to  be  specially  vigilant. 

The  Rose  Chafer.  —  Macrodactylus  subspinosa,  Fabr. 
Family,  Scarabeidce.  Order,  Coleoptera.  As  this  old  pest  of  the 
rose  is  becoming  quite  destructive  to  the  grape  in  various  sec- 
tions of  our  country  I  will  give  it  brief  attention. 

NATURAL  HISTORY. — Its  history  and  habits  closely  resemble 
those  of  its  family  relation,  the  May  beetle,  already  described. 
The  beetles  appear  in  June  and  July ;  eat  most  ravenously, 
seeming  to  relish  rose  leaves,  grape  leaves,  and  even  cherry 
leaves.  After  this  wedding  feast  is  over,  the  females  lay  their 
eggs  in  the  ground.  The  grubs  feed  on  the  roots  of  plants,  but 
are  not  sufficiently  destructive  to  attract  attention.  The  pupre 
may  be  found  in  May,  and  in  June  the  beetles  come  forth  again. 

REMEDIES. — As  this  beetle  will,  like  the  curculio  and  blister 
beetles,  fall  from  the  plants  whenever  disturbed,  they  may  be 
shaken  onto  sheets  placed  under  the  vines,  and  destroyed. 


364  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

It  is  said  that  Paris  green  is  no  help  in  warding  off  these 
beetles.  Occasionally  a  person  states  that  he  has  defeated  them 
by  the  use  of  this  poison.  Is  it  not  probable  that  the  arsenites 
will  kill  them,  but  that  they  come  in  such  armies  that  where 
one  falls  two  are  ready  to  take  its  place  ?  Were  I  confronted 
by  this  host  of  destroyers,  I  should  try  Paris  green,  or  London- 
purple,  the  kerosene  and  sour  milk,  and  the  pyrethrum  in  hopes 
of  finding  an  easier  way  to  banish  them,  than  that  of  jarring 
them  onto  sheets  and  killing  them. 

Space  will  only  permit  a  brief  mention  of  several  insects 
which  often  do  serious  damage. 

The  Army  Worm. — Fortunately  these  insects  appear  in 
destroying  numbers  so  rarely  that,  though  sometimes  they  com- 
mit terrible  havoc,  they  are  not  a  great  source  of  annoyance  with 
our  farmers.  Paris  green  will  poison  them;  but  they  invade 
the  oat  fields  in  such  numbers  that  this  is  not  a  practical  cure. 
The  best  way  to  keep  them  away  is  to  dig  a  ditch  on  the  side 
of  the  field  which  they  approach  with  a  steep  side  toward  the 
field.  Every  few  feet  at  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  something  like 
post  holes  are  dug.  These  catch  the  worms,  which  by  use  of  a 
sort  of  pounding  stick  we  may  destroy  en  masse.  The  National 
Agricultural  Reports  treat  elaborately  of  this  insect. 

The  Cotton  Worm. — This  terrible  pest  of  the  South  is 
best  destroyed  by  use  of  London  purple,  as  already  described. 
Hose  carts  made  purposely  to  apply  the  poison  mixed  with 
water  are  extensively  used.  This  insect  is  also  fully  considered 
in  the  reports  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

The  Cotton  Boll  Worm  of  the  South,  or  Corn  Worm 
of  the  W^est. — These  insects,  which  fed  extensively  on  the 
ears  of  green  corn  as  far  north  as  Michigan  in  1881,  are  very 
destructive  South  and  West.  These  insects  in  the  mature  or 
moth  stage,  like  the  cut  worm  moths,  are  attracted  by  sour 
milk,  by  sirup,  and  by  bright  lights,  which  suggests  ways  to 
destroy  them. 

Lice  and  Mites. — These  insects,  which  attack  our  domes- 
tic animals,  often  work  quite  serious  mischief.  They  cause  the 
poultry  to  languish,  and  our  larger  animals  to  become  poor  and 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS.  365 

feeble.  A  salve  made  by  mixing  kerosene  and  lard  or  kerosene 
and  sulphur  is  an  excellent  specific  against  these  pests.  In  case 
of  poultry,  it  should  be  rubbed  on  the  roost  poles  and  on  various 
parts  of  the  body  of  the  fowl.  On  cattle  or  larger  animals  it 
should  be  rubbed  on  the  bodies  where  the  lice  are  thickest.  A 
decoction  made  by  steeping  tobacco  steins  will  quickly  kill  lice 
on  any  animal  if  the  latter  is  washed  with  it.  In  winter  this 
is  troublesome  to  apply.  Ticks  on  sheep  can  be  destroyed  by 
dipping  in  tobacco  water.  I  have  killed  sheep  ticks  by  smoking 
with  tobacco,  making  use  of  a  common  bee  smoker.  Long-wool 
sheep  are  most  affected.  It  is  quite  easy  to  part  the  long  coat 
and  apply  the  poisonous  fumes. 

Pyrethrum  is  excellent  to  destroy  lice  and  mites  on  our  do- 
mestic animals.  In  close  buildings  it  may  be  blown  into  the 
rooms  containing  the  affected  animals,  or  it  may  be  rubbed  on 
the  skin  between  the  hairs  or  feathers. 

Space  forbids  further  mention  of  our  insect  enemies.  With 
the  hints  already  given,  the  wise,  thoughtful  man  may  be  able 
to  treat  others  not  mentioned. 

For  those  eating  foliage  which  is  not  to  be  fed  to  animals, 
like  that  of  the  potato  and  our  fruit  and  shade  trees,  use  the 
arsenites.  On  cabbage  and  currants,  where  these  virulent  poisons 
are  not  safe,  use  pyrethrum.  For  the  sucking  insects,  like 
plant  lice  or  bugs,  the  kerosene  and  milk  will  prove  effectual. 
Kerosene  and  carbolic  acid  are  excellent  to  repel  insects  and  so 
prevent  egg-laying,  as  suggested  in  case  of  the  apple-tree  and 
peach-tree  borers.  Bisulphide  of  carbon  is  a  most  excellent 
insecticide  when  the  insects  can  be  confined  in  a  close  box,  like 
grain  weevils,  etc.  We  must  remember,  however,  that  the  va- 
pors are  very  explosive. 


366  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


R  XIV. 

TIMBER  GROWING  ROR   PROFIT. 

THE  wanton  waste  and  destruction  of  timber  in  the  United 
States  is  unparalleled.  Dr.  Townshend,  in  a  lecture  on 
forestry  at  the  State  University  at  Columbus,  Ohio,  stated 
that  in  twenty-five  years  the  area  of  timber  in  the  United  States 
had  been  reduced  more  than  one-half.  In  many  localities  I 
have  seen  the  farmer  deadening  and  burning  the  timber  on  his 
land,  or  giving  it  to  any  one  who  would  take  it  away,  and  in  less 
than  twenty  years  in  the  same  locality  the  scarcity  was  so  great 
that  timber  lands  were  worth  double  the  price  of  those  that  were 
cleared,  and  often  a  single  tree  would  bring  the  price  of  an  acre 
of  land.  In  the  absence  of  any  laws  regulating  the  amount  of 
forests  in  this  country,  the  only  way  to  secure  a  proper  quantity 
of  timber  seems  to  be  to  appeal  to  the  farmer's  pocket  and  show 
him  that  the  growing  of  timber  can  be  made  profitable,  thus  en- 
listing the  same  motive  in  the  work  of  replacing  our  forests 
which  has  led  to  their  destruction. 

Scarcely  one  farmer  in  a  thousand  has  any  experience  in 
growing  timber,  and  to  most  of  them  it  seems  so  great  an  un- 
dertaking, and  one  requiring  so  great  length  of  time  and  beset 
by  so  many  difficulties,  that  they  are  inclined  to  leave  it  to  the 
next  generation.  I  have  been  fortunately  situated  for  observing 
the  growth  of  forest  trees,  particularly  the  black  locust,  and  am 
able  to  show  conclusively  that  on  cheap  lands,  to  which  it  is 
adapted,  there  is  no  farm  product  which  can  be  grown  at  so 
large  a  profit,  and  that  instead  of  planting  for  the  next  genera- 
tion, a  man  may  sell  two  or  three  crops  from  the  same  plot 
during  an  ordinary  life-time,  or  may  have  a  steady  income  for 
many  years  from  a  locust  plantation. 


TIMBER  GROWING  FOR  PROFIT.  367 

Before  going  into  details  as  to  how  to  plant,  cultivate,  and 
care  for  timber  to  make  it  profitable,  there  are  a  few  facts  which 
I  wish  to  impress.  1st.  The  area  of  timber  in  the  United  States 
is  rapidly  decreasing,  while  the  consumption  is  increasing.  The 
value  of  the  annual  product  of  sawed  lumber  for  the  ten  years 
included  in  the  last  census,  1870  to  1880,  was  in  round  num- 
bers two  hundred  and  thirty-three  million  dollars.  At  the  pres- 
ent rate  of  consumption  the  supply  will  not  last  a  generation. 
2d.  Under  these  circumstances  prices  must  advance,  for  it  is 
certain  that  the  demand  will  exceed  the  supply.  3d.  The  at- 
tention  of  farmers  generally  has  not  been  called  to  this  subject, 
and  for  many  years  to  come  there  will  be  but  little  systematic 
tree-planting,  which  insures  a  large  profit  to  those  who  first  en- 
gage in  it.  4th.  Aside  from  the  question  of  pecuniary  profit, 
there  are  many  incidental  advantages  connected  with  timber 
planting  which  are  worthy  of  attention. 

Forests  temper  the  heat  of  summer  and  break  the  cold 
winds  of  winter,  and  the  history  of  many  wooded  countries  that 
have  been  stripped  of  their  timber  shows  that  drought  and 
floods  were  greatly  increased  in  severity  thereby.  The  value  of 
shelter  belts  of  timber  both  for  the  protection  of  stock  and  crops 
has  been  shown  on  the  prairies,  and  when  even  one-sixth  of  the 
land  has  been  devoted  to  this  purpose,  it  has  been  found  that  the 
remainder  produced  as  much  grain  as  the  entire  amount  without 
such  protection.  The  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  is  largely 
affected  by  the  leaves  of  growing  forests,  and  while  I  think  the 
danger  of  our  country  becoming  rainless  by  the  depletion  of  its 
forests  has  been  exaggerated,  I  am  sure  that  much  further  reduc- 
tion of  forest  would  be  unfavorable. 

The  effect  of  forests  upon  the  beauty  of  the  landscape  is 
worth  taking  into  account  in  connection  with  the  question  of 
tree-planting,  for  there  are  few  sights  more  lovely  than  a  land- 
scape dotted  with  forests,  with  light  and  shadow  playing  upon 
them,  or  with  the  vivid  green  of  midsummer  or  the  brilliant  tints 
of  autumn.  Much  of  our  steep  hill  land  is  liable  to  wash,  and 
on  some  soils  this  can  only  be  prevented  by  the  roots  of  growing 
trees.  There  are  hillsides  now  gullied  and  seamed  so  that  they 


368  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

produce  no  grass,  which  can  only  be  clothed  with  verdure  again 
by  first  planting  trees  upon  them. 

Another  fact  not  generally  known  to  farmers  is  that  trees 
will  make  a  profitable  growth  on  lands  that  have  been  so  ex- 
hausted by  cropping  or  even  by  washing  that  they  will  not  pro- 
duce a  crop  of  grain  that  will  pay  for  cultivating,  and  also  on 
wet,  cold  lands  that  would  not  produce  grain  without  drainage. 
It  is  also  true — of  some  varieties  of  timber,  at  least,  and  on  some 
lands — that  more  grass  will  be  produced  with  the  trees  growing 
than  if  the  land  was  bare.  This  is  especially  true  of  lands  that 
have  a  steep  southern  slope,  so  as  to  receive  the  rays  of  the  sun 
almost  vertically,  for  without  shade  the  grass  will  be  burned  out. 
These  southern  slopes  when  planted  in  timber  produce  the  ear- 
liest pasture,  for  the  fallen  leaves  protect  the  grass  through  the 
winter,  and  it  starts  early  and  makes  a  large  growth  before  the 
trees  leave  out  in  the  spring.  Botany  teaches  us  that  plants 
have  their  affinities  and  dislikes,  and  locust-trees  and  blue  grass 
illustrate  the  first,  for  while  this  grass  may  not  be  as  nutritious 
when  grown  in  a  locust  plantation,  it  produces  as  large  a  crop, 
and  on  some  lands  very  much  more,  than  if  there  were  no  trees 
growing. 

What  Trees  to  Plant. — The  tree  planter  must  be  gov- 
erned by  his  soil  and  needs  in  determining  this  question.  It 
would  be  unwise  to  plant  largely  of  varieties  that  do  not  grow 
naturally  in  your  locality,  at  least  until  they  had  been  tested. 
In  all  localties  where  the  black  locust  flourishes  it  will  without 
doubt  furnish  valuable  timber,  and  be  ready  for  market  sooner 
than  any  other.  Where  a  quick  growth  is  wanted  for  a  shelter 
belt  or  where  the  object  is  to  grow  a  supply  of  fire-wood  as  soon 
as  possible,  I  doubt  if  any  thing  better  than  the  soft  maple  can 
be  had,  although  in  some  localities  the  box  elder  or  cotton-wood 
might  be  preferable,  or  on  wet  soils  some  variety  of  willow. 

On  many  farms  there  are  fields  which  might  be  fenced  with 
lines  of  osage  hedge  and  these  allowed  to  grow  into  timber, 
while  at  the  same  time  they  were  utilized  for  fences.  In  other 
localities,  where  evergreens  flourish,  they  will  be  found  profit- 
able. When  the  object  is  to  establish  a  permanent  forest,  with- 


TIMBER  GROWING  FOR  PROFIT.  3G9 

out  regard  to  quick  returns,  hard  or  sugar  maple,  ash,  oak,  and 
black  walnut  will  be  found  profitable  varieties,  and  on  soils  and 
in  localities  suited  to  it,  the  American  sweet  chestnut.  I  do 
not  recommend  the  catalpa,  because  its  crooked  habit  of  growth 
prevents  it  from  being  valuable  for  timber,  and  there  are  other 
trees  more  profitable  for  fire-wood. 

Where  to  Plant. — As  a  rule,  timber  should  be  planted  on 
land  unsuited  for  cultivation — hillsides  or  small,  ill-shaped  de- 
tached pieces  of  land  separated  from  the  other  parts  of  the  form 
by  a  road  or  stream.  The  exceptions  to  this  are  on  farms  where 
all  the  land  is  level  and  suitable  for  cultivation,  or  where  it  is 
desirable  to  plant  for  a  wind-break  across  the  end  of  a  level 
field.  Clumps  or  borders  of  trees  should  be  planted  in  the 
permanent  pastures,  or  rows  of  them  may  be  planted  along  the 
fences  adjoining  these  pastures.  Wherever  a  field  is  exposed 
to  the  west  winds,  a  strip  one  or  two  rods  wide  across  that 
side  of  the  field  may  be  profitably  devoted  to  a  belt  of  trees, 
as  they  will  furnish  protection  to  grain  and  stock,  and  at  the 
same  time  be  growing  into  valuable  timber.  In  most  localities 
the  waste  lands  if  planted  in  timber  would  give  a  large  area, 
and  perhaps  all  that  would  be  necessary  to  preserve  a  proper 
balance  between  timbered  and  cultivated  lands. 

How  to  Plant. — A  great  deal  of  foolish  advice  is  given 
about  starting  a  timber  plantation.  A  majority  of  the  farmers 
whom  I  have  heard  talk  about  it,  think  that  all  that  is  neces- 
sary is  to  keep  the  cattle  out  of  the  wood  lots  and  allow  them 
to  renew  themselves,  or  that  the  seed  should  be  sown  broadcast, 
and  if  the  trees  come  up  too  thick  allow  them  to  thin  them- 
selves by  a  natural  process.  This  is  as  unwise  as  it  would  be 
to  depend  on  our  wheat  fields  reseeding  themselves  from  the 
shattered  grain.  We  need  as  thorough  preparation  of  the  soil 
for  planting  a  forest  as  for  putting  out  a  grain  crop,  and  the 
land  should  be  fully  occupied. 

Nature  is  prodigal.  She  sows  a  million  seeds  for  one  tree 
that  comes  to  maturity,  and  the  work  assigned  to  man  is  to  im- 
prove on  nature.  Nature  starts  a  hundred  trees  on  a  square 
rod  and  leaves  a  dozen  rods  without  any.  Man  improves,  and 

24 


370  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

systematizes  the  work  by  planting  the  trees  so  that  they  can  be 
cultivated  and  so  that  all  the  land  will  be  occupied.  Nature  is 
never  hurried,  it  makes  no  difference  to  her  if  a  hundred  years 
pass  before  the  tree  is  large  enough  to  be  valuable,  but  man 
can  not  afford  to  wait.  As  a  rule  it  is  not  well  to  replant  the 
old  wood  lots,  for  it  is  better  to  start  our  timber  plots  on  old 
worn  fields  and  leave  the  fresh  virgin  soil  of  the  wood  lot — 
when  cleared — for  grain. 

Forest  trees  should  be  started  in  a  nursery,  and  transplanted 
at  one  or  two  years  old.  The  quick-growing  varieties,  such  as 
the  locust  and  soft  maple,  should  be  transplanted  at  one  year 
old,  as  if  they  have  received  proper  care  they  will  have  attained 
sufficient  size  by  that  time.  Most  varieties  can  be  bought  at 
from  two  to  fifteen  dollars  per  thousand,  of  nurserymen  who 
make  a  specialty  of  growing  them,  and  some  the  farmer  can 
grow  himself.  The  soft  maples  mature  their  seed  early  in  May, 
and  this  may  be  gathered  and  planted  immediately,  and  with 
good  care  the  trees  will  grow  from  three  to  five  feet  high  the  first 
summer.  All  forest  trees  should  be  thoroughly  cultivated  after 
being  set  out  in  the  plantation,  till  they  are  well  established  and 
have  made  a  good  start  to  grow.  Under  favorable  circumstances 
they  will  only  require  to  be  cultivated  the  first  season  after 
transplanting,  but  two,  or  even  three  years  of  cultivation  will 
often  pay.  As  a  rule  they  should  be  planted  much  thicker 
than  they  are  to  stand,  as  this  will  induce  a  straight,  upward 
growth. 

My  first  planting  of  forest  trees  was  made  in  1863,  at  which 
time  I  planted  a  lot  of  soft  maples  and  evergreens.  The 
maples  were  two  years  old  from  seed  and  the  evergreens  about 
two  feet  high.  In  twenty  years  the  largest  of  these  maples 
standing  singly  girted  forty-six  inches,  four  feet  above  the 
ground,  and  those  standing  in  a  row  at  an  average  distance  of 
three  feet  apart  in  the  row,  had  a  circumference  varying  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty-five  inches  at  the  same  height,  and  carried 
a  good-sized  trunk  to  the  height  of  twenty-five  feet.  The  Aus- 
trian pines  averaged  forty  inches  in  circumference  near  the 
ground,  and  thirty  inches  as  high  up  as  I  could  reach.  In  1872 


TIMBER  GROWING  FOR  PROFIT.  371 

I  set  one  thousand  soft-maple  trees  in  nursery  rows,  planting 
them  one  foot  apart  in  the  row,  the  plot  comprising  about  one- 
tenth  of  an  acre.  Nine  years  later  I  cut  a  half  cord  of  wood 
from  eighteen  of  these  trees,  occupying  one  row  fifty  feet  long, 
the  rows  having  been  thinned  by  digging  shade  trees.  I  do  not 
consider  these  growths  remarkable,  and  think  it  would  be  easy 
to  find  timber  plots  that  have  done  better. 

Locust  Growing. — In  all  localities  where  it  will  flourish— 
and  it  adapts  itself  to  a  great  variety  of  soils  and  a  wide 
range  of  climate — it  is  doubtful  if  any  tree  can  compare  with 
the  locust  for  profit.  The  valuable  variety  is  known  both  as 
the  black  and  yellow  locust,  and  both  names  are  given  to  it  in 
the  catalogues.  The  botanical  name  is  Robinia  pseudacacia.  It 
has  short  thorns,  quite  sharp  and  plenty  on  the  young  trees, 
but  they  become  few  and  blunt  as  the  tree  gets  older.  (This 
should  not  be  confounded  with  the  honey  locust,  which  has  long 
sharp  thorns,  and  is  of  but  little  value  for  timber.)  It  is  ex- 
tremely hardy,  can  be  grown  easily  from  seed,  bears  transplant- 
ing well,  makes  a  very  rapid  growth,  and  is  surpassed  by  few 
if  any  varieties  of  timber  for  durability.  I  have  seen  posts  of 
this  timber  still  in  a  good  state  of  preservation  that  had  been  in 
use  for  thirty-five  years.  Another  thing  which  adds  to  its  value 
is  that  it  has  but  little  sap-wood,  and  the  trees  may  be  cut  as 
soon  as  their  diameter  is  sufficient  for  a  post,  and  will  be  nearly 
or  quite  as  durable  as  older  timber.  A  plantation  once  started 
is  for  life,  for  when  cut  off,  it  at  once  renews  itself,  and  the 
second  crop  will  be  large  enough  for  posts  in  about  three  years 
less  time  than  the  first  grew. 

I  have  watched  the  growth  of  locust  timber  grown  from 
the  seed,  for  more  than  thirty  years,  and  have  seen  the  same 
plot  cut  and  marketed  twice  in  that  time,  and  for  five  years  I 
have  been  planting  an  average  of  about  one  thousand  trees  a 
year,  so  it  will  be  seen  that  I  speak  from  experience  in  the  mat- 
ter. The  first  locust  plantation  that  I  ever  saw  planted  was 
in  the  spring  of  1850.  The  seed  was  dropped  in  hills  four 
feet  apart  each  way,  where  it  was  to  grow.  I  would  never 
recommend  this  plan,  as  some  hills  will  be  crowded  and  others 


372  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

vacant,  and  the  young  plants  are  not  likely  to  receive  the  care 
they  require  when  scattered  over  so  much  land.  Enough 
plants  to  set  an  acre  can  be  grown  on  from  five  to  ten  square 
rods,  and  it  is  always  best  to  grow  the  plants  in  the  nursery,  and 
at  least  one  year  will  be  gained  by  this  plan. 

The  plantation  above  mentioned  was  cut  off  clean  and  mar- 
keted in  1868,  but  as  the  owner  is  dead  I  have  no  means  of 
knowing  what  amount  of  money  was  realized,  but  I  know  that 
it  was  several  hundred  dollars  per  acre.  The  trees  had  been 
thinned  first  for  bean  poles,  and  when  larger  for  fence  stakes, 
until  at  the  time  it  was  cut  off  clean  they  stood  about  eight  feet 
apart  each  way,  or  at  the  rate  of  six  hundred  and  forty  to 
the  acre. 

In  1879,  eleven  years  from  the  time  it  was  cut  clean,  I 
noticed  the  owner  bringing  out  a  load  of  posts  from  it,  and  I 
made  a  careful  examination  of  the  plot.  I  found  that  each  stump 
had  thrown  up  from  three  to  seven  sprouts,  the  largest  of  which 
were  now  being  cut,  and  I  estimated  that  there  were  from 
twenty-five  hundred  to  three  thousand  trees  to  the  acre.  This 
thinning  process  has  now  been  carried  on  for  five  years,  and  in 
the  spring  of  1881  over  four  hundred  posts  to  the  acre  were  cut, 
and  there  are  still  trees  enough  left  to  make  a  dense  forest.  This 
plantation  is  on  a  piece  of  level  land  that  is  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  farm  by  a  ravine. 

A  few  years  later,  about  1856, 1  think,  the  same  man  planted 
eight  acres  of  steep  hill-side  in  locust.  The  land  slopes  to  the 
south,  and  is  of  irregular  shape,  following  the  windings  of  a 
creek.  As  this  plot  lies  near  the  road,  I  have  seen  it  almost 
every  day  for  twenty-five  years,  and  have  been  able  to  watch 
the  growth  of  the  trees,  and  to  note  the  product  of  grass. 
As  soon  as  the  trees  were  out  of  the  way  of  calves,  blue-grass 
was  sown,  and  for  twenty  years  the  sod  has  been  undisturbed, 
for  when  the  first  growth  of  timber  was  cut  off  in  1870,  the 
field  was  not  plowed.  In  the  spring  of  1883  I  examined  it,  and 
found  from  two  hundred  to  five  hundred  trees  growing  to  the 
acre,  two-thirds  of  them  large  enough  for  posts,  and  tall  enough 
to  make  two  cuts  to  the  tree.  There  had  been  several  hundred 


TIMBER  GROWING  FOR  PROFIT.  373 

posts  cut  to  the  acre  from  this  plot,  so  that  the  trees  now  stood 
in  clumps  of  from  three  to  five,  in  rows  about  one  rod  apart 
each  way. 

In  the  summer  of  1883  the  present  owner  of  this  land,  at 
my  request,  examined  his  books  to  see  what  his  sales  had  been, 
and  he  reported  6,608  posts  and  stakes  sold  in  four  years,  at 
an  average  price  of  fifteen  cents  each,  making  $991.20.  The 
farm,  which  contains  one  hundred  acres,  has  been  rented  at  $350 
a  year  during  this  time,  and  the  income  from  these  ten  acres — 
eight  of  which  are  unfit  to  cultivate — has  averaged  $247.80  per 
year  for  the  four  years.  The  larger  part  of  the  posts  were 
from  the  thinnings  of  the  grove,  and  there  can  be  as  many  more 
sold  during  the  next  four  years,  and  the  plantation  is  continually 
renewing  itself.  In  my  judgment  this  land  has  produced  double 
the  grass  that  it  would  have  done  if  exposed  to  the  sun,  and 
while  I  do  not  think  it  is  as  nutritious  as  that  grown  in  the  open 
field,  young  stock  do  fairly  well  on  it. 

In  the  spring  of  1867,  thirty- three  locust  trees,  which  stood 
in  a  row  not  far  from  my  house,  were  cut  and  made  into  posts. 
I  do  not  know  the  age  of  these  trees,  as  they  were  standing 
when  I  moved  to  the  State  in  1848,  but  they  were  not  far  from 
twenty-five  years  old  at  the  time  of  cutting.  They  made  an 
average  of  twelve  good  posts  and  six  fence  stakes  each,  and  the 
wood  from  the  limbs  paid  for  cutting  and  splitting  the  posts. 
There  grew  from  the  stumps  and  roots  of  this  row  two  hundred 
trees,  and  when  the  owner,  thirteen  years  later,  began  cutting 
posts  from  them,  I  found  that  the  largest  of  them  would  make 
four  post  lengths,  and  were  large  enough  to  split  into  two  posts 
at  the  butt,  and  second  cut.  In  the  fall  of  1883  I  again  exam- 
ined this  plot,  and  counted  one  hundred  trees  large  enough  for 
posts  (although  many  had  been  cut),  and  nearly  as  many  smaller 
ones.  This  hundred  trees  would  average  three  posts  to  the  tree, 
and  as  there  was  but  an  eighth  acre  of  land  occupied  this  would 
give  a  handsome  profit. 

My  first  planting  of  locust  (1,800  trees),  was  made  on  a 
piece  of  cold,  wet  land,  which  I  could  not  conveniently  drain. 
The  soil  is  a  heavy  clay,  with  a  compact  yellow  clay  subsoil. 


374  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

The  trees  have  made  an  excellent  growth,  and  now,  at  six  years 
old,  are  large  enough  for  fence  stakes.  Four  years  ago  I  planted 
a  row  of  locusts  trees  (one  year  old  from  seed),  four  feet  apart 
in  the  row,  between  a  cultivated  field  and  a  piece  of  permanent 
pasture  which  lay  north  of  it.  The  row  is  fifty  rods  long,  and  I 
designed  to  use  the  trees  for  posts,  either  attaching  wires  to 
them  or  setting  up  light  panels  of  board  fence  against  them. 
The  spring  they  were  set  we  had  the  dryest  May  I  ever  remem- 
ber, and  all  the  trees  died  down  to  the  ground,  but  on  the  30th 
day  of  May  a  soaking  rain  revived  them,  and  they  started  from 
the  root,  and  every  tree  grew.  As  this  growth  was  not  strong 
or  straight  as  I  wished,  I  cut  them  back  to  the  ground  the  fol- 
lowing spring,  and  rubbed  off  all  but  one  sprout,  when  they 
started  •  to  grow.  Three  summers'  growth  made  these  trees 
strong  enough  to  support  panels  of  fence,  but  I  made  instead 
a  brush  fence  by  weaving  hedge  brush  between  them  at  a  cost 
of  eight  cents  per  rod,  as  you  will  find  described  in  the  chapter 
on  fences.  In  one  place  this  row  of  trees  crosses  a  knoll  from 
which  the  soil  has  been  washed,  leaving  the  yellow  clay,  and 
here  the  trees  have  grown  as  strong  and  healthy  as  on  the 
richer  land,  although  the  spot  would  not  produce  grain  enough 
to  pay  for  cultivation. 

Another  point  to  be  considered  in  growing  timber  is  that 
taxes  are  light.  The  land  in  locust  which  I  refer  to  and  which 
has  paid  nearly  twenty-five  dollars  a  year  for  posts  sold,  is  not 
taxed  any  heavier  than  similar  land  on  adjoining  farms,  which 
does  not  pay  to  the  owners  two  dollars  an  acre.  In  many  States 
there  is  a  special  provision  which  exempts  from  taxation  land 
planted  in  timber,  and  I  have  never  known  it  to  be  taxed  more 
heavily  than  similar  land  adjoining. 

How  to  Start  a  Locust  Plantation. — The  seed  should 
be  sown  in  nursery  rows.  The  best  time  to  sow  is  about  corn 
planting  time,  but  fair  sized  plants  can  be  grown  from  seed  sown 
as  late  as  the  middle  of  June.  The  seed  must  be  scalded,  as 
without  this  preparation,  not  one  seed  in  a  hundred  will  grow, 
Put  the  seed  in  a  water-tight  vessel  and  pour  over  it  water 
nearly  boiling ;  let  it  stand  till  cool.  You  will  find  a  part  of  the 


TIMBER  GROWING  FOR  PROFIT.  375 

seeds  swollen  to  about  four  times  the  ordinary  size.  Sometimes 
nearly  half  the  seed  will  swell  from  the  first  application  of 
water,  but  generally  but  a  small  per  cent. 

The  swollen  seeds  must  be  separated  from  the  others.  With 
a  small  quantity  this  can  be  done  by  hand,  but  it  is  more  con- 
venient to  do  it  with  a  sieve,  and  I  find  that  the  right  size  is 
five  meshes  to  the  inch.  I  have  a  mason's  hand  screen  which 
I  use  for  this  purpose.  After  separating  the  swollen  seeds,  ap- 
ply the  hot  water  again  and  go  through  the  same  process,  and 
it  is  often  necessary  to  repeat  it  five  or  six  times  before  all  the 
seed  will  swell.  As  it  is  difficult  to  sift  the  seed  when  wet, 
spread  it  thinly  in  the  sun  and  allow  it  to  dry,  but  it  should 
not  remain  any  longer  than  is  necessary  to  dry  the  outside.  This 
swollen  seed  is  ready  to  plant  and  will  come  up  as  quickly  and 
certainly  as  corn,  but  if  the  weather  should  be  unsuitable  for 
planting,  it  can  be  kept  safely  for  several  days  by  spreading 
not  more  than  an  inch  deep,  covering  with  a  damp  cloth,  and  set- 
ting on  the  cellar  floor  or  in  some  cool,  damp  place.  Sow  in 
drills  about  a  seed  to  the  inch,  and  wide  enough  so  as  to  admit  of 
horse  culture ;  keep  them  free  from  weeds  and  thoroughly  worked 
all  summer,  and  they  will  grow  from  three  to  five  feet  high. 

Always  set  out  in  plantation  at  one  year  old.  The  expense 
of  taking  them  up  and  planting  will  be  less  than  half  what  it 
would  if  left  another  year,  and  the  trees  will  scarcely  be  checked 
in  their  growth,  while  if  left  till  two  years  old  the  roots  will  be 
mutilated  so  that  the  trees  will  be  much  injured  in  transplanting. 

The  soil  in  the  plantation  should  be  thoroughly  prepared  by 
plowing,  harrowing,  and  rolling,  as  the  work  of  setting  out  can 
be  done  much  better  and  more  rapidly  than  if  it  is  left  rough 
and  cloddy.  My  plantations  are  set  in  rows  both  ways,  four 
feet  apart  each  way,  and  we  are  now  thinning  to  eight  feet,  cut- 
ting out  for  bean  poles  and  fence  stakes.  In  my  future  plant- 
ing I  shall  adopt  the  plan  of  making  the  rows  eight  feet  apart, 
and  plant  quite  close  in  the  row.  Where  there  is  a  demand  for 
bean  poles  it  will  pay  to  set  one  foot  apart,  and  I  would  not  set 
wider  than  two  feet  apart  in  the  row.  This  close  planting 
causes  a  straight,  upright  growth,  and  the  advantage  of  planting 


376  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

thickly  in  rows  eight  feet  apart  rather  than  four  by  four  is,  that 
it  gives  a  better  chance  to  select  the  best  trees  in  thinning. 
Often  two  nice,  straight  trees  may  be  left  within  two  or  three 
feet  of  each  other  till  one  is  large  enough  for  a  post.  The  secret 
of  a  profitable  crop  is  having  the  land  well  occupied,  and  this 
way  of  planting  gives  a  better  opportunity  to  do  this. 

When  the  land  is  thoroughly  prepared,  lay  it  off  with  a  two 
horse  plow  so  as  to  make  a  deep  furrow.  Two  men  and  a  boy 
will  work  to  the  best  advantage.  The  boy  holds  the  tree  up- 
right while  the  men  shovel  the  earth  to  the  roots  and  tramp  it 
solid.  They  should  be  cultivated  for  one  year  at  least,  and  two 
are  better.  In  planting  the  trees  it  is  best  to  assort,  and  put  the 
large  and  small  ones  separate,  as,  if  a  large  and  small  tree  are 
set  side  by  side,  the  large  one  usually  gets  the  start  and  the 
other  is  overshadowed.  No  tree  excels  the  locust  in  hardiness, 
and  with  ordinary  care,  scarcely  one  tree  in  a  thousand  will  die. 
If  from  drought  or  any  other  cause,  the  first  summer's  growth  is 
not  satisfactory,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  cut  back  close  to  the 
ground  the  next  spring,  as  by  this  time  the  roots  will  be  well 
developed,  and  the  trees  will  make  a  strong,  straight  growth. 
If  this  is  done,  it  will  be  necessary  to  rub  off  all  the  sprouts  but 
one.  A  little  trimming  will  be  of  advantage  for  a  few  years,  re- 
moving side  branches  and  bringing  the  trees  into  good  shape, 
and  this  may  be  done  during  the  leisure  of  winter.  As  the  trees 
attain  a  sufficient  size  to  be  of  value,  cut  out  where  they  are 
thickest  until  the  number  is  reduced  to  six  or  eight  hundred  to 
the  acre. 

After  the  trees  are  four  years  old,  the  plantation  may  be 
seeded  to  grass  and  pastured — at  first  with  young  cattle.  I 
think  pasturing  an  advantage  while  the  thinning  is  being  done, 
as  the  stock  will  keep  down  the  sprouts.  When  the  plantation 
is  cleared,  the  stock  must  be  kept  out  two  years  or  until  the 
second  growth  is  out  of  their  way.  The  second  growth  is  more 
rapid  than  the  first,  as  the  old  roots  nourish  the  young  plants 
and  cause  a  growth  of  eight  or  ten  feet  the  first  summer.  In 
locations  where  the  locust  trees  grow,  the  farmer  can  save  his 
own  seed.  It  may  be  gathered  any  time  from  October  to  May, 


TIMBER  GROWING  FOR  PROFIT.  377 

and  those  who  can  not  gather  it  can  get  it  from  our  seedsmen, 
as  most  of  them  now  advertise  it  at  about  one  dollar  per  pound, 
post-paid.  A  pound  contains  about  twenty-five  thousand  seeds, 
but  it  is  not  safe  to  count  on  more  than  one-fourth  this  number 
of  perfect  plants,  and  it  will  require  care  and  experience  to  get 
even  half  this  amount. 

Taking  into  consideration  all  the  facts  presented,  it  would 
seem  that  few  investments  are  offered  that  are  so  sure  of  largo 
profit  with  little  risk,  expense,  or  taxes,  as  the  planting  of  locust 
timber  on  all  soils  where  it  flourishes,  and  I  most  heartily  re- 
commend it,  especially  to  the  young  farmer  in  all  locations  where 
timber  is  becoming  scarce. 

The  only  enemy  to  this  tree  that  I  have  ever  seen  is  the 
borer,  and  it  does  not  often  seriously  injure  large  plantations, 
particularly  where  the  soil  and  cultivation  is  such  as  to  insure 
a  rapid  growth.  I  do  not  think  the  danger  from  the  borer 
worth  taking  into  consideration  under  good  management. 


378  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

THE    HOME  AND    ITS  SURROUNDINGS. 

AN    estimable    member    of   the    society    of   Friends    when 
asked  why  he  was  so  particular  about  his  daily  conduct, 
replied;   "God   has   given  me   but  one  journey  through 
life,  and  I  can  not  come  back  to  rectify  mistakes."     It  seems 
to    me    that    many  farmers   make    a    mistake   which    involves 
the  happiness  of  their  lives  and  that  of  their  families,  by  look- 
ing upon  the  farm  as  merely  something  to  dig  money  out  of. 
They  become  strict  utilitarians,  and  bring  every  thing  to  the 
standard  of  dollars  and  cents,  and  believe  flowers,  shrubbery, 
walks,  etc.,  to  be  useless  vanities. 

These  tendencies  are  likely  to  grow  with  age,  until  the 
words  of  the  poet  become  literally  true,  when  he  says  of  the 
old  farmer: 

"  He  had  some  notions  which  did  not  improve  him : 
He  never  kissed  his  children,  so  they  say; 
And  fairest  flowers  and  finest  scenes  would  move  him 
Less  than  a  horseshoe  picked  up  by  the  way. 

He  could  see  naught  but  vanity  in  beauty, 
And  only  weakness  in  a  fond  caress; 
And  pitied  those  whose  views  of  Christian  duty 
Allowed  indulgence  in  such  foolishness." 

I  have  little  doubt  that  the  utter  want  of  attractiveness  about 
many  farmers'  homes,  with  the  uncouthness  bred  by  these  sur- 
roundings, has  driven  more  boys  from  the  farm  than  the  hard 
work.  There  are  no  pleasures  so  inexpensive  as  those  which 
can  be  had  by  surrounding  a  country  home  with  trees,  flowers, 
and  shrubs,  and  none  more  refining  in  their  influence.  No  other 
home  brings  the  children  so  closely  into  communion  with  nature, 
or  gives  so  good  an  opportunity  to  train  eye,  mind,  and  hand* 


THE  HOME  AND  ITS  SURROUNDINGS.  379 

God  bless  our  country  homes ;  they  are  the  hope  of  the  nation, 
and  whether  our  children  are  to  remain  in  them,  or  go  out  to 
some  other  sphere  of  duty,  we  should,  as  far  as  possible,  make 
every  thing  else  on  the  farm  subordinate  to  the  home,  so  that 
they  will  always  look  back  to  it  with  longing,  if  duty  calls  them 
away,  or  if  they  remain,  have  no  feeling  that  farm  life  is  de- 
grading, but  be  contented  and  happy  in  their  calling. 

The  past  decade  has  witnessed  a  marked  improvement  in  the 
surroundings  of  country  homes,  which  is  due  partly  to  growing 
wealth  and  intelligence,  partly  to  the  influence  of  the  agricul- 
tural papers,  and  the  beautiful  catalogues  with  which  our  seeds- 
men have  flooded  the  country,  but  perhaps  most  of  all  to  the 
example  of  those  who  were  pioneers  in  the  work.  No  good  ex- 
ample is  more  contagious  than  this,  and  in  any  neighborhood 
where  one  family  begins  the  good  work  of  rendering  the  home 
attractive,  others  are  sure  to  attempt  it. 

To  say  all  that  might  be  said  on  this  subject  would  call  for 
the  writing  of  a  book,  and  in  a  brief  chapter  I  can  only  hope  to 
call  attention  to  some  points  which  the  intelligent  reader  must 
develop  for  himself. 

Location  of  the  House. — Most  of  those  who  read  this 
chapter  will  not  build  their  own  houses,  but  must  take  such  as 
they  find  and  do  the  best  they  can  with  them.  Still,  as  most 
persons  build  at  some  period  of  their  lives,  it  seems  legitimate 
to  treat  of  this  subject.  In  locating  the  farm-house  a  number 
of  points  should  be  considered. 

One  of -the  first  of  these  is  health.  The  house  should  be  so 
located  as  to  secure  thorough  drainage.  I  have  known  farm- 
houses built  on  flat  land,  where  the  soil  was  a  tenacious  clay, 
with  the  floors  not  more  than  a  foot  above  the  level  of  the  land, 
involving  the  digging  of  a  long  drain,  and  perhaps  making  it 
difficult  to  drain  the  cellar  at  all.  I  have  known  families  to  live 
all  winter  with  three  or  four  feet  of  water  in  the  cellar  under 
the  sitting-room  because  of  this  defect.  If  possible,  a  slight  ele- 
vation should  be  chosen  for  the  house,  but  if  you  must  build  on 
flat  land,  dig  a  cellar  but  three  feet  deep,  and  then  at  a 
suitable  distance  from  the  house,  plow  and  scrape  till  you  have 


380  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

made  a  regular  grade.  In  many  cases  this  will  cost  less  than 
to  dig  a  deep  cellar,  and  will  not  only  give  good  surface  drain- 
age, but  a  good  outlet  for  the  drain. 

The  position  of  the  home  in  relation  to  the  barn  should  be 
such  that  there  could  be  no  possibility  of  contamination  of  the 
water  from  the  barn-yard  drainage,  and  while  the  barn  should 
be  near  enough  so  that  too  much  time  would  not  be  lost  in  going 
back  and  forth,  it  should  not  be  so  near  as  to  contaminate  air 
or  water,  and  should  not  be  in  the  direction  of  prevailing  winds. 
Where  I  live  the  best  direction  for  the  barn  is  north,  for  when 
the  wind  is  in  that  direction,  the  weather  is  usually  bright  and 
-clear,  with  a  strong  breeze,  which  purifies  the  air,  while  with 
the  wind  southerly,  we  often  have  muggy  weather  with  a  heavy, 
oppressive  atmosphere.  This  matter  of  drainage  and  location  of 
barn  and  other  out-buildings  in  their  relation  to  health,  can  not 
be  urged  too  strongly,  or  receive  too  careful  attention. 

Convenience  to  farm,  road,  etc.,  should  be  carefully  consid- 
ered in  locating  the  buildings.  I  would  not  build  away  from 
the  road  in  order  to  save  a  little  distance  in  drawing  the  crops 
from  the  fields,  but  would  get  as  near  the  center  of  the  farm  as 
possible,  consistent  with  convenience  to  the  road,  as  a  little 
saving  on  each  trip  to  the  fields,  when  these  are  to  be  re- 
peated daily  or  oftener,  for  a  life-time,  will  amount  to  a  large 
aggregate. 

Size  of  House  Lot. — This  must  depend  to  some  extent 
on  the  size  of  the  farm,  the  lay  of  the  land,  and  the  size  and 
style  of  the  buildings.  A  small  yard,  well  cared  for,  is  better 
than  a  large  one  neglected. 

I  do  not  think,  however,  that  a  farm  house  should  ever  have 
a  little  box  of  a  front  yard,  and  there  are  few  farms  where 
there  should  be  less  than  a  half-acre  devoted  to  the  yard. 
When  the  farm  is  large,  and  the  owner  wealthy,  several  acres 
can  often  be  well  set  apart  for  ornamental  purposes.  The  dis- 
tance of  the  house  from  the  road  must  be  governed  by  the 
grade,  style  of  house,  size  of  yard,  etc.,  but  I  think  should 
never  be  less  than  forty  or  fifty  feet,  and  the  yard  should 
extend  at  the  sides  somewhat  farther.  I  consider  an  east  front 


THE  HOME  AND  ITS  SURROUNDINGS.  381 

much  the  most  desirable,  as  it  gives  a  cool  shaded  yard  in  the 
afternoon  and  evening  during  the  summer,  but  if  one  lives  east 
of  the  road,  and  must  build  facing  the  west,  I  would  advise  a 
south  portico  and  frontage,  and  an  arrangement  of  trees  to 
secure  shade. 

The  size  of  the  house  must  depend  largely  on  the  means  of 
the  owner,  but  a  small  house  may  be  made  tasty,  and  be  con- 
veniently arranged,  as  well  as  a  large  and  expensive  one.  A 
building  plan  should  never  be  decided  on  hastily,  but  every  de- 
tail should  be  carefully  studied,  and  before  the  work  is  begun 
you  should  know  to  a  dollar  what  the  house  is  to  cost.  Many 
people  think  this  impossible,  and  hundreds  have  begun  to  build 
expecting  to  get  through  on  a  certain  sum  and  have  found  the 
cost  double  what  they  had  estimated.  This  comes  from  begin- 
ning the  work  without  thorough  preparation.  Even  if  there  is 
a  contract  with  the  builder  to  put  up  the  house  at  a  given 
price,  if  the  plan  is  changed  after  the  work  is  begun  it  annuls 
the  contract  and  gives  an  opportunity  for  extra  charges,  which 
often  increase  the  cost  greatly. 

Settle  your  plan  fully  before  you  begin  if  it  takes  a  year. 
Spare  no  time  or  expense  to  know  that  your  plan  is  one  that 
you  will  be  satisfied  with.  Get  illustrated  books  on  house 
building,  and  study  the  plans  given,  take  your  wife  with  you 
and  visit  all  the  best  houses  near  you,  and  note  their  defects  as 
well  as  their  excellencies;  and  when  sure  your  plan  will  suit 
you,  have  a  contract  drawn  which  shall  cover  every  detail,  and 
specify  every  point,  and  give  out  the  job  to  a  competent,  honest 
builder,  and  you  will  have  no  extras  to  pay  for  when  the  work 
is  done.  I  feel  that  I  can  not  emphasize  this  point  too  strongly, 
as  I  have  known  so  many  cases  where  the  cost  of  a  house  has 
exceeded  by  from  five  hundred  to  one  thousand  dollars  what 
was  expected,  leaving  the  builder  burdened  with  a  debt  which 
he  had  not  anticipated  and  would  not  have  knowingly  con- 
tracted. My  own  experience  in  building  shows  that  it  is  as 
easy  to  know  the  cost  of  a  house  before  its  erection  is  begun  as 
it  is  when  completed,  or  as  it  is  that  of  a  farm  or  any  other  piece 
of  property. 


382  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

If  your  funds  are  limited  and  you  must  put  up  a  small  house, 
it  is  often  wise  to  build  so  that  you  can  add  to  it  at  some  future 
time,  and  the  possibility  of  this  must  be  considered,  for  if  the 
part  built  first  is  to  be  a  wing,  and  a  front  to  be  added,  it  must 
be  set  far  enough  back  to  allow  room  for  the  front  without  con- 
tracting the  yard  too  much,  and  in  planting  shade  trees  this  must 
be  borne  in  mind.  It  is  sometimes  wise  to  build  the  house  as 
large  as  you  expect  to  need  it  and  defer  finishing  and  furnishing 
a  part  of  it  till  some  future  time  when  you  can  better  afford  it. 
One  should  never  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  a  large  and  expen- 
sive house  calls  for  expensive  furnishing,  and  therefore  all  spare 
means  should  not  be  put  into  the  building. 

One  point  which  should  be  kept  in  mind  in  building  is 
thoroughness.  Use  only  good  material.  There  is  no  economy 
in  green  lumber,  sappy  shingles,  or  poor  material  of  any  kind; 
better  have  three  rooms  built  substantially  of  good  material  than 
twice  the  number  that  will  be  shackly  and  prematurly  old  in  a 
few  years. 

The  house  should  be  built  so  as  to  admit  of  good  ventilation 
and  a  free  circulation  of  air  in  hot  weather,  and  so  arranged  that 
the  sun  will  shine  into  every  room  at  some  time  during  the  day. 
The  living  rooms  should  be  large  and  the  dining-room  and 
kitchen  arranged  with  special  reference  to  economy  of  strength 
and  time.  A  flight  of  steps  leading  up  to  the  front  door  is 
allowable,  but  at  the  rear  the  grading  should  be  such  that  a 
single  step  will  reach  from  the  ground  to  the  floor,  and  if  possi- 
ble the  wood  and  water  should  be  on  a  level  with  the  kitchen. 
The  living  room,  which  will  be  used  most  in  winter,  should 
always  have  a  southern  front.  A  bay  window  adds  greatly  to 
the  cheerfulness  of  a  sitting-room  and  is  very  desirable.  The 
arrangements  in  the  kitchen  and  dining-room  should  be  with 
reference  to  saving  steps,  and  the  relative  .position  of  stove,  cis- 
tern, cupboard,  pantry  and  cellar  stairs  carefully  considered.  A 
<lumb-waiter  from  the  cellar  to  the  dining-room,  or  to  come  up 
between  the  dining-room  and  pantry,  so  as  to  be  accessible  from 
both,  will  save  many  trips  to  the  cellar,  and  much  heavy  work 
in  carrying  milk,  cream,  etc.,  up  and  down  stairs.  Screens  for 


THE  HOME  AND  ITS  SURROUNDINGS. 


383 


the  doors  and  windows  are  a  cheap  luxury,  and  should  be  found 
in  every  farm  house. 

There  are  many  little  conveniences  which  add  to  the  com- 
fort and  save  labor.  A  bracket  lamp  with  a  hinged  stem,  and 
a  reflector  on  a  pivot,  will  enable  the  light  to  be  thrown  on  any 
point  in  the  room,  and  is  of  especial  value  in  the  kitchen,  as  in 
the  winter  much  of  the  cooking  must  be  done  by  lamp  light, 
and  it  is  neither  safe  nor  convenient  to  have  a  lamp  near  the 
stove.  Often  the  location  of  a  cupboard  can  be  changed  so  as 
to  save  two  or  more  steps  each  trip,  and  when  we  count  the 
trips  for  a  single  day,  and  multiply  by  the  days  in  a  year  and 
the  years  in  a  life-time,  we  begin  to  get  some  conception  of  the 


Fio.  1.-ELEVAT10N  OF  FARM  COTTAGE. 

importance  of  saving  a  step.  The  location  of  a  door  or  the 
cellar  stairs  should  be  such  as  to  reach  the  desired  point  in 
the  easiest  and  shortest  possible  way.  The  stairway  should 
be  wide,  with  broad  steps  and  easy  grade,  without  crooks 
or  turns. 

We  give  plans  of  cottage  and  farm  house,  which  may  be  of 
value  to  those  intending  to  build,  even  though  they  may  not 
adopt  them. 


384 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


The  design  of  a  farm  cottage  (Fig.  1,  page  383)  will  meet 
the  wants  of  many  who  wish  to  build  at  a  moderate  expense. 

The  style  and  finish  can  be 
varied  to  suit  the  taste  and 
means  of  the  owner.  From 
the  hall  you  can  reach  all  the 
rooms  on  the  ground  floor, 
and  the  arrangement  of  the 
house  gives  the  sun  access  to 
every  room. 

A  Convenient  Farm 
House. — Our  illustrations  3, 
4,  and  5  show  the  elevation, 
ground  and  second  floor,  of  a 
roomy  and  convenient  farm 

FIG.  2.— GROUND  PLAN  OF  FARM  COTTAGE. 

H,  Hall.   P,  Parlor.     B,  Bedroom.    L,  Kitchen  hoUSC.          It      IS  SO      arranged 

or  Living  Room.      P,  Pantry.    H,  Chimney.  ,                 .  ,  .                 . 

Low  bedrooms  can  be  finished  off  above.  that       the       SUn  Shines       into 

each  room  in  the  course  of  the  day.  The  hall  is  entered 
from  the  front  piazza,  and  this  hall  gives  access  to  the  principal 
rooms  below,  and  by  an  easy  flight  of  stairs  to  the  sleeping 
apartments  above.  The  parlor  has  an  octagonal  bay-window 
and  a  fire-place  opposite.  The  kitchen  has  both  doors  and 
windows  on  opposite  sides. 

The  Door  Yard. — It  is  useless  to  attempt  to  lay  down  a  set 
of  rules  for  laying  out  or  management  of  the  grounds  about  a 
farm  dwelling.  The  size  of  yard,  location,  and  style  of  house, 
slope  of  the  land,  means  of  the  owner,  and  many  other  ques- 
tions must  be  understood  before  one  can  give  intelligent  advice 
in  the  matter.  Some  hints,  however,  can  be  given,  which  may 
prove  of  value  to  those  with  little  experience.  One  common 
error  to  be  avoided  is  crowding  too  much  into  the  grounds. 
The  wife  is  likely  to  want  a  plant  of  eyery  handsome  rose  or 
flowering  shrub  she  sees,  and  they  are  set  out  here  and  there, 
wherever  there  is  a  vacant  space,  and  grow  and  spread  till  a 
tangled  thicket  is  formed,  inaccessible  to  scythe  or  hoe,  and  in 
which  noxious  weeds  get  a  foothold,  from  which  they  spread 
and  gain  possession  of  the  yard. 


THE  HOME  AND  ITS  SURROUNDINGS. 


385 


386 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


Another  common  mistake  is  in  planting  trees  too  close  to  the 
house.  It  is  difficult  to  realize  when  setting  an  evergreen  no 
larger  than  a  currant  bush,  or  an  elm-tree  the  size  of  a  bean 


FIG.  4.— GROUND  PLAN  OF  FARM  HOTTSE. 

A,  Front  Veranda,  10  x  16.  B.  Hall,  7  x  20.  C,  Parlor,  12  x  18,  ^yith  bay-window,  4x6.  D,  Din- 
ing-room, 15  x  20.  E,  Library,  12  x  15,  with  square  bay-window,  4x8.  F,  Kitchen,  11  x  12. 
G,  Pantry,  8  x  8.  H,  Store-room,  10  x  12,  /,  Coal-room,  7>£x  8.  K,  Wash-room,  7  x  8.  L, 
Veranda,  8  x  16.  Jf,  Veranda.  4x80.  JV,  Cistern,  9  feet  diameter.  O,  Well,  c,  c.  Closets. 
«, «,  Shelves.  6,  Bath,  f,  Buck  stairs,  t,  Sink,  p,  Pump. 

pole,  that  in  a  few  years  they  will  develop  into  stately  trees. 
A  tree  that  is  to  remain  permanently  in  a  door  yard  should 
never  be  planted  nearer  than  thirty  feet  from  the  house.  It  is 


Fio.  5.— PLAN  OF  UPPER  FLOOR 

Hall,  7  feet  wide.  C,  C,  C,  C,  Closets.  D,  Linen  Closets.  E,  Attic  Stairs.  F,  Servant's  Bed- 
room. 11x20.  G,  Garret.  B,  Bedroom,  15x15.  //,  Bedroom,  12x15.  K,  Bedroom, 
12  x  18.  The  upper  hall  Is  lighted  by  a  window. 

often  advisable  to  plant  some  rapidly  growing  trees  nearer  than 
this  to  furnish   a  temporary   shade   while   those  at  u  distance 


THE  HOME  AND  ITS  SURROUNDINGS.  387 

are  growing;  but  they  should  be  removed  as  soon  as  they  can 
be  spared. 

For  a  temporary  shade  there  is  no  better  tree  than  the  soft 
HIM  pie,  as  it  has  a  dense  foliage  and  makes  a  rapid  growth.  If 
trees  of  this  variety  three  inches  in  diameter  are  carefully 
transplanted  and  well  cultivated,  they  will  afford  a  fine  shade 
in  three  years.  I  planted  a  group  of  these  trees  in  the  spring  of 
1877,  grown  from  seed  planted  in  1871,  and  in  August  of  1883  the 
largest  one,  three  feet  from  the  ground,  measured  twenty-five 
inches  in  circumference,  and  several  others  were  nearly  as  large. 
The  objection  to  this  tree  for  permanent  shade  is  that  the  wood  is 
so  soft  that  it  is  liable  to  be  broken  by  winds  which  would  do  no 
damage  to  many  others.  It  is  also  subject  to  a  bursting  of  the 
bark  on  the  south-west  side,  caused  probably  by  the  sun  shining 
on  it  when  frozen,  and  it  is  rare  to  find  a  tree  with  a  smooth, 
perfect  trunk.  These  imperfections  make  it  more  liable  to  be 
broken  by  the  wind.  The  trees  which  I  prefer  to  all  others  for 
shade  are  the  elm,  hard  maple,  and  ash.  I  put  the  elm  first  on 
account  of  its  rapid  growth,  its  elasticity  and  toughness,  and  its 
grace  and  beauty  of  contour.  One  need  not  fear  the  loss  of  his 
elm  trees  by  any  ordinary  wind,  for  nothing  short  of  a  hurricane 
will  injure  them.  The  hard  maple  is  worthy  of  a  place  in  every 
farm  yard,  as  it  is  unsurpassed  in  the  beauty  of  its  autumn 
foliage,  and  possesses  also  the  merits  of  durability,  compactness, 
symmetry  of  shape,  and  density  of  foliage.  The  ash  possesses 
all  the  good  qualities  of  the  maple,  and  as  its  prevailing  autumn 
color  is  yellow,  it  forms  a  fine  contrast  with  the  scarlet  of  the 
maples.  The  catalpa  and  linden  are  also  valuable  trees  for  shade, 
and  when  in  bloom  present  a  beautiful  appearance. 

Where  the  grounds  are  large  enough  to  allow  of  it,  there  is 
nothing  gives  a  better  effect  than  a  small  forest  planted  in  imita- 
tion of  nature.  This  forest  may  be  made  up  of  the  varieties 
above  named,  or  it  may  contain  specimens  of  all  the  varieties 
which  grow  in  the  locality. 

I  would  never  plant  evergreens  in  the  front  yard  or  near  the 
house.  The  only  use  for  which  I  would  recommend  them  is  for 
wind-breaks  and  screens,  planted  at  some  distance  from  the 


388  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

house.  One  great  objection  to  the  conifers  is  that  they  keep 
the  yard  littered  the  entire  year  by  the  falling  cones,  and  the 
most  beautiful  varieties  are  the  worst  in  this  respect.  The 
Scotch  pine  is  one  of  our  most  beautiful  evergreens,  always  keep- 
ing a  good  shape  and  retaining  its  color  perfectly  the  entire  year ; 
but  the  cones  are  a  perennial  nuisance.  This  and  the  American 
spruce  I  would  plant  in  clumps  or  thick  rows,  not  less  than  one 
hundred  feet  from  the  house  to  the  north  and  west.  For  an 
evergreen  hedge  I  would  use  the  red  cedar,  or  American  arbor  vitae. 
Either  will  bear  close  trimming,  and  can  be  made  ornamental  and 
valuable  as  a  protection. 

To  secure  rapid  growth  of  shade-trees,  thorough  culture  for 
the  first  few  years  is  absolutely  essential.  I  planted  in  1877  a 
group  of  about  thirty  forest  trees,  half  of  which  were  set  in 
what  had  been  a  flower  garden  and  the  balance  in  a  blue-grass 
sod.  The  ground  in  the  first-named  part  was  cultivated  more 
or  less  for  the  next  five  years,  and  there  the  trees  have  made  a 
wonderful  growth,  and  in  three  years  were  giving  a  good  shade. 
On  the  sod  the  growth  has  scarcely  been  perceptible,  and  after 
seven  years  they  afford  but  little  shade.  I  have  had  the  same 
experience  with  elm-trees  planted  in  my  door  yard.  A  fine,, 
thrifty  tree  planted  in  the  sod  stood  ten  years  before  it  was 
large  enough  to  afford  valuable  shade,  while  another  planted  ten 
years  later  and  cultivated  is  likely  to  outstrip  the  first  in  growth. 

If  you  wish  a  newly  planted  tree  to  grow  rapidly,  attend 
personally  to  the  transplanting.  See  that  it  is  taken  up  with 
as  little  mutilation  of  roots  as  possible,  that  it  is  planted  in  good 
soil  well  mellowed,  and  that  for  three  or  four  years  a  circle 
around  it  not  less  than  eight  feet  in  diameter  be  kept  clean  and 
mellow  by  cultivation  or  mulch.  If  in  grading  the  surface  soil 
has  been  removed,  it  will  pay  to  draw  a  load  of  good  soil  to  put 
in  the  hole  to  give  the  tree  a  start.  Forest  trees  will  grow  on 
almost  any  soil  after  they  get  a  start  and  do  not  need  coddling; 
but  where  shade  is  wanted  soon,  it  will  pay  to  be  at  some 
trouble  and  expense  to  give  them  the  start  needed. 

In  no  other  way  at  so  little  expense  and  labor  can  the  sur- 
roundings of  a  house  be  made  beautiful  as  by  planting  trees.  In 


THE  HOME  AND  ITS  SURROUNDINGS.  389 

almost  any  neighborhood  choice  trees  can  be  had  for  the  digging, 
and  after  they  are  three  or  four  years  planted  no  labor  will  be 
required.  That  yard  is  beautiful  that  has  a  sufficiency  of  good 
shade  trees  and  a  well-kept  lawn,  and  can  be  kept  so  with  very 
little  expense. 

The  Lawn. — The  first  point  requiring  attention  in  making 
a  lawn  is  grading.  In  a  majority  of  cases,  in  order  to  save 
what  grass  there  is,  and  to  avoid  the  temporary  inconvenience 
of  a  fresh  plowed  yard,  grading  is  neglected  and  the  ground  left 
with  bumps  and  hollows.  In  all  cases  where  old  door-yards  are 
in  this  condition,  I  would  recommend  that  they  be  plowed, 
graded,  and  re-seeded.  Early  spring  is  the  best  time  for  this 
work,  because  it  saves  the  annoyance  of  a  bare  yard,  and  the 
mud  which  will  be  troublesome  all  winter.  A  yard  graded  the 
latter  part  of  March,  or  early  April,  and  properly  seeded,  will 
in  four  weeks  present  a  good  appearance,  and  by  midsummer 
have  a  fair  turf.  The  grading  must  be  governed  by  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  house  and  the  natural  slope  of  the  land.  It  should 
be  such  that  there  will  be  no  depressions  to  hold  water.  The 
front  yard  should  be  nearly  level,  if  the  land  admits  of  it, 
and  the  slope  uniform  from  the  point  where  it  begins  to  the 
lowest  part. 

To  make  this  matter  plain  we  will  suppose  that  the  house 
stands  fifty  feet  from  the  road,  and  that  the  door-yard  is  two 
hundred  feet  wide.  The  first  floor  of  the  house  three  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  yard  and  six  feet  above  the  lowest  point  where 
the  outlet  for  the  surface  water  will  be.  In  this  case  I  would 
grade  the  front  yard  so  as  to  give  a  fall  of  six  inches  from  the 
front  door  to  the  road  which  would  be  ample  to  carry  off  the 
water.  For  twenty  feet  on  each  side  of  the  house  I  would 
maintain  the  same  grade,  and  then  would,  from  this  point,  in- 
crease the  grade  to  that  necessary  to  make  it  uniform  to  the 
lowest  point.  If  in  grading  you  are  obliged  to  make  fills  of  a 
foot  or  more  at  some  points,  it  will  be  necessary  to  wait  a  week 
or  two  after  the  fill  is  made  to  allow  it  to  settle,  and  then  re- 
grade,  or  else  the  fills  will  settle  and  leave  your  grade  imper- 
fect. If  you  cut  down  to  the  subsoil  in  places,  you  should  save 


390  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYLOCPED1A. 

some  of  the  best  earth  to  cover  these  spots  with,  so  that  the 
grass  may  make  a  uniform  growth.  It  will  pay  also  to  dress 
the  surface  liberally  with  fine  manure,  or  with  bone  meal  at  the 
rate  of  four  hundred  pounds  to  the  acre. 

After  the  land  has  settled,  and  every  depression  been  filled 
so  that  the  grade  is  just  right,  harrow  the  surface  fine,  sow 
your  grass  seed  and  cover  it  lightly  by  dragging  with  a  light 
plank  drag.  Most  writers  recommend  a  mixture  of  several 
kinds  of  grasses  for  the  lawn,  but  I  would  sow  only  timothy 
and  blue-grass,  and  with  it  a  little  oats.  I  would  sow  at  the 
rate  of  two  bushels  of  blue-grass  and  half  a  bushel  of  timothy 
and  two  bushels  of  oats  to  the  acre.  The  oats  will  cover  the 
ground  in  three  or  four  weeks  so  as  to  relieve  the  bare  look, 
and  will  shade  and  protect  the  young  grass.  Just  as  soon  as  it 
is  high  enough  so  that  a  scythe  will  cut  it,  it  should  be  mown, 
and  once  every  ten  days  or  two  weeks  afterward.  By  the  mid- 
dle of  June  your  yard  will  look  well,  and  before  fall  there  will 
be  a  good  turf.  It  will  pay  to  do  this  work  of  grading  and 
seeding  thoroughly  for  when  once  done  it  is  done  for  a  life-time. 
A  lawn  can  be  kept  in  better  condition  with  a  lawn  mower  than  a 
scythe,  but  on  a  smooth  grade  a  sharp  scythe  will  do  good  work. 

Shrubs  and  Flowers. — Whether  shrubbery  does  or  does 
not  add  to  the  beauty  of  a  door-yard  depends  entirely  on  its 
management.  I  believe  that  in  a  majority  of  cases  it  detracts 
from  rather  than  adds  to  it.  I  would  advise,  first,  that  no 
shrubbery  be  planted  in  front  of  the  house;  second,  that  no 
part  of  the  grounds  be  crowded,  and,  third,  that  as  a  rule  all 
shrubs  be  in  groups  in  cultivated  beds.  All  that  should  be 
allowed  in  the  front  yard,  beside  shade  trees  and  grass,  is  a 
border  of  flowers  along  the  walk.  There  are  a  few  shrubs  that  may 
stand  singly — for  example,  the  lilac,  snow-ball,  and  japonica — 
but  each  should  have  a  circle  around  it,  spaded  and  kept  clear 
of  grass  and  weeds.  Most  varieties  of  roses  and  other  shrubs 
should  be  grown  in  groups,  and  a  much  better  effect  will  be 
produced  by  a  rose  garden  containing  one  or  two  square  rods, 
and  kept  trimmed  and  spaded,  than  by  a  dozen  or  more  roses 
scattered  here  and  there,  struggling  with  the  grass. 


THE  HOME  AND  ITS  SURROUNDINGS.  391 

Unless  a  gardener  is  to  be  kept  to  attend  to  the  yard  (which 
is  rarely  the  case  on  the  farm),  very  few  shrubs  and  vines 
should  be  planted.  For  the  climbing  roses,  honeysuckles,  clem- 
atis, etc.,  a  rustic  trellis  made  of  lasting  wood  like  the  locust 
or  osage  orange  is  preferable  to  any  fancy  work,  for  the  beauty 
should  be  in  the  vines,  not  the  trellis,  and  the  less  conspicuous 
the  latter  is  the  better.  Most  varieties  of  flowers  give  the  best 
effect  when  grown  in  masses,  and  it  is  best  to  set  apart  a  suita- 
ble place  in  the  yard  for  a  flower  garden  rather  than  cut  up  the 
lawn  with  little  beds  made  in  fancy  shapes. 

I  will  name  a  few  varieties  of  flowers  of  easy  cultivation 
which  will  continue  long  in  bloom  and  give  good  satisfaction. 
Of  annuals  we  have  Pansies,  Petunias,  Verbenas,  Phlox  Drum- 
mondii,  Salvia-splendens,  Portulacca,  Scabiosa,  and  Dwarf  Nas- 
turtium. Most  of  these  continue  long  in  bloom,  and  there  will 
be  an  abundance  of  flowers  from  June  till  November.  For 
climbers  the  balloon  vine,  Sweet  Pea,  Clematis,  and  Cypress, 
will  furnish  delicacy  of  foliage,  beauty,  and  fragrance.  A  bed  of 
Geraniums  will  give  a  fine  show,  both  of  foliage  and  blossoms. 
The  plants  named  above,  if  well  arranged,  will  be  sufficient 
to  ornament  any  door-yard,  will  furnish  fine  flowers  for  cut- 
ting, and  give  a  succession  of  bloom  for  the  summer  and  au- 
tumn. Many  others  can  be  used  to  advantage  if  desired,  and 
there  is  time  to  attend  to  them  properly.  Foliage  plants, 
such  as  the  Euphorbia  and  Ricinus,  and  the  various  Am- 
aranthus,  Celosia,  Antirrhinum,  Zinnias,  and  Dahlias,  are  of  easy 
cultivation. 

Fences  and  Walks. — Fences,  as  far  as  possible,  should 
be  conspicuous  by  their  absence,  and  where  imperatively  neces- 
sary should  be  given  as  little  prominence  as  possible.  I  would 
never  build  a  paling  fence  near  a  dwelling  and  would  not  fence  off 
a  front  yard  by  itself,  neither  would  I  paint  a  fence  white.  Let 
the  fences  at  the  sides  of  the  yard  be  hidden  by  a  grape  trellis 
or  evergreen  hedge,  and  at  the  rear  let  it  stand  well  back  out  of 
sight.  For  the  front  fence,  a  close  trimmed  hedge  is,  perhaps, 
best,  but  if  a  fence  must  be  built,  make  it  low  and  paint  a  neu- 
tral color.  A  plain  board  fence,  with  one  board  a  foot  wide  at 


392  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

the  bottom,  and  three  four-inch  boards  above,  and  capped,  makes 
a  much  better  fence  for  a  farm-house  than  palings. 

The  walk  leading  to  the  front  door  must  be  suited  to  the 
size  of  the  yard  and  surroundings.  It  should  rarely,  if  ever,  be 
straight,  but  should  be  semicircular  or  serpentine.  When  the 
house  is  at  such  a  distance  from  the  road  that  a  true  half  circle, 
will  reach  the  front  fence  at  the  right  points  of  exit,  and  the 
center  come  to  the  front  door,  the  semicircular  walk  looks  well. 
If  the  drive-way  is  located  at  the  proper  distance,  one  end  of 
the  walk  can  terminate  there.  A  neat  stile,  with  easy,  broad 
steps  is  often  better  than  a  gate.  The  walks  at  the  rear  of  the 
house  should  be  made  for  utility,  and  should  usually  be  the 
shortest  distance  between  the  points  connected  by  them.  They 
may  be  paved  with  stone  or  brick,  or  made  of  plank,  gravel, 
or  spent  tan-bark.  Where  good  gravel  can  be  had  a  permanent 
substantial  walk  can  be  easily  and  cheaply  made,  and  it  will  be 
greatly  improved  by  a-  light  dressing  of  tan-bark  each  fall. 

To  make  a  good  walk  there  must  be  such  grading  as  will 
give  perfect  surface  drainage.  I  would  throw  up  a  walk  not 
less  than  six  feet  wide,  with  the  center  a  foot  above  the  ditches 
at  the  sides.  Then  cover  with  coarse  gravel  or  a  single  layer 
of  flat  stone,  and  above  this  a  coat  of  fine  gravel.  The  advan- 
tage of  tan  bark  is,  that  it  does  not  get  sloppy  and  track  into 
the  house  during  a  thaw  as  gravel  does. 

The  best  way  to  make  a  plank  walk  is  probably  to  place  2x4 
scantling  on  edge  the  distance  apart  that  the  width  of  the  walk 
is  to  be,  and  nail  short  boards  across  from  one  to  the  other.  A 
very  neat  and  serviceable  walk  two  feet  wide  can  be  made  in 
this  way  for  about  one  dollar  a  rod. 

The  out-buildings  should  be  conveniently  located.  The 
wood-shed  should  be  large  enough  to  hold  a  winter's  supply 
of  wood,  and  should  be  convenient  to  the  house.  The  privy 
should  be  hidden  by  a  clump  of  evergreens  or  a  vine-covered 
trellis,  and  should  have  instead  of  a  vault  a  shallow  wooden  box, 
so  arranged  as  to  be  easy  of  access.  This  box  should  be  made 
water-tight  and  placed  on  the  top  of  the  ground,  and  there 
should  be  a  hinged  door  at  the  rear  of  the  privy  which  will  give 


THE  HOME  AND  ITS  SURROUNDINGS.  393 

easy  access  to  it.  There  should  also  be  a  shed,  or  large  box 
covered  so  as  to  exclude  rain,  in  which  a  wagon  load  of  dry 
earth  can  be  stored,  and  two  or  three  times  a  week  enough  of 
this  should  be  shoveled  into  the  box  to  absorb  all  moisture. 
Managed  in  this  way  a  privy  can  be  kept  odorless  with  no 
danger  of  contamination  of  water  or  air,  and  a  large  amount  of 
valuable  fertilizer  made  from  it  during  the  year.  It  will  take 
but  a  few  hours'  labor  in  a  year  to  attend  properly  to  this, 
and  by  so  doing,  what  is  usually  a  most  disgusting  nuisance, 
and  often  a  cause  of  disease,  will  be  rendered  inoffensive. 

Other  out-buildings  such  as  piggeries,  poultry  house,  carriage 
house,  etc.,  should  be  located  so  as  to  ollend  neither  eye  nor 
nose.  On  many  farms  the  out-buildings  have  no  order  or 
arrangement,  but  are  dumped  down  here  and  there  without 
regard  to  appearance  or  convenience  of  access.  It  is  easy  to 
save  steps  and  avoid  this  helter-skelter  arrangement  by  a  little 
planning. 

There  is  one  point  which  concerns  the  health  of  the  family 
which  can  not  be  impressed  too  strongly,  and  that  is  the  care 
necessary  to. insure  pure  drinking  water.  Disease  is  no  longer 
looked  upon  as  a  mysterious  dispensation  of  Providence,  but  as 
a  penalty  for  the  violation  of  nature's  laws,  and  contaminated 
water  is  a  fruitful  source  of  disease.  A  well  located  near  the 
house  in  a  soil  which  fills  it  with  water  to  the  surface,  can  not 
afford  pure,  safe  drinking  water.  There  are  large  sections  of 
country  where  the  land  is  rich  and  every  thing  favorable  except 
the  water  supply,  and  the  wells  which  are  flooded  to  the  surface 
during  wet  seasons,  get  low  during  a  drought,  and  cause  fevers 
and  diseases  of  the  stomach  and  bowels.  It  is  often  very  diffi- 
cult to  construct  cisterns  in  these  soils,  as  the  pressure  of  the 
water  from  without  breaks  the  cement  and  they  become  flooded 
like  the  wells.  An  experienced  cistern-builder  tells  me  that  one 
can  be  made  that  will  exclude  the  water  in  the  most  spouty 
soils.  A  brick  wall  should  be  made  an  inch  or  two  from  the 
sides  of  the  cistern  and  plastered  on  the  outside  as  it  is  laid  up, 
and  then  this  space  filled  with  a  grout  of  cement,  poured  in  so 
that  it  will  fill  all  the  interstices.  When  this  becomes  solid  and 


394  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

the  wall  is  plastered  inside  it  will  defy  all  water  from  without. 
A  cistern  filled  with  rain  water  during  winter  will  furnish  safe, 
pure  water  for  summer  use. 

Too  much  care  can  not  be  taken  in  the  disposition  of  the  slops 
from  the  kitchen  and  chambers.  I  would  not  risk  a  sink  drain, 
as  there  is  great  danger  of  contamination  and  disease  from  it, 
and  there  is  a  better  way  to  dispose  of  this  waste.  As  near  the 
house  as  it  can  be  done  put  up  a  small  shed  roof,  under  which 
put  a  wagon  load  or  two  of  dry  earth,  and  empty  the  slops  on 
it.  Keep  a  shovel  in  the  shed  and  each  time  you  empty  a  pail 
of  the  slops  shovel  some  dry  earth  over  it.  This  shed  may 
be  an  enlargement  of  the  one  recommended  for  the  privy. 
Chamber  slops  disposed  of  in  this  way  will  never  be  offensive, 
and  in  the  course  of  a  year  a  large  amount  of  valuable  fertil- 
izers will  be  made.  These  slops  can  never,  with  safety,  be 
thrown  on  the  ground  around  the  house. 


THE  HOME  AND  ITS  SURROUNDINGS.  395 


XVI. 

RARMS   FX>R  POOR   MEN. 

THERE  is  in  every  community  a  large  class  of  men  whose 
tastes  would  lead  them  to  become  tillers  of  the  soil,  but 
who  are  deterred  from  attempting  it  because  they  have 
not  the  capital  to  buy  and  stock  a  farm  of  fifty  or  one  hundred 
acres,  which  they  imagine  would  be  necessary  for  the  support 
of  their  families. 

France  is  one  of  the  best  cultivated  and  most  prosperous 
countries  on  the  globe,  and  its  prosperity  is  largely  due  to  the 
fact  that  it  abounds  in  small  farms  of  from  one  to  five  acres. 
If,  as  I  believe,  a  very  few  acres  can  be  so  managed  as  to  give 
a  comfortable  support  to  a  family,  it  is  clearly  within  the  scope 
of  this  book  to  show  how  it  can  be  done. 

The  tendency  of  the  age  in  nearly  all  callings  is  for  capital 
to  combine,  and  form  great  corporations,  so  that  the  mechanic  na 
longer  works  for  an  individual  who  may  have  a  feeling  of  inter- 
est in  and  some  compassion  for  him,  but  for  a  soulless  corpora- 
tion, whose  only  interest  in  him  is  to  get  his  labor  for  the  small- 
est possible  sum  that  will  keep  his  family  from  the  poor-house. 
To  counteract  this  "trades  unions,"  and  various  forms  of  labor 
combinations  have  been  formed,  and  the  laborer  who  belongs  to 
one  of  these  must  stop  work  whenever  a  strike  is  ordered,  even 
if  he  has  no  money  to  support  his  family.  If  he  stands  aloof 
from  the  labor  organizations  he  is  denominated  a  "  scab,"  and  is 
often  subjected  to  petty  persecution,  or,  if  he  attempts  to  take 
the  place  of  a  striking  workman,  to  bodily  injury.  The  dishon- 
esty or  reckless  speculation  of  a  single  member  of  the  corpora- 
tion, or  some  unforeseen  and  unavoidable  financial  disaster,  may, 
and  often  does  throw  thousands  of  laborers  out  of  employment, 


396  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

perhaps  at  the  beginning  of  winter,  when  family  expenses  are 
largely  increased,  and  untold  suffering  results.  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances those  who  depend  on  their  labor  for  the  support  of 
their  families  are  too  often  ground  to  powder  between  the 
"upper  and  nether  millstones." 

Another  matter  of  deep  interest  to  parents  is  the  influences 
which  surround  their  children  during  their  early  years,  when 
they  are  forming  the  habits  which  will  go  with  them  through 
life  and  largely  affect  their  future  destiny.  In  this  respect  the 
man  who  owns  a  few  acres  of  land  has  a  great  advantage  over 
the  laborer  who  must  live  in  a  tenement  house.  In  the  latter 
case  there  are  no  pleasant  local  associations  connected  with  child- 
hood. The  parents  can  not  choose  the  associates  for  their  chil- 
dren, as  the  man  who  has  no  income  but  his  daily  wages  and 
must  buy  all  that  his  family  uses  can  not  afford  to  be  very  par- 
ticular about  his  location,  and  cheap  rent  must  necessarily  be 
considered  first,  and  not  unfrequently  he  moves  every  year  or 
oftener.  Still  another  evil.  There  is  no  work  suited  to  the  capac- 
ity of  his  children  during  their  earlier  years,  and  when  not  in 
-school  they  are  idle,  and  so  much  more  likely  to  form  bad  asso- 
ciations and  acquire  bad  habits. 

The  condition  of  the  man  who  owns  a  few  acres  of  land  and 
knows  how  to  cultivate  them  when  contrasted  with  that  of  the 
laborer  seems  to  me  to  be  enviable.  He  owns  the  soil  which  he 
cultivates,  and  feels  that  he  is  independent.  He  pays  no  rent, 
and  though  his  home  is  humble,  it  is  his  own,  and  he  is  stimu- 
lated to  improve  it.  As  soon  as  his  children  are  old  enough  to 
follow  him,  there  is  something  for  them  to  do  suited  to  their 
capacity,  and  they  early  acquire  habits  of  industry.  During  a 
a  large  part  of  the  year  every  day  in  which  good  wages  can  not 
be  earned  elsewhere  can  be  profitably  employed  on  his  land,  and 
often  all  his  time,  summer  and  winter,  can  be  put  in  at  home. 
He  may  not  handle  as  many  dollars  in  a  year  as  he  would  if  he 
worked  for  wages;  but  the  saving  in  rent,  and  the  family  sup- 
plies which  his  land  furnishes,  will  make  it  far  more  likely  that 
he  will  have  something  laid  up  at  the  end  of  the  year.  He  will 
be  able  to  control  the  associates  and  form  the  habits  of  his 


SMALL  FARMS  FOR  POOR  MEN.  397 

children  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  if  working  out  as  a 
laborer. 

There  is  still  another  side  to  this  question,  and  that  is  the  ad- 
vantage to  the  community  in  having  honest,  industrious  neighbors, 
ready  to  help  in  the  many  emergencies  which  arise  on  the  farm. 
The  farmer  is  often  obliged  to  keep  a  hired  man,  thus  adding  to 
the  work  and  burden  of  his  wife,  often  when  she  is  already 
overtaxed,  which  he  could  dispense  with  had  he  a  neighbor 
on  whose  services  he  could  rely  when  extra  help  was  needed. 
The  man  with  one  or  two  acres  of  land  could  work  out  the 
larger  part  of  his  time;  but  with  from  five  to  ten  acres  he 
could  employ  the  most  or  all  of  his  time  at  home. 

How  to  get  a  Home. — If  a  laboring  man  must  wait  till 
he  has  saved  money  to  pay  for  his  land,  he  will  stand  a  poor 
chance  of  ever  owning  it.  His  best  plan  is  to  buy  on  long 
time,  and  apply  the  money  which  would  be  paid  out  for  rent 
toward  paying  for  the  place.  Fortunately,  in  most  of  our 
States  building  associations  have  been  organized  to  meet  such 
cases  as  this,  and  wherever  one  is  accessible  it  makes  it  an  easy 
matter  for  a  man  with  any  enterprise  to  secure  a  home. 

These  building  associations  issue  stock  to  be  paid  in  small 
weekly  installments.  In  all  that  I  am  familiar  with,  the  shares 
of  stock  are  two  hundred  dollars  and  the  weekly  installments 
twenty-five  cents  a  share.  This  gives  eight  hundred. weeks  or 
over  fifteen  years  in  which  to  pay  up  his  stock.  Any  one  can 
own  stock  in  the  association ;  but  no  one  can  borrow  out  money 
except  a  member  of  the  association  who  owns  real  estate,  and 
the  loan  is  secured  by  first  mortgage.  Any  member  who  has 
not  borrowed  can  withdraw  his  money  and  have  his  stock  can- 
celed at  any  time,  but  must  wait  till  the  end  of  the  year  or 
lose  his  dividends,  which  are  declared  annually.  If  the  stock- 
holder has  the  money  to  spare,  and  wishes  to  save  the  trouble 
of  weekly  payments,  he  may  pay  monthly,  semi-annually,  or  an- 
nually in  advance,  and  when  he  pays  six  months  or  more  in  ad- 
vance, he  is  allowed  interest  at  the  rate  of  six  per  cent  on  the 
money  so  paid.  A  fine  of  five  cents  per  share  of  stock  is  im- 
posed each  week  in  default  of  payment  of  dues.  At  the  end  of 


398  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

each  year  a  dividend  is  struck,  and  the  profits  are  divided  pro 
rata  among  the  members. 

The  association  is  governed  by  a  board  of  directors  chosen 
from  the  stockholders,  who  serve  without  pay,  and  the  only 
salaried  officer  is  the  secretary,  who  keeps  the  books.  The 
money  accumulating  from  dues  and  interest  is  put  up  at  auction 
and  sold  to  the  highest  bidder,  the  amount  bid  being  the  pre- 
mium above  six  per  cent.  For  example,  if  a  stockholder  at  a 
sale  of  money  should  bid  one  cent  and  the  money  is  knocked 
down  to  him,  he  will  pay  seven  per  cent  interest  on  the  money 
advanced  to  him  until  all  his  stock  is  paid  up  and  canceled.  To 
do  this,  he  can  take  the  full  time  of  eight  hundred  weeks  from 
the  date  of  his  stock,  or  at  any  time  when  he  can  get  the 
money  he  can  pay  it  off  and  have  his  stock  and  mortgage 
canceled. 

Each  association  has  an  attorney,  whose  business  it  is  to  see 
that  the  property  offered  for  security  for  the  loan  is  free  from 
incumbrance  and  to  draw  the  necessary  writings,  and  for  this 
service  a  moderate  fee  is  fixed  by  the  association  and  paid  by 
the  borrower.  The  attorney  also  sees  that  the  buildings  are 
insured.  When  any  one  borrows  money  from  the  association,  a 
committee  of  members  is  appointed  to  examine  the  property 
and  report  if  it  is  ample  security  for  the  amount  wanted  on  it, 
and  the  attorney  at  once  examines  the  record  to  see  that  the 
title  is  clear. 

We  will  suppose  that  a  man  finds  a  piece  of  property  which 
will  make  him  a  home,  which  he  can  buy  for  $600.00.  His 
payment  of  dues  would  be  75  cents  a  week  on  this  amount  of 
money,  or  $39.00  a  year.  His  interest  the  first  year  will  be  on 
the  $600.00,  and  at  seven  per  cent  would  amount  to  $42.00; 
but  the  next  year  he  will  only  pay  interest  on  $561.00,  and  so 
his  interest  will  be  reduced  each  year  until  it  will  finally  cease 
when  the  principal  is  all  paid.  There  are  many  localities  where 
small  tracts  of  land  can  be  bought  at  from  $50.00  to  $100.00  per 
acre  and  often  for  less,  where  a  man  could  buy  from  two  to  six 
acres  and  build  a  comfortable  house  on  it,  and  his  annual  pay- 
ments would  not  greatly  exceed  what  he  pays  for  rent  for  a 


SMALL  FARMS  FOR  POOR  MEN.  399 

bare  house  to  live  in,  and  in  the  latter  case  there  is  no  need  of 
moving  every  year,  for  he  has  a  home  of  his  own,  which  he  can 
improve  and  adorn.  To  be  in  debt  a  small  amount  for  the  pur- 
pose of  paying  for  a  home  ought  to  stimulate  a  man  to  be  in- 
dustrious and  economical,  and  be  of  great  advantage  to  him. 

How  to  Manage  a  Small  Farm. — With  a  few  acres  of 
land  secured  for  a  home,  the  next  question  is  how  to  make  the 
best  use  of  it.  No  set  of  rules  can  be  laid  down  for  the  guidance 
of  all,  for  the  location  and  surroundings  must  determine  this 
largely.  It  is  safe  to  advise,  however,  that  as  far  as  it  can  be 
profitably  done,  the  family  supplies  be  home-grown.  All  the 
potatoes,  beans,  beets,  squashes,  tomatoes,  and  other  vegetables 
needed  in  the  family,  can  by  thorough  cultivation,  be  grown  on 
a  very  small  piece  of  land.  If  there  are  two  acres  or  more  of 
land,  I  should  advise  that  a  cow  be  kept,  and  with  a  farm  of  ten 
acres  it  might  be  profitable  to  keep  several.  These  cows  should 
be  kept  in  the  stable,  and  green  crops  grown  for  soiling.  A 
small  lot  should  be  provided,  in  which  they  could  be  turned  for 
a  short  time  each  day  for  exercise. 

If  the  amount  of  land  will  admit,  an  acre  or  two  of  wheat 
should  be  grown  to  supply  the  family  with  flour,  and  a  small 
plot  of  corn  would  fatten  the  pigs  for  the  family  meat,  and  fur- 
nish fodder  and  corn  for  the  cows  through  the  winter.  This 
much  or  more  could  be  done  on  a  few  acres,  and  very  little 
time  taken  from  other  work ;  and  a  mechanic  who  works  on  the 
ten  hour  system  could  put  in  full  time  at  his  trade,  and  by  hir- 
ing an  occasional  day's  work,  get  a  large  part  of  his  family  sup- 
plies from  his  little  farm. 

In  other  cases  it  would  pay  the  man  to  put  in  all  his  time 
on  a  few  acres,  and  his  study  would  be,  not  how  can  I  get  alonp; 
with  the  least  work,  but  how  can  I  profitably  employ  my  entire 
time?  There  are  many  ways  of  getting  an  income  from  a  few 
acres  that  the  industrious,  thoughtful  man  will  discover.  A  fair 
income  can  be  derived  from  poultry,  by  any  one  with  a  taste  for 
the  business,  and  the  necessary  carefulness  and  patience  to  at- 
tend to  it  properly.  This  could  be  carried  on  without  taking 
much  time,  as  the  wife  or  children  could  look  after  them  if  the 


400  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

man  would  provide  coops  and  do  the  heavier  jobs.  Just  as 
heavy  crops  of  potatoes,  corn,  and  most  other  products  could  be 
grown  if  the  fowls  were  allowed  to  run  at  large,  and  by  having 
a  small  lot  to  confine  them  in  for  a  part  of  the  year,  they  can 
be  kept  from  damaging  other  qrops. 

It  would  not  be  difficult,  by  soiling,  to  keep  six  cows  on  ten 
acres,  and  where  the  milk  could  be  sold  at  retail,  this  would 
give  a  fair  income ;  or  if  a  fine  quality  of  butter  was  made,  that 
would  sell  at  a  fancy  price,  this  and  the  pork  made  from  feeding 
the  skim-milk  to  pigs,  would  amount  to  a  good  sum.  Still, 
another  man  might  prefer  to  cultivate  his  land  in  broom-corn  and 
manufacture  the  crop  in  winter,  and  would  find  this  profitable. 
Those  who  have  a  taste  for  gardening  and  small  fruit  growing, 
and  who  are  so  located  as  to  be  convenient  to  a  good  market, 
and  what  is  more  important,  to  a  good  supply  of  manure,  will 
find  that  from  five  to  ten  acres  will  furnish  employment  for  one 
or  more  additional  hands,  and  give  a  handsome  income. 

In  every  neighborhood  one  or  more  persons  can  net  a  hand- 
some sum  by  growing,  for  sale,  plants  of  cabbage,  tomato,  sweet- 
potato,  pepper,  etc.,  and  this  will  require  but  a  few  square  rods 
of  ground.  Examples  might  be  quoted  without  number  of  men 
who  have  supported  their  families,  and  even  acquired  a  compe- 
tency from  a  few  acres  in  garden. 

In  1875  I  hired  a  young  German  for  one  year.  He  had 
landed  penniless.  He  earned  during  the  year  one  hundred  and 
eighty-six  dollars,  nearly  all  of  which  he  saved.  The  following 
spring  he  rented  four  acres  of  good  garden  land,  put  what 
money  he  had  into  sash,  manure,  and  tools,  got  credit  for  his 
garden  seeds,  and  went  to  work.  lie  has  bought  the  land. 

I  clip  from  an  agricultural  paper  the  following  account  of  the 
success  of  a  house-carpenter  who  settled  on  a  bit  of  land,  less 
than  three  acres,  in  New  Jersey.  He  expected  to  have  a  gar- 
den and  depend  on  his  trade  for  support,  but  times  were  dull 
and  wages  dropped,  and  the  outlook  became  dismal.  He  deter- 
mined to  go  to  work  on  his  land  and  see  if  he  could  not  make 
a  dollar  a  day  from  it.  The  sequel  is  told  in  his  own  words. 

"  Some  of  my  neighbors  said  it  would  be  a  failure — farming 


SMALL  FARMS  FOR  POOR  MEN.  401 

did  not  pay.  Many  who  had  ten  to  twelve  acres  left  it  to  grow 
up  to  brush  and  weeds,  and  took  their  departure.  I  had  buried 
my  money  here  and  I  was  going  to  dig  for  it.  I  dug  stumps, 
raked  roots,  and  grubbed  until  I  got  the  land  in  pretty  fair 
condition.  Then  I  dressed  it  well  with  fertilizers,  put  out  the 
best  varieties  of  fruit,  gave  them  the  best  of  care,  and  I  soon  be- 
gan to  realize  what  I  have  often  heard  repeated :  a  little  farm  well 
tilled ;  a  little  home  well  filled ;  a  little  wife  well  willed ;  then 
you  are  on  the  road  to  prosperity.  My  efforts  were  crowned 
with  success.  I  was  not  long  in  realizing  my  dollar  a  day, 
with  an  increase  as  the  condition  of  my  land  improved,  until 
the  past  season  I  turned  off  from  my  little  2  85-100  acres  over 
five  hundred  dollars  worth  of  fruit,  vegetables,  and  seeds  besides 
keeping  from  one  quarter  to  one  third  in  grass.  I  will  give  you 
some  of  the  items : 

10,000  young  onions $25.00 

Spinach  and  pie-plant 8.00 

Plants,  various  kinds 15.00 

112  bushels  of  strawberries 358.40 

300  quarts  raspberries 25.00 

275  quarts  currauts 22.00 

15  bushels  early  potatoes 20.00 

20  bushels  pears 25.00 

5  bushels  onion  sets 20.00 

Other  fruits 5.00 

25  pounds  sage 12.50 

15  pounds  turnip  seed 15.00 

4  pounds  sage  seed 10.00 

"  Besides  the  above,  not  extended  in  figures,  we  have  canned 
fruit,  etc. :  100  one-quart  cans  pears ;  12  do.  strawberries,  12 
do.  crab-apples;  10  quarts  pear  jelly;  10  quarts  crab-apple 
jelly." 

No  doubt  larger  sums  have  been  realized  from  garden  crops 
in  many  instances,  but  it  is  not  the  purpose  in  this  chapter  to 
enumerate  them,  or  to  give  details  of  management.  The  reader 
will  find  suggestions  which  will  be  of  value  in  managing  a  small 
farm  in  the  chapter  on  Poultry,  Soiling,  Gardening,  etc. 

Even  if  only  ordinary  farm  crops  are  grown  on  the  small 
farm,  it  will  be  found  profitable  to  own  a  few  acres  of  land,  and 

26 


402  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

in  a  large  majority  of  cases  no  doubt  it  would  be  best  to  grow 
these  crops.  I  know  a  man  with  but  four  acres,  who  has  made 
wheat  his  leading  crop  for  years,  and  has  excelled  all  his  neigh- 
bors in  yield.  His  little  wheat  field  has  not  taken  much  of  his 
time,  and  the  manure  made  from  the  straw  used  as  bedding  for 
his  cow  and  pigs,  and  the  dropping  from  the  poultry  have  enabled 
him  to  keep  his  land  in  high  condition,  so  that  his  crops  have 
been  uniformly  profitable.  With  but  a  few  acres  of  land  to  cul- 
tivate, the  owner  could  do  the  work  thoroughly  and  at  the  right 
time,  and  can,  in  consequence,  expect  better  crops  than  his 
neighbor,  who  has  a  large  area  to  go  over.  The  tendency  to 
large  farms  is  not,  I  believe,  conducive  to  the  good  of  the  nation 
or  the  best  interests  of  society,  and  I  should  rejoice  to  see  small 
farms  multiplied. 


HANDY  THINGS  ABOUT  THE  FARM. 


403 


XVI  I. 


HANDY    THINOS    ABOUT    THE    FARM. 

LIFE  is  made  up  of  little  things,  and  our  comfort  often  de- 
pends largely  on  the  little  conveniences  found  around  our 
homes.  Some  farms  abound  in  them,  while  on  others  they 
are  conspicuous  by  their  absence.  It  is  proposed  in  this  chap- 
ter to  illustrate  and  briefly  describe  quite  a  number  of  cheap 
and  convenient  articles,  most  of  which  can  be  made  by  the 
farmer  himself  with  saw  and  hatchet,  and  any  of  which  can  be 
made  by  the  blacksmith  or  carpenter.  While  no  one  farmer 
will  be  likely  to  use  all  of  these,  it  is  believed  that  all  will  find 
in  this  chapter  many  things  so  valuable  and  cheap  that  they  will 
adopt  them. 

On  perhaps  a  majority  of  farms  no  lifting-jack  of  any  kind 
is  to  be  found,  but  the  farmer  when  he  wishes  to  grease  his 
wagon  axles,  hunts  for  a  rail  and  board,  and  often  after  spending 
more  time  in  hunting  than  should  be  required  to  do  the  job,  only 
succeeds  in  getting 
a  crooked  or  rotten 
rail  and  a  board 
either  too  long  or 
too  short. 

Fig.  1  shows 
the  cheapest  sub- 
stitute for  a  jack. 
It  has  the  merit  of  being  always  ready  for  use,  and  the  up- 
right swings  into  place  of  itself,  leaving  both  hands  free  to  lift 
with.  Pins  or  cleats  on  the  lever  prevent  the  axle  from 
slipping. 

The  illustration  (Fig.  2)  shows  a  jack  that  has  given  good 


I—WAGOW-JACK. 


404 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


FIG.  2.— WAGON-JACK. 


satisfaction  for  many  years.  It  is  light,  easily  handled,  and 
does  not  shove  in  lifting.  It  should  be  made  of  tough,  hard 
wood,  and  is  best  planed  and  painted.  The  base,  a,  should  be 

of  two-inch  plank,  8x14 
inches,  the  upright,  b,  3x4 
inches  and  two  and  one-half 
feet  high.  The  lever,  c9 
should  be  of  one  and  one-half 
inch  stuff,  five  feet  long  and 
three  inches  wide  at  the  short 
end,  but  may  taper  to  two 
inches  at  the  handle.  There 
should  be  several  holes  for 
the  bolt,  to  accommodate  different  heights  of  axle,  and  it  should 
fit  loosely.  The  bolt  should  have  a  hole  or  slot  in  the  end  op- 
posite the  head,  so  that  a  leather  key  can  be  drawn  in  to  pre- 
vent it  from  falling  out  when  carrying  the  jack.  The  ratchet, 
d,  should  be  so  shaped  and  hung  as  to  work  readily  in  the 
notches  on  the  lever. 

Fig.  3  shows  one  of  the  simplest  and  best  wagon-jacks  I 
have  ever  seen.  The  base  should  be  of  4x4  scantling,  eighteen 
inches  long ;  the  upright  3x4  inches  and  twenty-six  inches  high  ; 
the  lever  one  and  a  half  inches 
thick.  The  ratchet,  which  is 
of  wrought  iron,  is  hung  by 
a  single  bolt  to  the  lever,  and 
a  handle  is  bent  back  over 
the  lever,  so  that  when  you 
wish  to  lower  the  wheel  you 
grasp  both  the  lever  and 
ratchet  handles.  When  you 
wish  to  raise  it,  however, 

you   grasp    only    the    lever,  i  i(i.  ^.-WAGON-JACK. 

and  the  ratchet  plays  in  the  staple  and  catches  of  itself. 

This  jack  (Fig  4)  will  be  found  convenient  in  handling  heavy 
hogs,  as  it  can  be  swung  round  in  any  direction,  combining  the 
properties  of  a  crane  and  a  hoisting  machine.  The  upright 


HANDY  THINGS  ABOUT  THE  FARM. 


405 


FIG.  4.— A  HOG  JACK. 


should  be  six  inches  square  and  two  feet  long,  and  the  legs  mor- 
tised in  firmly.     The  head  in  which  the  lever  works  should  be 

secured    by   a    strong    iron    pin, 

which  acts  as  a  pivot,  and  at  the 

end   of   the    lever  should    be    a 

swivel  hook  with  a  sharp  point. 

The  lever  should  be  sixteen  feet 

long,  and  may  have  several  holes 

in  it,  so  as  to  give  more  or  less 

power  as  needed. 

Fig.    5   shows    a   cheap    and 

simple  contrivance  for  hanging  up 

hogs.     It  consists  of  three  poles 

or  scantling  eight  feet  long,  bolted  together  at  the  top  so  that 

they  can  be  raised  or  lowered.     Hooks  should  be  driven  into  the 

front  of  the  two  outside  pieces  on 
which  to  hang  the  hog.  These 
are  so  easily  made  that  it  will  pay 
to  have  one  for  each  hog. 

The  farmer  often  wishes  to  hew 
a  lot  of  posts  to  prepare  them  for 
the  fence,  and  needs  some  simple 
device  to  hold  them  in  position. 
Our  cut  (Fig.  6)  shows  one  so  sim- 
FIG.  ^-HANGING  RACK  FOB  HOGS.  pie  as  to  need  no  explanation. 

With  the  improvement  in  cross-cut  saws,  and  the  growing 
scarcity  of  timber,  the  ax  is  used  less  and  the  saw  more  than 
formerly  in  cutting  wood. 
It  is  hard  on  the  back  to 
saw  a  log  flat  on  the 
ground,  and  the  saw  is 
likely  to  be  dulled,  and 
also  to  have  the  set  taken 
out  of  it  by  pinching.  By 
the  use  of  the  handy  log- 
holder  shown  in  the  CUt  FlG-  ^-POST-HOLDER. 

on  the  following   page  (Fig.  7),  two  men  can  easily  roll  up  a 


406 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


large  log.     It  can  be  made  of  round  poles,  and  the  legs  should 
be  about  twenty  inches  long,  the    other   ends    resting    on   the 

ground.  Several  holes 
should  be  bored  in  the 
poles  so  that  the  log  can  be 
held  at  any  desired  spot. 

Fig.  8  is  a  device  for 
raising  logs,  by  means  of 
which  one  man  can  lift  a 
heavy  log.  The  standard 

FIG.  T.-LOG-HOLDER.  is  made  of  two  strong  plank, 

2x6  inches,  and  7  feet  long.  Cleats  are  put  between  them  at 
the  ends,  and  it  is  securely  bolted  together.  The  leg,  or  sup- 
port, is  fastened  with  a  bolt,  so  that  it  can  be  raised  or 
lowered  at  pleasure.  Two 
rows  of  holes  are  bored  in  the 
standard  to  receive  the  pins, 
and  the  lever  has  a  notch  to 
fit  them.  In  working  the 
machine  the  pins  are  alter- 
nately moved  up  a  hole  at  a 
time. 

Any  one  who  has  tried  to 
split  stove-wood,  knows  how 
difficult  it  often  is  to  hold  the 
stick  in  such  a  position  as  to 
enable  one  to  strike  it  to  the 
best  advantage.  A  very  few  minutes  work  will  prepare  a 
holder  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  9. 

On  our  heavy  clay  soils  posts  can  be  driven  into  the  ground 

so  as  to  stand  quite  firmly,  if  the 
work  is  done  just  after  the  frost 
comes  out  in  the  spring.  Where  posts 
are  set  in  holes,  it  is  a  great  saving  of 
labor  to  drive  a  stake  for  the  middle 

PIG.  9.-\voon-noi,i>KR.          of  the  panel.      The  device   shown  in 
Fig.  10  is  a  very  convenient  platform  on  which  to  stand  while 


FIG.   8.— TX>G-L,IFTER. 


HANDY  THINGS  ABOUT  THE  FARM. 


407 


driving  the  posts.  As  two  hands  are  usually  required  for  this 
work,  this  platform  would  be  cheaper  and  just  about  as  valuable 
if  made  without  wheels, 
and  handles  instead  on 
both  sides. 

Mr.  John  M.  Jameson, 
of  Ross  County,  Ohio, 
sends  me  a  description  of 
a  20-foot  hay  gatherer 
(Fig.  11),  which  he  has 
used  for  several  years  to 
great  advantage.  With 
it  the  hay  is  taken  from 

the  ground    and    delivered  Fl°    ^.-PLATFORM  FOR  FENCE  BUII.PINO. 

at  the  stack  without  any  pitching  or  handling.  Mr.  Jameson 
describes  its  construction  as  follows:  The  head  should  be  5x6 
inches,  and  20  feet  long.  The  teeth  split  from  tough,  straight 
timber,  six  feet  long  and  two  inches  in  diameter  at  the  head, 
and  tapered  somewhat  to  the  point.  They  should  be  sharp 

and  sloped  on  the  under  side. 
The  corners  of  head  piece 
should  be  rounded  on  the 
lower  side  to  enable  it  to  slip 
over  the  stubble  with  little 
friction.  A  clevis  should  be 
FIO.  H.-HAY  GATHERER.  attached  to  each  end,  so  ar- 

ranged that  it  will  turn  round  the  end  when  you  wish  to  draw 
the  rake  backward.  When  going  out  from  the  stack  for  a  load, 
the  rake  is  drawn  backward.  The  chains  to  which  the  horses 
are  attached  should  be  seven  feet  long  to  enable  them  to  keep 
out  of  the  way  of  the  teeth.  Mr.  Jameson  found  that  no  up- 
rights in  the  head  were  necessary  to  keep  the  hay  from  sliding 
over  the  rake.  He  first  put  on  uprights,  but  the  rake  was 
soon  turned  over  and  the  uprights  broken  off,  and  he  then 
found  that  it  worked  as  well  without  them.  Hay  gathered 
in  this  way  will  have  less  dust  than  when-  raked  with  the 
sulky-rake. 


408 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


FIG.  12.— HUSKING  TABLE. 


The  practice  of  cutting  up  corn  is  becoming  more  common 
each  year,  as  farmers  learn  the  value  of  corn  fodder.  It  is  tire- 
some work  to  husk  all  day  on 
one's  knees,  or  with  the  back 
bent.  A  husking  table,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  12,  will  keep  the 
fodder  from  the  dirt,  and  en- 
able the  husker  to  stand  up  to 
work.  It  is,  also,  more  con- 
venient to  bind  the  fodder  on  the  table  than  the  ground.  It 
should  be  made  strong  and  well  braced,  but  of  light  material. 

It  is  often  necessary  for  some  one  to  go  alone  to  the  field 
to  bring  in  a  load  of  shock  corn,  and  any  one  who  has  tried  it 
knows  how  difficult  it 
is  to  load.  Fig.  13 
shows  how  to  arrange 
a  ladder  up  which  a 
man  can  easily  walk 
with  his  arms  full  of 

COrn      fodder.          It       is  ^FIG    IS.— LAPDER  FOB  LOADING  FODDER. 

merely  a  plank,  two  inches  thick,  a  foot  wide  and  ten  or  twelve 

feet  long,  attached  by  ropes  or  chains'  to  the  rear  end  of  the 

wagon. 

Fig.  14  shows  a  cheap  corn  horse.     It  is  often  desirable  to 

cut  off  the  corn  and  seed  the  shock  row  before  setting  up  the 

shocks.  This  can  be  done  by 
the  use  of  the  "horse."  The 
pin  should  fit  loosely,  and  be 
long  enough  so  that  it  can  be 
easily  drawn  out  after  the  shock 

is  set  up,  when  the  horse  can  be  drawn  forward  to  where  the 

next  shock  is  wanted  and  the  pin  put  back. 

Fig.  15  illustrates  a  simple  device  for  pulling  straw  out  of  a 

stack.     Go  to  the  woods  and  cut  a 

limb  five   or  six   feet   long  with   a 

branch   near   the  large    end,  which  FIG.  IS.-HAY  HOOK. 

must  be  cut  off  and  sharpened,  and  the  end  of  the  limb  sharp- 


FIG.  14.— SHOCKING-HORSE. 


HANDY  THINGS  ABOUT  THE  FARM. 


409 


Fio.  16.— CRAB  FOR  SHOCKING  CORN. 


ened  also,  as  shown  in  the  cut.  Plunge  this  into  the  stack  as 
far  as  you  can  and  pull  out.  It  will  be  found  very  useful. 
Fig.  16  shows  another  form  of  corn  horse,  called  a  crab. 
One  of  the  legs  is  fast- 
ened firmly  to  the 
block;  the  others  are 
fitted  in  loosely,  so 
that  they  can  be  easily 
removed.  In  shock- 
ing corn  with  a  horse 
of  any  kind,  the  center 
of  the  shock  should  be 
set  quite  straight,  and 
when  twenty  or  thirty 
hills  are  set  up,  tie 
firmly,  and  when  the  shock  is  finished  tie  it  tightly  again. 

Fig.  17  shows  a  broom-corn  scraper.  It  is  a  cheap  way  to  get 
the  year's  stock  of  brooms  to  grow  your  own  brush,  and  the 
above  simple  device,  which  can  be  made  in  a  few  minutes,  will 

answer  to  scrape  the  seed  from  a  few 
hundred  pounds.  It  is  made  by  sawing 
into  the  end  of  a  tough  half-inch  board, 
so  as  to  make  a  comb.  The  teeth  should 
be  tapered  a  little  both  ways,  and  pointed 
at  the  top.  It  should  be  a  foot  wide,  and 
the  cuts  six  inches 
Nail  firmly 

to  a  heavy  piece  of  timber  so  that  it  will 
lean  a  little  from  the  operator.  To  re- 
move the  seed,  strike  the  brush  onto  the 
comb  and  pull  towards  you. 

A  cheap  and  convenient  bag-holder 
will  be  found  a  great  convenience,  and 
this  is  shown  in  Fig.  18.  The  arm 
which  holds  the  bag  is  hung  on  a  bolt, 
which  fits  loosely,  so  as  to  raise  or  lower  it  to  suit  different 
lengths  of  bugs.  When  not  in  use  it  can  be  let  down,  as  it  will 


Fio.  17.— CHKAC  BKOOM-CORN    , 

SCKATKK.  deep. 


FIQ.  18.— BAG-HOLDEK. 


410 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


be  less  in  the  way  and  not  so  likely  to  be  broken.  The  addition 
of  wheels  to  the  platform  would  make  it  still  more  convenient. 
As  chickens  furnish  a  large  part  of  the  meat  used  on  the 
farm  in  the  summer,  and  when  killed  in  the 
ordinary  way  often  bruise  and  dirty  them- 
selves, we  give  an  illustration  (Fig.  19)  of 
an  arrangement  for  holding  them  while  cut- 
ting off  their  heads  and  afterwards  while 
bleeding.  The  post  should  be  set  firmly 
in  the  ground  and  the  top  sawed  off  square. 
Saw  a  notch  in  a  board  to  receive  the  fowl's 
neck,  and  nail  to  the  back  of  the  post. 
Make  the  hoppers  eight  inches  square  at  the 
top  and  let  them  taper  to  two  inches  at  the 
bottom.  As  soon  as  the  head  is  cut  off,  drop  the  fowl  in  the 
hopper,  neck  down.  It  can  not  bruise  itself,  and  is  in  a  position 
to  drain  all  the  blood  out  of  its  body.  Any  one  will  appreciate 
this  who  has  had  his  clothes  dabbled  with  blood,  or  who  has 
been  obliged  to  hunt  ten  minutes  for  a  chicken  that  had  flopped 
fifty  feet  into  the  high,  wet  weeds  on  a  dewy  morning,  and  find 
it  dripping  and  dirty. 


FIG.  19.— KILLING-POST 
FOR  FOWLS. 


FIG.  20.— To  PREVENT  SELF-SUCKING. 


FIG.  21.— ANOTHER  METHOD  TO  PREVENT 
SELK-SUCKING. 


Figs.  20  and  21  show  a  cheap  and  convenient  device  to  pre- 
vent a  cow  from  sucking  herself.  Either  style  may  be  used  and 
will  be  found  effectual. 


HANDY  THINGS  ABOUT  THE  FARM. 


411 


FIG.  22. — FKAME  FOK  NECK  TO  PREVENT 
SEI,F-SUCKING. 


Fig.  22  shows  another  device  for  the  prevention  of  self-suck- 
ing, which  is  easily  made  and  applied.  The  spikes  shown  in 
the  cut  should  not  be  used 
unless  it  is  found  absolutely 
necessary,  as  they  will  pre- 
vent the  cow  from  using  her 
head  to  fight  flies  in  warm 
weather.  The  frames  are 
fastened  together  at  the  top 
with  leather  or  strong  cloth, 
and  by  straps  and  buckles 
below. 

The  nose  jewel  illustrated 
in  Fig.  23  may  be  used  on  a 
cow  to  prevent  self-sucking, 
or  on  a  calf  which  you  wish 
to  wean.  In  order  that  they  may  fit  so  as  to  not  be  easily 
removed  by  the  animal,  it  is  best  to  have 
one  side  movable  and  put  on  with  screws,  as 
shown  in  the  cut.  It  should  be  made  of  hard 
wood,  half  or  three-fourths  inch  thick,  and 

FIG.  23.— NOSK  JEWEL.       well    polished. 

A  snow-plow  will  save  a  good  deal  of  labor  in  shoveling  out 
paths  in  winter,  in  localities 
where  deep  snows  fall,  and 
the  one  shown  in  Fig.  24 
is  cheap  and  effective. 
With  such  a  snow-plow 
it  will  be  quick  work  to 

make  all  the  paths  needed  FIG.  24.— SNOW- PLOW. 

on  the  farm,  to  the  nearest  neighbors,  or  to  the  school. 

Fig.  25  shows  a  form  of  flood-gate  which  will  be  found 
cheap  and  durable  in  many  localities.  It  could  be  used  in  con- 
nection with  the  hogshead  abutments  illustrated  in  our  fence 
chapter,  in  which  case  staples  should  be  driven  through  the 
staves  of  the  hogsheads  and  clinched  before  they  are  filled  with 
stone.  A  stream  twenty  feet  wide  or  more  can  be  fenced  in 


412 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


this  way.     If  not  more  than  twelve   or  fifteen  feet  wide,  but 
one  set  of  rails  would  be  needed,  which  could  be  hinged  at  one 

end  and  rest  on  pins  driven 
into  the  post  at  the  other. 
The  pins  should  be  on  the 
lower  side  and  should  slant 
upward,  so  that  the  rails 
would  not  be  easily  blown 
or  crowded  off  from  them, 
but  as  the  water  rises  they 
will  be  lifted  and  float  around. 


FIG.  25. — WATEK-GAP. 


FIG.  26.— STUMP-PULLER. 


Fig.  26  illustrates  a  cheap  and  effective  stump-puller  which 
can  be  made  by  many  farmers  themselves  or  by  any  black- 
smith, and  by  means  of  which  two  horses  can  twist  quite  a 
large  stump  out  of  the  ground. 
It  should  be  made  as  strong 
as  possible,  as  there  will  be 
such  a  leverage  in  using  it, 
that  two  horses  can  exert 
great  power.  The  point  p  is 
driven  into  the  stump,  the  chain 
passed  half-way  round,  and 
the  lever  put  through  a  link,  and  the  horses  attached  to  the  hook. 
Fig.  27  shows  an  attachment  to  a  wagon-bed,  to  be  used 
when  corn,  potatoes,  sawdust,  etc.,  is  to  be  shoveled  out.  When 
attached  to  the  wagon,  the  tail-board  can  be  at  once  removed 

without  spilling  any  of 
the  load  on  the  ground. 
When  not  wanted,  it  can 
be  taken  off  and  put 
away.  This  is  a  great 
improvement  on  the  plan 
of  placing  a  board  inside  the  bed  with  one  end  on  the  top  of 
the  tail-board  and  the  other  on  the  bottom  of  the  bed  of 
the  wagon. 

Figs.  28  and   29  illustrate  a  dumping-sled  for  drawing  ma- 
nure, stone,  or  earth.     The  sled   may  be  used  either   side  up, 


FIG.  27.— WAGON-BKD  ATTACHMENT. 


HANDY  THINGS  ABOUT  THE  FAHM. 


413 


and  drawn  either  backward  or  forward.     The  runners  are  made 

of  strong   plank,  and  serve  for  side-boards  as  well  as  runners. 

The  manner  of  dumping  is  shown  in  Fig.  29.     The  short  chain 

is  unfastened,  and  the  team 

is  allowed   to  draw   by   the 

long  chain,  which  dumps  the 

sled. 


Fig.  30  illustrates  a  cheap 
and  convenient  potato  screen, 
by  means  of  which  not  only  the  loose  earth  among  the  potatoes, 
but  the  small  potatoes  also  can  be  taken  out.     The  slats  should 

be  rounded  on  the  upper 
side  and  planed  smooth,  so 
as  to  reduce  friction  as  much 


FIG.  28.— SELF-DUMPING  SLED  EMPTY. 


as  possible,  and  should  be  a 
little  wider  apart  at  the  bot- 


FIG.  29.— SELF-DCMPING  SLED  LOADED. 

torn  than  the  top  of  the  screen.     A  good  width  for  it  is  twenty 

inches,  and  the  lower  end  should  be  high  enough   to  receive  a 

basket.    Often  it  can  be  so  arranged  that  the  potatoes  can  be  run 

directly   into    a    bin    in    the 

cellar  through  a  window.   An 

old    cloth   spread   under  the 

screen  will  facilitate  gathering 

up  what  passes  through,  and 

also   prevent  dirt   and   litter 

near  the  house. 

Fig.  31  shows  a  cover  for  a 
roller.  It  is  well  known  that 
exposure  to  the  weather  dam- 
ages farm  machinery  more 
than  its  use,  and  as  the  roller 
is  large  and  awkward  to  put 
in  the  shed  and  occupies  a 
good  deal  of  space,  it  is  more  j:'4'T! 
likely  to  be  left  out  than  most  FI.;.  .^.-POTATO 

implements.    If  raised  a  few  inches  from  the  ground  and  covered 
with   a  box  like    that   shown   in   our   engraving,  it  will   be   as 


414 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


FIG.  81.— ROLLER  COVER. 


secure  as  if  in  the  barn.  The  sides  of  this  cover  should  be  of 
light  lumber  and  lapped  like  weather-boarding  to  keep  out  the 
rain.  The  top  should  be  of  matched  lumber  and  well  painted. 

Fig.  32  illustrates  the  cheapest 
and  most  convenient  plan  for 
cooking  food  for  stock,  heating 
water,  or  boiling  maple  sap.  It 
consists  of  a  wooden  box  with 
sheet-iron  bottom,  arid  as  this 
thin  iron  heats  through  quickly, 
water  can  be  boiled  in  it  in  much  less  time  than  in  an  iron 
kettle.  The  box  should  be  of  two-inch  plank,  and  sixteen  inches 
wider  than  the  fire  chamber.  The  sheet  iron  can  be  put  on  with 
common  shingle  nails.  The  furnace  can  be  built  of  stone  laid 
up  with  clay,  which  will  endure  the  heat  much  better  than 
lime  mortar.  Care  must  be  taken  to  protect  the  wood  at  the 
ends  from  the  fire.  The  sides  will  be  well  protected  by  extend- 
ing out  on  to  the  wall.  The  furnace  should  be  made  high,  so 
as  to  give  room  for  the  wood,  and  a  piece  of  sheet  iron  will 
answer  for  a  door.  Any  laborer  can  build  such  a  furnace,  for  the 
wall  being  cov- 
ered with  earth 
can  be  built 
rough.  The 
entire  expense 
for  a  pan  that 
will  cook  two 
barrels  should 
not  exceed  five 
dollars.  An 
old  stove-pipe 
can  be  used  for 
a  chimney. 
When  the  pan 

is  emptied,  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  fire  is  all  out,  or 
a  little  cold  water  put  in  the  pan,  as  the  bottom  is  so  thin  it  will 
be  easily  burned  out.  If  the  door  is  left  open,  the  draft  will 


HANDY  THINGS  ABOUT  THE  FARM. 


415 


soon  cool  the  furnace.     1  prefer  this  to  any  of  the  high-priced 

steamers  or  cookers  I  have  ever  seen. 

Fig.  33  shows  a  simple   three-horse  evener,  which  can  be 

made   by  any  blacksmith.     While  ordinarily  the  single  horse 

hitched   to  the  upper   part  will 

want  twice  the  length  of  shank 

that  the  two  hitched  below  will, 

it  would  be  well  to  have  several 

holes,  so  as  to  vary  it  to  suit  a 

light  or  heavy  horse.  Fl°-  ^.- 

Fig.  34  shows  a  simple  device  for  measuring  land.     It  is  a 

wheel  sixteen  and  one-half  feet  in  circumference,  so  that  each 

revolution  will  make  a  rod.    The  rim  can  be  spaced  off  into  feet, 

so  as  to  measure  fractions  of  a  rod.    One  spoke  should  be  painted 

a  different  color  from  the  rest,  or  can 
have  a  white  or  red  strip  of  cloth  tied 
around  it,  so  as  to  make  no  mistakes 
in  counting  the  revolutions.  Mine  was 
made  from  an  old  spinning  wheel; 
but  an  old  buggy  hub  can  easily  be 
provided  with  long  spokes  and  a  light 


FIG.  :M. — LAND  MEASURER. 


rim,  and  will  answer  for  the  purpose.  By  holding  the  handle, 
it  can  be  trundled  in  front  of  the  operator  and  the  revolutions 
counted,  and  a  field  measured  almost  as  accurately  as  by  two 
men  carrying  a  chain. 

It  is  often  desirable  to  tether  a  horse  or 
cow  in  order  to  save  grass  that  is  not  protected 
by  a  fence,  so  that  the  animal  can  be  turned  on 
it,  and  to  do  this  safely  requires  a  good  tether- 
pin  with  swivel,  as  shown  in  Fig.  35.  By  the 
use  of  such  a  pin  and  a  chain  instead  of  a  rope, 
the  animal  may  be  tethered  with  perfect  safety, 
as  it  is  impossible  to  wind  up  the  chain  on 
the  pin. 

Fig.  36  on  page  416,  shows  a  rack  for  hang- 
ing a  beef.     The  cross-piece  should  be  square  at  FIG.  aa- 
the  ends  and  fitted  to  the  front  uprights  so  that  they  can  not 


416 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


turn,  while  the  single  upright  at  the  rear  should  have  a  round 

hole,  so  as  turn  on  the  cross-piece.     The  hooks  should  be  mov- 

able, so  as  to  be  adjusted  to 
a  large  or  small  beef. 

Fig.  37  shows  a  neat  and  at- 
tractive shipping  box  for 
poultry,  or  it  may  be  used  for 
young  pigs  or  puppies.  For 
poultry,  all  but  the  ends  may 
be  made  of  half-inch  stuff.  A 
good  size  for  a  single  pair  of 
fowls  is  eighteen  inches  long, 
twelve  inches  wide,  arid  six- 
teen to  eighteen  inches  high 
at  the  highest  point.  The  slats 

may  be  two  inches  wide  and  from  two  to  three  inches  apart, 

according  to  the  size  of  fowls  to 

be   shipped.     Cheap  handles  can 

be  made  by  boring  half-inch  holes 

and  passing  a  small  rope  through, 

tying  a  knot  on  the  inside  to  pre- 
vent it  from  slip- 
ping through. 
The  bottom 
should  be  closed 

for 


BEEF  BACK. 


sx 


Ii'IG-  37-—  SHIPP1NO"BOX  FOK  FOWLS. 


inches  to  prevent  the  fowls  from  getting  their 
legs  through. 

Fig.  38  shows  what  is  called  "a  make-shift 
well  curbing."  In  a  new  prairie  country,  where 
stone  can  not  be  had,  the  new  settler  often 
needs  a  well  at  once  before  he  is  able  to  pay 
for  brick  to  wall  it.  Good  oak  hogsheads  can 


*^OsXS>-Ol'  -T  '    V-    "     -  X!"    XS  V*»         VV          TTl*A*        1U«  \-A  \J\J\A        WtA/i*.        Ai  VCfciJ  A»  V>«-VV-»kJ         V>«AAA 

*  often  be  bought  cheaply,  and  will  last  in  the 

to.  38.— HARMEI.  WKT.T-  r   •>  ' 


FIG.  38.— BAKKEL  WELL- 

ground  for  many  years,  or  if  these  can  not  be 
had,  even  cement  barrels  will  answer  the  purpose. 

It  is  often  necessary  to   stack  hay   or   corn  fodder   when  a 


HANDY  THINGS  ABOUT  THE  FARM. 


417 


little   damp,  so   that  there  is  more  or    less  danger  of  molding, 
and   if   the    stack    can  be  arranged   so  as   to   give   ventilation 

through  the  center,  this  danger  will  be 
greatly  reduced.  Fig.  39  shows  how  a 
cheap  frame  can  be  made  to  be  used  for 
this  purpose,  and  Fig.  40  shows  how  they 
can  be  placed  one  above  another  and 
carried  up  to  any 
desired  height.  The 

Pio.  89.— SECTION  OF  VENTI-  •  r^    11 

corner  pieces  should 


be  two  inches  square,  and  three-inch  strips 

of  board  will   be   sufficient   to  hold    them 

together.    When  once  made  with  care  they 

will  last  for  years. 

Fig.  41  shows  another  cheap  way  of 
ventilating  a  hay  or  fod- 
der stack,  while  Fig.  42 
shows  how  two  boards 
nailed  together  may 
keep  open  a  passage  for 

the    air   and   in-         Flo<  ^.^ 

sure  perfect  ventilation. 

Fig.  43  on  page  418  illustrates  a 
bushel    box.      These    are    not    only 
much  cheaper  than  baskets,  but  more 
FIQ.  ^.-VENTILATOR  FOR  STACK,    convenient,  especially  for  the  market 

gardener,  as   they  pack  into  a  wagon  better.       They  are  also 

better    than    barrels    for    storing 

winter  apples  in  the  cellar,  as  they 

are    light    to  handle    and   can   be 

placed  one   above   another  to  the 

ceiling  and  afford  good  ventilation. 

To   hold  a  bushel  and   not  be  so 

full  but  that   they  can  be  set  on 

top  of  each  other,  they  should  be 

made  one  foot  wide,  one  foot  deep, 


and  eighteen   and    a   half   inches 

27 


Fiu.  42.— BOTTOM  VENTILATION. 


418 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


long.     Make  the  ends  of  inch  pine  with  holes  cut  for  handles, 
and  the  bottom  and  sides  of  lath  or  narrow  strips. 

Fig.  44  illustrates  a  gate 
with  pivot  hinge.  The  pin 
at  the  bottom  may  be  of  hard 
wood  or  of  iron,  while  for 
the  top  hinge  a  piece  of  round 
iron  can  be  bent  to  fit  the  hole 
in  the  top  of  the  upright,  and 


A  BUSHEL-BOX. 


with  the  other  end  flattened  and  two  or  three  holes  punched  in  it  so 
it  can  be  nailed  to  the  post. 
Figures  45  and  46  illus- 
trate a  form  of  gate  which 
will  be  found  very  convenient 
in  localities  where  deep 
snows  make  it  difficult  to 
keep  the  passageway  clear 
so  that  a  gate  will  swing 
readily.  The  gate  is  cheap 
and  easily  made.  It  should 
be  put  together  with  bolts 
and  the  post  to  which  the 

gate  is  hung  must 

be   set  leaning.     A  gallon  paint  pail,  filled  with  small 

stone  can  be  used  for  a  weight. 

Fig.  47  illustrates  a   double  pivot  gate  which  is 
very  cheap  and  convenient,  particularly  for  pas- 


Fia.  44. — PIVOT-HINGED  GATE. 


FIG.  45.— GATE  HUNG  WITH  WEIGHT,  OPEN.      FIG.  46.— GATE  HUNG  WITH  WEIGHT,  CLOSED. 


tures   where   large   herds   of  cattle   are   to  be   driven   through. 
No   hinges   will   be   needed,  as  the   upright  in  the  center  will 


HANDY  THINGS  ABOUT  THE  FARM. 


419 


be  rounded  to  two  inches  and  fitted  into  a  hole  in  the  top  cross- 
piece,  and  the 
bottom  to  a 
hole  in  a  post 
or  piece  of  tim- 
ber at  the  bot- 
tom. The  long 
braces  will  keep 

the     gate     from  Fro.  4?.— DOUBLE  PIVOT  GATE. 

sagging.     The  latch  and  catch  can  be  made  so  that  the  gate  can 

be  swung  either  way. 

Fig.  48   illustrates  a  very    convenient    form  of  ladder  for 

the    orchard.     Old   wheels  can  be  found  on  many  farms  or  can 

be  bought  very  cheap  at  the  repair  shops,  and  the  cost  of  fitting 
up  such  a  ladder  would  be  trifling  compared 
with  the  benefit  derived  from  it  in  the  orchard. 
Care  must  be  exercised  in  making  it  that  it 
does  not  extend  so  high  as  to  overbalance  with 
the  weight  of  a  basket  of  fruit. 

Fig.  49  illustrates  a  ladder  which  will  be 


FIG.  48.— BARROW  LADDER. 

found  very  useful  in  the  orchard. 
The  finer  fruit  grows  at  the  extrem- 
ities of  the  branches,  and  usually  can 
not  be  reached  by  a  ladder  which  must 
be  supported  by  leaning  against  the 
tree,  as  the  branches  are  not  strong  Flf} •  «-s«"-«Trpo*T"«» 
enough  to  support  the  ladder  with  the  added  weight  of  a  man. 


420 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


With  such   a  ladder  as   the  above  the  fruit  at  the  ends  of  the 
branches  can  be  easily  reached.     The  braces  which  support  this 

ladder    are   secured   by  a    single 
bolt  to   a  piece   of   board   firmly 
bolted  to  the  top  of  the   ladder. 
The  ladder  shown  in  Fig.  50 
can  be  used  as  a  step-ladder  for 
the    low    trees    or    branches,    or 
when  open  and  turned  hinge  side 
down,  its  length  will  be  doubled, 
strap   hinges,  such  as  are 
used   on  gates   will  an- 
swer the  purpose. 

Fig.  51  shows  a  cheap 
ladder  which  possesses 
some  advantages.  If 
made  of  light  wood  it  is 

FIG.  50,-ooMBiNED  STRAIGHT  AND  STEP-LADDER,  easily  raised,  and  can  be 
made  to  stand  firmly  by  placing  it  in  a  small  fork,  where  a 
common  two-sided  ladder 
would  not  go.  If  made  of 
free-splitting  timber,  a  bolt 
with  washers  should  be  used 
at  the  upper  part  of  the 
split. 

It  is  often  necessary  to  put 
up  a  scarecrow  of  some  kind 
to  protect  the  corn-fields  or 
poultry-yard,  and  we  here  il- 
lustrate two.  Fig.  52  is  an 
imitation  crow  made  by  stick- 
ing feathers  into  a  cork  or 
block  of  wood.  The  piece  of 
bright  tin  above  serves  to 
help  keep  it  in  motion,  and 
by  its  reflection  makes  it  more 
effective.  In  Fig.  53  the  tin  is  hung  below  and  a  pair  of  nails 


FlG-  SL- 


LADDER. 


HANDY  THINGS  ABOUT  THE  FARM. 


421 


so  arranged   as  to  strike   the   sides  of  a  bottle  from  which  the 
bottom  has  been  removed,  or  an  old  tin  can 
may  be  substituted    for    the    bottle.      The 
noise  added  to  the  motion  makes  this  more 
terrifying  to  the  birds. 

It   is   often    desirable   to 

protect  valuable  plants,  either 

from   the   sun  or  frost,  and 

Fig.  54  shows  a  convenient 

and   simple   plan.     The   left 

hand  figure  shows  twigs  bent 

and  stuck  in  the  ground  to 

form  an   arch,  while  at  the 

right  hand  these  twigs  are 

covered  with  a  newspaper,  which  is  kept  in  place 

by  clods  or  small  stones  laid  on  the  edges. 

Fig.  55  shows  a  hogshead  sheep  rack.      Mr. 

J.  M.  Jameson  writes  me  that  he  has  used  this 

for  some   years    and  is  much   pleased    with   it. 


FIG.  64.— PLANT  PROTECTOR. 

He  cuts  nine  holes  in  a  hogshead  three  feet 
in  diameter.  The  holes  should  be  ten  inches 
in  diameter  in  the  widest  part.  When  fed  from 

such    a   "  rack "  as  this  the 

sheep  do  not  waste  the  hay 

or  interfere  with  each  other. 

It  will   be  best  to  have  the 

hogsheads    hooped    with    old 

buggy  tires,  as  the  cost  will 

be   small    and   it  will   make 

them  more  durable. 

It  is   often   advisable   to 

Kia.  55.— HousiiKAD  HHEKH  RACK. 


422 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


/minx 


keep  some  of  the  cattle  in  the  barn-yard   when  there  is  good 
shelter  at  the  stack,  and  they  will  need  a  little  meal  or  grain. 

Some  kind  of  a  feed 
box  will  be  necessary, 
and  it  should  be  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  be  pro- 
tected from  snow  and 
rain.  Fig.  56  shows  a 
hinged  feed-box,  which 
when  not  in  use  can 
be  turned  up  against 


FIG.  56.— HINGED  FEED-BOX. 

place  by  an  iron  hasp  or  wooden  catch. 

Fig.  57  shows  a  box  to  be  set  on  the 
ground,  with  an  upright,  which  can  be  used 
for  a  handle  to  move  it,  or  which  will  keep 
the  edges  out  of  the  mud  if  it  is  turned 
over. 


the  fence  and  held   in 


FIG.  57.— FEED-BOX 
WITH  HANDLE. 


Fig.  58  shows  a  box  with  a  hinged  lid,  which  can  be  closed 

when  desired. 

Fig.  59  illustrates  a  trough  or  table 
for  tagging  sheep.  A  sheep  placed 
on  its  back  in  this  can  not  turn  over, 
and,  without  being  tied,  can  be  readily 
managed  by  one  man.  It  will  be 


FKJ.  58.— FEED- BOX  WITH  COVER. 


found  a  great  convenience 
and  saving  of  time  where 
large  flocks  are  to  be 
handled. 

Fig.  60  illustrates  a 
method  of  prevention  and 
cure  for  a  butting;  ram. 


FIG.  59.— TAGGINO-TABLE  FOR  SHEEP. 


confirmed  in  the  habit  of  butting  as  to  render  it  necessary  to  kill 


HANDY  THINGS  ABOUT  THE  FARM. 


423 


or  cure  them,  as  they  become  dangerous.  As  a  ram  always 
backs  a  few  steps  to  prepare 
for  a  lunge,  if  a  pair  of  light 
poles  are  fastened  to  his  horns 
so  as  to  prevent  his  backing, 
his  butting  intentions  will  be 
diverted.  After  wearing  them 
for  a  short  time,  one  can  be 
removed,  and  when  the  habit 
is  cured  the  other  taken  off. 
Fig.  61  illustrates  a  sheep 


shearing  table. 


FIG.  61  — SHEARING  TABUS. 


FIG.  60.— BUTTING  PREVENTOR. 

The  cords  shown  at  the  sides  can  be  used  for 
fastening  its  legs  if  neces- 
sary. The  table  can  be 
made  of  a  height  to  suit 
the  shearer. 

In  these  days  of  fine- 
bred  hogs  it  is  often  quicker 
and  safer  to  take  them  to 
market  in  a  wagon  than  to 
drive  them,  and  such  a  rack 
as  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  62  will  be  found  very  convenient 
in  loading  and  unloading  them.  It  can  be  made  so  as  to 
be  taken  apart  when  not  in  use,  as  it  will  be  lighter  to  han- 
dle and  easier 
to  store.  There 
should  be  cleats 
nailed  on  the 
floor  to  prevent 
the  hogs  from 
slipping.  The 
rack  for  the 
bed  will  often 

be  found  of  advantage  in  hauling  stove  wood,  pumpkins,  or 
any  light  material  of  which  the  horses  can  draw  more  than 
a  wagon  bed  full. 

Fig.  63   shows  a  home-made   root-cutter.     The   farmer  who 


FIG.  62.— HOG  LOADER. 


424 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


grows  a  large  quantity  of  beets  or  other  roots  to  feed  will  want 

a  better  and  more  expen- 
sive machine,  but  one  such 
as  shown  in  the  cut  will 
answer  the  purpose  where 
but  one  or  two  cows  are 
to  be  fed.  The  box  should 
be  large  enough  to  hold  a 
bushel  or  more  of  roots 
without  their  being  in  the 
way  of  the  operator. 

Some   very   valuable 
horses    acquire    a    nervous 

FIG.  63.— HOME-MADE  ROOT  CUTTER.  habit     of      kicking      in     the 

stable,  and  although  they  are  not  vicious  and  only  kick  in  play, 
the  habit  is  very  annoying.  One  of  the  best  horses  I  ever 
owned  would  kick  the  har- 
ness down  when  it 


was 

hung  six  feet  from  the  floor, 
or  if  put  in  a  stable  where 
he  could  reach  the  weather- 
boarding,  he  would  batter 
it  off  before  morning.  The 
simple  device  shown  in 
Fig.  64  is  said  to  be  an 
effective  cure.  When  the 
horse  kicks  the  log  it  swings 
back  and  strikes  him  and 
he  soon  learns  to  be  quiet. 
The  stick  should  be  smooth, 
not  too  heavy,  and  hung 
near  enough  to  the  horse  so  that  he  can  not  kick  it  with  full 
force.  A  hook  or  rack  should  be  arranged  to  receive  it  when 
it  is  not  needed. 

Fig.  65  shows  a  hanging  milk  and  fruit  shelf  which  is  not 
only  inaccessible  to  rats  and  mice,  but  affords  a  good  circulation 
of  air.  It  can  be  made  of  any  size  desired.  The  floor  may  be 


FIG.  64.— To  CURE  THE  KICKING 


HANDY  THINGS  ABOUT  THE  FARM. 


425 


supported  by  nailing  inch  boards  to  the  hanging  supports,  or  the 
latter  may  be  mortised.  If  long  shelves  are  wanted,  a  middle 
support  will  be  necessary. 


Kiu.  66.— HANGING  RAT-PBOOK  SHKLF. 


The  sun  and  wind  are  the  great  purifiers,  and  the  house- 

wife understanding  this,  puts  out  her   milk  pans,  pails,  dish- 

cloths, etc.,  where  they  can  receive  their 

full  benefit.    Fig.  66  shows  a  convenient 

rack  for  the  purpose,  and  one  that  will 

save  steps,  as  it  can  be  revolved  so  as 

to  bring  any  article  to  the  side  nearest 

the  kitchen  door.     An  old  buggy  wheel 

that  has  served  its  time  for  purposes  of 

locomotion,  may  have  years  of  usefulness 

added  to  its  existence,  and  also  save  the   FIO.  w  -WHWL  DWIHQ  RACK, 

farmer's  wife  many  steps,  by  doing  duty  in  this  way. 

Fig.  67  shows  a  simple  de- 
vice for  elevating  the  clothes 
line.  It  is  inconvenient  for  a 
woman  to  reach  to  hang  sheets, 
table-cloths,  etc.,  as  high  as 
they  ought  to  be  while  drying, 
and  by  this  arrangement  the 
clothes  can  be  hung  with  the 
line  low  and  then  raised.  The 
post  should  be  broad,  and  the 
lever  bolted  to  it  so  as  turn 


FIG.  67.-CI.OTHK.S 


rauged  so  as  to  keep  the  line  at  any  desired  height. 


426 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


Fig.  68  shows  a  good  foot-scraper,  such  as  should  be  found 
at  every  door.     Tf  the  boys — and  men — are  taught  to  use  the 

scraper  in  muddy  weather 
whenever   they    come   into 
Br  the     house,     and    an     old 
broom  is  kept  hanging  by 
it  to  sweep  the  feet,  much 
FIU.  es.— FOOT- SCRAPER.  labor  in  sweeping  and  dust 

and  dirt  on  the  carpets  will  be  avoided,  and  in  many  cases  cross 
words  and  hard  thoughts  prevented. 

Fig.  69  shows  how  an 
old  spade  can  be  utilized 
for  a  scraper,  and  a  little 
ingenuity  will  enable  one 
to  arrange  an  old  broom 
on  either  side  to  clean  the 
sides  of  the  boots. 

Home-made  articles  of 
furniture  are  often  more 

appreciated      than      those  FlG-  ^.-FOOT-SCRAPER  AND  BRUSH. 

bought  from  the  shop.     Our  cut  shows  how  an  easy-chair  can 
be  made  from  a  barrel.     Fig.  70  shows   how   it  should   be   cut 


Fio.  70.— BARREL  CHAIR. 


FIG.  71.— BARREL  CHAIR  UPHOLSTERED. 


and  how  the  castors  are  attached,  while  Fig.  71  shows  how  the 
chair  will  look  after  it  is  finished. 

While   visiting   Professor  Townshend  at  Columbus,  he  had 
occasion  to  refer  to  a  book  on  a  high  shelf  in  his  library,  and 


HANDY  THINGS  ABOUT  THE  FARM. 


427 


getting  up  he  took  hold  of  the  back  of  his  chair  and  in  a  twink- 
ling it  was  converted  into  a  step-ladder.  Such  a  chair  would 
be  a  convenience  in  every  house,  as  the  housekeeper  almost 


FIG.  72.— CHAIR  AND  STEP-LADDER. 


Fio.  73.— As  A  STEP-LADDER. 


daily  needs  to  hang  a  picture,  arrange  a  curtain,  wash  a  window, 
or  reach  a  high  shelf.  The  chair  (Figs.  72,  73)  can  be  neatly 
finished,  so  as  to  be  ornamental,  and  when  not  wanted  as  a  step- 
ladder  can  be  used  as  a  chair. 

Figs.  74  and  75  illustrate  another  simple  convenience,  and 


Fio.  74.— TOOL-BOX  CHAIR  CLOSED. 


Fio.  75.— TOOL-BOX  CHAIR  OPEN. 


may  be  used  for  a  variety  of  purposes.     If  the  farmer  has  some 
mechanical  skill  and  wishes  to  work  evenings,  he  can  use  this 


428 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


tJ 


to  keep  his  tools,  awls,  gimlet,  hammer,  etc.  It  would,  if  not 
wanted  for  this  purpose,  make  an  excellent  place  to  keep  the 
blacking  brush  and  blacking,  or  the  shoes  for  a  small  family 
could  be  kept  in  it.  One  could  be  used  by  the  mother  for 
stockings  and  darning  material.  If  neatly  made  and  cushioned, 

it  would  look  well  and  make  a  comfortable 
chair,  and  if  on  castors,  could  be  easily 
moved.  It  should  be  made  just  the  height 
of  an  ordinary  chair. 

Fig.  76  shows  a  set  of  stationary  slat 
shelves.  They  have  many  advantages 
over  boards.  They  are  much  cheaper  and 
more  easily  kept  clean,  and  when  used  for 
milk,  the  bottom  of  the  pan  being  exposed 
to  the  air,  the  milk  cools  sooner  than 
when  on  a  board  shelf.  These  shelves  can 
easily  be  made  inaccessible  to  rats,  as  sug- 
gested for  the  revolving  shelves. 

There  is  no  simpler  device  to  prevent 
a  cow  from  sucking  herself  thnn  that 
shown  in  Fig.  77.  The  stick  should  be  of  hard  wood,  and  the 
ends  sharpened  and  firmly  bound  to  the 
horns.  It  can  be  re- 
moved when  the  cow 
loses  the  inclination 
to  suck,  which  will 
usually  be  in  a  short 
time. 

We  have  for  many 
years  used  in  the  cel- 
lar a  set  of  shelves 


FIG.  76.— SLAT  SHELVES. 


FIG.  77.— To  PREVENT 
SELF-SUCKING. 

made  to    revolve,   as 


shown   in  Fig.  78.      It  is   very   easily   and 
quickly  made.     The  upright  should  be  four 
^__  inches  square,  and  the  strips  half  inch  thick 
and  two  inches  wide.     They  should  project 
far  enough  to   receive  a  milk    pan  or  plate. 
The  post  or  upright  should   have  a  strong  pin  of  hard  wood  in 


HANDY  THINGS  ABOUT  THE  FARM. 


429 


FIG.  79.— RACK  FOR  TOMATOES. 


each  end.  The  upper  one  will  pass  through  a  hole  in  a  board  nailed 
to  the  joists  above,  and  the  lower  pin  in  a  block  on  the  cellar  floor. 
Even  if  this  is  made  stationary,  it  will  be  found  very  con- 
venient, as  it  occupies  but  little 
room,  and  can  be  put  up  in  a  short 
time  and  at  a  very  small  expense. 
It  can  easily  be  made  inaccessible 
to  rats  by  putting  the  first  slats 
two  and  half  feet  from  the  floor 
and  covering  the  post  with  tin.  The  shelves  may  be  any  dis- 
tance apart  desired. 

In  growing  early  tomatoes  for  the  family,  it  will  pay  to 
furnish  some  kind  of  support,  as  the  fruit  will  be  nicer,  earlier, 
and  more  abundant  than  if  the  vines  are  allowed  to  trail  on  the 
ground.  Fig.  79  shows  a  cheap  rack,  which  can  be  made  of  re- 
fuse lumber,  which  will  give  good  satisfaction  for  the  purpose. 
A  similar  rack  made  of  lath  might  be  used  for  the  tall  varie- 
ties of  peas. 

Fig.  80  illustrates  a  cheap,  portable  shelter,  which  may  be 

used  for  a  sow  and  her  litter  when 
turned  to  pasture  in  spring,  or  it 
can  be  made  high  enough  for  calves, 
or  one  of  them  placed  on  a  dry  spot 
in  the  poultry  yard  and  supplied 
with  ashes  would  make  a  good  wal- 
lowing place  for  the 
chickens  and  turkeys  in  bad  weather. 

Fig.  81  shows  a  cheap  and  convenient  gar- 
den reel.  The  side  pieces  A  A  are  slightly 
curved  to  the  center.  The  cross  pieces  B  B 
are  two  inches  wide  and  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  thick.  The  center  stake  C  should  be  two 
and  a  half  feet  long  and  with  a  shoulder  below 
the  lower  cross-piece.  A  pin  through  it  above 
the  upper  cross-piece  holds  it  in  place.  The 
cord  is  wound  up  by  the  handle  D,  and  the 
other  end  is  fastened  to  the  stake  E.  All  parts  RE«U  ' 


Fio.  80  —  PORTABLE  SIIELTEB. 


430 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


of  the  reel  should  be  made   of  hard   wood,  and   for  the  stakes 

there   is   none  that  I  am  familiar  with   so   good   as  the   osage 

orange. 

In  many  localities  a  water  gap  may  be  made  as  shown  in 

Fig.  82.     All  the  timbers  used  should  be  strong  and  of  durable 

timber.  The  end  of 
the  poles  resting  in 
the  bed  of  the  stream 
must  be  weighted 
down  with  stone.  If 
it  is  desirable  to  fill 
up  the  bed  of  the 
creek,  brush  and 

FIG.  82.— ANOTHER  WATER-GAP.  Straw    placed    On    the 

poles  will  stop  the  sediment  and  soon  make  a  dam  that  will 
stop  the  wash.  In  suitable  locations  there  is  no  better  way 
of  fencing  across  a  stream. 

Some  of  our  flowering  plants  are  weak  in  the  stem  and  re- 
quire support,  or  they  are  easily  beaten  down  by 
the  rain.  A  cheap  and  tasty  support  for  such 
plants  may  be  made  of  heavy  wire,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  83.  A  similar  one,  made  strong  enough 
to  support  a  coffee  boiler,  would  be  very  con- 
venient for  picnic  parties  when  getting  up  a 

FIG.  83.-A  WIRE 
dinner  m  the   WOOds.  STAND  OR  SUPPORT. 

In  topping  out  a  stack,  the  distance  is  often  too  great  for 
one  to  pitch  from  a  wagon  the  last  material 
needed,  and  one  can  *not  well  stand  on  a 
common  ladder  and  take  hay  or  sheaves  on 
a  fork  and  pass  them  up  to  the  one  finishing 
the  stack.  Fig.  84  shows  how  a  platform 
may  be  arranged  on  which  the  middle  man 
can  stand  and  work  with  ease  and  safety. 

There  are  many  horses  who  have  the  bad 
habit  of  throwing  the  hay  or  fodder  out  of 

FIG.  SI-STACKING  STAGE.    the  manger)  either    under    their    feet  or  else 

over    the    front    of  the    manger.     Fig.  85  shows  a  simple    de- 


HANDY  THINGS  ABOUT  THE  FARM. 


431 


FIG.  85.— RACK  AND  MANGER. 


vice  to  prevent  this.     The  rack,  which  is  shown  turned  up,  is 

made   of   iron — old,    worn    tires    are    suitable   and    cheap — and 

hinged  so  that  it  can  be  turned  up  at  the  front  of  the  manger 

or  turned  down  so  as  to  rest 

on  the  hay.    The  bars  of  the 

rack   should    be    ten    inches 

apart,  so  that  the  horse  can 

easily  get  his  nose  through 

to  eat.     I  would  recommend 

a  slatted  floor  to  the  manger, 

and   that   it  be  placed  a  foot 

or  eighteen  inches  above  the 

stable   floor.     The    dirt    and 

waste  will  then   fall   on  the 


floor  and    go    out   with    the 
soiled  bedding. 

Many  of  our  readers,  who  keep  a  diary  of  the  weather, 
would  without  doubt  be  glad  also  to  keep  a  record  of  the  rain- 
fall. Fig.  86  shows  how  a  cheap  rain  gauge  may 
be  made,  which  for  all  practical  purposes  will  be 
accurate  enough.  A  scale  of  inches  and  fractions 
should  be  marked  on  a  common  two-quart  glass 
fruit  jar,  a  cork  fitted  into  the  neck,  and  a  funnel 
with  the  top  exactly  the  size  of  the  inside  dia- 
meter of  the  jar  fitted  through  the  cork.  It  will 
be  best  to  keep  it  in  a  covered  box  with  only  the 
top  of  the  funnel  projecting  above  the  cover.  It 
should  be  placed  where  there  will  be  no  trees  or 
buildings  to  interfere  with  the  rain-fall.  For  winter 
use,  when  there  is  danger  of  freezing,  the  jar  can 
be  protected  by  dry  saw-dust. 

Fig.  87  shows  a  cheap  and  convenient  land 
measurer.  It  may  be  made  of  two  sections  of  old  wagon  bows 
or  of  limbs  having  a  natural  curve.  The'  legs  A  A  should  be 
mortised,  and  the  cross  piece  B  should  pass  through  the  mortises 
and  be  marked  with  feet  and  inches,  and  a  thumb-screw  inserted  in 
one  of  the  legs  to  hold  it  to  its  place.  When  you  wish  to 


FIG.  86.— A  HOME- 
MADE RAIN  GAUGE. 


432 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYLOCPED1A. 


measure  across  a  field,  set  it  to  four  feet  one  and  a  half  inches, 
and  four  measurements  will  be  just  one  rod.  It  will  be  found 

very  convenient  to  mark  the  spaces 
for  plants  in  the  garden,  or  the  dis- 
tance apart  for  rows  where  accuracy 
is  desirable.  It  is  used  like  a  pair 
of  compasses,  by  stepping  or  pivot- 
ing it  along. 

Fig.  88  shows  how  an  old  barrel 
can  be  utilized  for  a  chicken  coop. 

FIG.  78.— CHEAP  LAND  MKASURER.  If  large  barrels — sugar  barrels,  for 
example — are  used,  the  coops  will  be  of  comfortable  size.  If 
more  room  is  needed,  two  of  them  can  be  placed  side  by  side, 
and  two  or  more  staves  cut 
out  of  each  to  make  an  open- 
ing large  enough  for  the  hens 
to  pass  through,  and  these 
openings  placed  opposite 
each  other.  If  there  is  dan- 
ger from  rats,  one  barrel 
should  be  set  on  a  board 
floor,  and  should  have  but 
one  opening,  and  this  should  be  closed  at  night.  Some  auger 
holes  should  be  bored  in  the  staves  for  ventilation. 

The  poultry  raiser  is  often  troubled  by  the   depredations   of 
minks  or  other  small  animals  which  prey  upon  his  flocks,  and 

these  animals 
are  so  cunning 
as  to  make  it 
difficult  to  trap 
them.  A  hole 
can  be  cut  in  a 
log  and  sharp 
spikes  driven 

in  at  such  an  angle  that  the  head  of  the  animal  will  readily  slip 
past  them  when  it  attempts  to  reach  the  bnit  beyond  them,  but 
will  hold  it  when  it  attempts  to  draw  the  head  out.  The  hole 


FIG.  88.— BARREL  COOP. 


FIG. 


A  MINK  TRAP. 


HANDY  THINGS  ABOUT  THE  FARM. 


433 


should  be  rubbed  with  earth  so  as  to  make  it  look  dark  like  the 
outside  of  the  log,  as  if  it  was  left  fresh  and  white  it  would  be 
likely  to  excite  suspicion. 

Every  farmer  who  has  tried  holding  a  hog  to  ring  or  snout 
knows  how  difficult  it  is 
to  keep  them  still,  so  that 
the  operation  can  be  well 
performed.  By  using  a 
noose,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
90,  the  pig  will  hold 
himself.  Often  the  noose 
can  be  worked  into  his 


Fid.  90.— RINGING  A  HOG. 


mouth  when  he  is  eating  without  catching  him  at  all ;  but  when 
caught,  he  at  once  begins  to  squeal  and  opens  his  mouth,  when 
the  noose .  can  be  passed  round  his  upper  jaw,  and  he  at  once 
pulls  back  and  tightens  it. 

The  losses  to  the  farmer  from  the  depre- 
dations of  rats  are  enormous,  and  sometimes 
a  single  rat  that  develops  a  taste  for  young 
chickens  may  do  several  dollars  worth  of 
damage.  A  rat  can  usually  be  caught  in  a 
steel  trap,  by  setting  boards  on  edge  so  as  to 
narrow  to  three  inches,  the  point  through 
which  he  must  pass  and  covering  the  trap 
PIS.  GL-A  BAT  TRAP,  with  bran  or  sawdust.  Fig.  91  shows  a  trap 
by  means  of  which  a  large  number  of  rats  may  be  caught. 
The  top  of  the  trap  is  hung  with  a  pivot,  the  upper  side 
being  heavy  enough  so  as  to  remain  closed,  but  so  nearly 
balanced  that  the  weight  of  a  rat  on  the  other  side  will  tip  it. 
It  will  be  best  to  fasten  the  drop  and  feed  the  rats  for  a  few 
nights  on  top  of  the  trap  before  setting  it.  Bait  with  toasted 
cheese.  Put  six  inches  of  water  in  the  bottom  of  the  trap  and 
place  in  it  a  piece  of  board  three  inches  wide  and  six  long. 
This  will  hold  one  rat,  but  if  two  or  more  get  in  they  will  fight 
for  possession  of  the  block  and  drown  each  other.  This  trap  can 
be  made  of  the  half  of  a  barrel,  and  the  top  can  be  laid  over  it 
with  the  trap-door  or  pit-fall  in  the  center. 

•28 


434 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


FIG.  92. — A  CHEAP  BAG-HOLDER. 


A   device  for  holding  bags  is  shown  in  Fig.  92.     A  strong 

table  can  be  cheaply  made,  and 
your  tinner  will  charge  but  little 
for  a  tin  or  sheet  iron  funnel.  The 
funnel  when  pressed  down  closely 
will  hold  the  bag  in  place.  This 
could  be  used  without  the  funnel 
by  attaching  the  bag  to  small  hooks 
on  the  table. 

Fig.  93  shows  a  good  form  of 
press  for  small  cheeses.  The  amount 
of  pressure  can  be  regulated  by 
moving  the  hoop  near  or  farther 
from  the  fulcrum,  and  also  by  increasing  the  weight.  In  press- 
ing cheese  the  pressure  must 
be  light  at  first  or  the  cream 
will  run  off  with  the  whey. 
The  same  press  can  be  used 
for  lard,  jelly,  etc. 

There  should  be  in  every 
stable  a  closet  where  curry- 
combs, brushes,  open  links, 


r^fliLi-r 
FIG.  93.— A  HOME-MADE  PRESS. 

rings,  simple   remedies,  etc.,  can  be    kept  free  from   dust  and 

vermin.  It  can  be  made  and 
attached  to  the  wall  as  shown 
in  Fig.  94.  A  similar  closet 
with  hooks,  instead  of  shelves, 
can  be  arranged  for  the  buggy 
harness,  and  the  horse  blankets 
can  be  either  hung  up  or  folded 
and  laid  on  the  bottom. 

The  harness  often  needs  the 
"  stich  in  time "  which  will  save 
the  annoyance  of  a  break  in  an 
emergency  or  a  trip  to  town, 
and  with  some  oak  barrel  staves 
a  cheap  and  convenient  clump 


FIG.  94.— BARN-CLOSET. 


HANDY  THINGS  ABOUT  THE  FARM. 


435 


FIG.  95.— HARNESS  CLAMP 


(Fig.  95)  can  be  easily  made  to  hold  it  while  mending.     It  is 

best  to   use  screws    to   fasten   the 

boards  to  the   block,  as  there  will 

be  less  danger  of  splitting.     It  will 

be  easy  to  arrange   this    clamp   so 

that  the  pressure  will  be  sufficient 

to  hold  the  leather. 

Fig.  96  shows  a  cupboard  or  set 

of  shelves,  which  will  be  found 
very  convenient 
in  the  kitchen  or 
summer  kitchen. 
Th  ey  can  be 
made  cheaply, 
and  may  be  of 
any  required 

size.  A  door  can  be- fitted  to  the  cupboard, 
or  a  curtain  hung  in  front.  If  the  latter,  it 
should  be  made  with  rings  to  slide  on  a  wire, 
so  that  it  can  be  easily  opened  or  closed. 

In  Fig.  97  we  have  a  cheap  and  convenient 
saw-buck  for  sawing  up  long  poles  which 
can  not  be  balanced  on  an  ordinary  saw- 
buck.  Wood  or  old  rails  are  often  brought 
to  the  wood-yard  in  lengths  varying  from 

FIG.  96.— SET  OF  SHELVES.     «  i  p  11 

five  to  twelve  feet,  and  such  an  arrange- 
ment as  is  shown  in  the  engraving  is  both  cheap  and  conven- 
ient in  sawing  these  long  pieces. 

How  a  water-tight  box  or 
trough  can  be  made  is  shown 
in  Fig.  98.  It  will  be  found 
convenient  for  scalding  hogs 
or  to  use  as  a  trough  to  mix 
chop-feed  for  horses,  as  the 
sloping  ends  will  be  convenient  when  it  is  used  for  either  pur- 
pose. It  can  also  be  used  as  a  watering-trough.  The  sides 
should  be  of  good,  two-inch  plank,  and  the  ends  fitted  into  gains, 


FIG.  97.— SAW-BUCK  KOR  LONG  WOOD. 


436 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


and   it  should   be   put    together  with   white   lead.      The   rods 

should  be  of  half-inch  iron, 
and  made  with  a  tap  at  one 
end,  so  that  it  can  be  kept 
well  drawn  together. 

Fig.  99  shows  a  convenient 

FIG.  98.- WATER-TIGHT  BOX.  hook  for  cleaning  out  the  bot- 

tom of  a  horse's  foot.  It  is  often  the  case  that  ice  or  dung 
becomes  compacted  into  the  shoe,  so  that  the  horse  can  not 
stand  to  draw  a  load  on  an  icy 
hill,  and  the  teamster  must  clean 
out  the  hoof  before  starting  up 
the  hill.  This  hook  is  made 

with  a  hinge   so   that  it  can  be  FIG.  99.-A  HOOF  HOOK. 

folded  and  carried  in  the  pocket,  and  thus  always  be  on  hand 
when  needed. 

It  is  often  desirable  to  save  as  much  as  possible  of  the  lit- 
ter used  for  bedding  the  stock,  and  by  the  use  of  such  a  bar- 
row as  we  show  in  the  engrav- 
ing the  litter  from  several  stalls 
can  be  wheeled  out  and  left  in 
the  sun  to  dry,  and  brought 
back  and  used  again  at  night. 
Such  a  barrow  will  also  be 

FIG.  IOO.-A  STABLE  BARROW.  found    convenient    for   moving 

straw,  corn-fodder,  pea-brush,  empty  barrels,  or  any  light  bulky 
material. 

It  is  often  desirable  to 
have  a  cheap,  low  sled,  on 
which  to  move  a  barrel  of 
vinegar  or  molasses  or  to 
draw  in  sugar- water.  It  will 
also  be  found  convenient  to 

move  a  harrOW   Or  plow  from  FIG.  10l.— CHEAP  BARREL-SLED. 

one  field   to   another.     Fig.   101   shows  how    such   a  sled  can 
be  made. 


THE  PEOPLE'S 


FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA 


EMBRACING 


FARM  STOCK  IN  ALL  ITS  DEPARTMENTS,  INCLUDING  THE  BREEDING,  CARE, 

AND  MANAGEMENT  OE  HORSES,   CATTLE,   HOGS,   SHEEP,   POULTRY, 

BEES,  ETC.;  FOODS  FOR  ANIMALS;  BARNS  AND  BARN-YARDS; 

THE  DISEASES  OF  HORSES   AND  LIVE  STOCK, 


WITH  NUMEROUS  APPENDIXES 


INVALUABLE    FOR 


REFERENCE  IN  ALL  DEPARTMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURAL  LIFE. 


VOLUME  II. 


INTRODUCTION. 


SUCCESSFUL  farming  means  more  than  the  growing  of 
heavy  crops.  The  farmer  may  begin  on  a  fertile  farm,  and 
at  first  get  heavy  yields  of  grain,  but  if  he  follows  this  for 
a  series  of  years,  selling  the  grain  and  restoring  nothing  to  the 
soil,  his  crops  must  decrease  in  yield  until  his  lands  cease  to  pay 
for  cultivation.  Again,  the  farmer  may  be  situated  at  such  a 
distance  from  market  that  the  expense  of  delivering  his  grain 
will  largely  reduce  the  profits.  In  most  localities  the  farmer 
will  lighten  his  labor  and  increase  his  profits  by  making  promi- 
nent the  rearing  and  feeding  of  stock.  In  addition  to  this,  and 
what  is  of  greater  importance,  he  will,  by  this  means,  be  ena- 
bled to  keep  his  land  at  a  maximum  degree  of  fertility. 

No  branch  of  farming  requires  greater  intelligence  or  more 
careful  study  than  the  breeding  and  handling  of  stock.  The 
fact  that  the  farmer  keeps  on  his  farm  stock  enough  to  con- 
sume its  products,  does  not,  of  itself,  prove  that  he  is  making 
it  profitable.  Many  questions  are  involved  in  the  business  of 
stock  growing,  with  which  we  must  be  familiar  before  we  can 
tell  whether  the  farmer  is  making  or  losing  money  by  it.  The 
intelligent  farmer  should  understand  the  various  purposes  for 
which  he  keeps  stock,  and  should  see  that  that  which  he  keeps  is 
adapted  to  the  purpose  intended.  For  example :  The  horse  and 
mule  are  kept  to  furnish  power,  while  the  other  domestic  ani- 
mals furnish  food  and  clothing,  and  all  furnish  valuable  fertilizers. 

To  make  the  greatest  profit  from  stock  requires  attention  to 
several  points:  1st.  The  stock  must  be  suited  to  the  farm. 
2d.  The  amount  kept  must  correspond  to  the  size  of  the  farm. 
3d.  The  stock  of  all  kinds  must  be  good,  and  there  must  be  a 

439 


440  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

constant  effort  to  improve  it.  4th.  Its  food  and  care  must  be 
such  as  to  give  the  best  development  for  the  purpose  for  which 
it  is  kept.  5th.  It  should  always  be  managed  so  as  to  increase 
the  fertility  of  the  farm,  both  by  the  system  of  rotation  which 
it  renders  practicable,  and  by  the  saving  and  intelligent  applica- 
tion of  the  manure  produced. 

Although  these  points  will  be  fully  discussed  in  the  various 
chapters  of  the  book,  I  wish  briefly  to  notice  them  here. 

1st.  The  farmer  who  attempts  to  make  pork  a  leading  pro- 
duct must  have  a  farm  well  adapted  to  corn.  If  his  lands  are 
broken  and  unfit  for  the  plow,  sheep  will  probably  give  the  best 
profit,  or  if  he  keeps  cattle  he  will  need  some  of  the  smaller 
and  more  active  breeds. 

2d.  On  many  farms  too  much  stock  is  kept.  Four  old,  run- 
down horses  are  kept  to  do  the  work  that  two  good  ones  would 
easily  perform.  The  farmer  attempts  to  winter  more  stock  than 
he  has  food  for,  and  the  consequent  scrimping  brings  them  to 
the  spring  in  such  poor  condition  that  the  best  season  of  growth 
is  required  to  get  them  back  to  the  weight  and  condition  of  the 
previous  autumn. 

3d.  The  poorer  quality  of  stock — which,  unfortunately,  is 
still  too  common — never  does  and  never  will  give  any  profit. 
Scrub  colts — that  are  never  worth  seventy-five  dollars  each — 
scrub  cattle,  which  must  be  kept  to  three  or  four  years  old  to 
attain  a  weight  of  one  thousand  pounds ;  leggy  sheep,  with 
light  carcasses,  which  shear  but  three  or  four  pounds  of  wool 
each,  and  "  Elm  Peeler  "  hogs,  that  like  "  Pharaoh's  lean  kine," 
are  still  thin  and  poor  when  they  have  devoured  the  pro- 
ducts of  the  years  of  plenty — such  stock  the  farmer  should  not 
keep.  It  should  be  remembered  that  stock  never  improves 
without  care  and  watchfulness,  and  that  as  the  neglected  field 
will  inevitably  grow  up  to  weeds  and  briers,  so  certainly  will 
the  stock  on  the  farm  deteriorate  unless  careful  attention  is 
given  to  breeding  and  feeding.  The  farmer  who  never  consulted 
the  market  reports,  and  who  sold  his  grain  at  a  price  far  below 
what  they  were  offering  at  his  nearest  station,  would  be  thought 
a  fit  candidate  for  a  lunatic  asylum,  but  how  much  wiser  is  he 


INTRODUCTION.  441 

who  feeds  the  products  of  his  farm  to  stock  so  poorly  bred  that 
there  is  no  possibility  of  profit  from  it. 

4th.  In  feeding  farm  stock  there  should  be  an  intelligent 
idea  of  the  purpose  for  which  the  food  is  given,  and  some  knowl- 
edge of  the  properties  of  the  different  foods  and  the  purposes 
they  subserve  in  the  animal  economy.  These  will  be  discussed 
fully  in  the  chapter  on  Feeding  Animals.  I  wish,  howeverv 
briefly  to  state  a  few  points  : 

(1.)  Breeding  stock  should  never  be  pampered  and  made  over 
fat,  as  it  often  impairs  their  fertility,  and  injures  their  offspring. 
It  is,  therefore,  often  unwise  to  buy  show  stock  at  fairs  for 
breeding  purposes. 

(2.)  Working  stock  should  be  fed  with  those  foods  which 
produce  muscle  rather  than  fat,  and  the  practice  of  heavy  corn 
feeding  for  horses  is  both  unscientific  and  injurious. 

(3.)  Growing  stock  must  be  fed  liberally  so  as  to  maintain 
a  constant  development,  for  it  takes  less  food  and  gives  better 
results  to  keep  an  animal  growing  and  thrifty,  than  to  make  it 
so  after  it  has  been  checked  in  its  growth.  All  the  profit  in 
feeding  animals  must  come  from  the  surplus  of  food  given  above 
what  is  necessary  to  repair  the  waste  of  the  system. 

(4.)  One  of  the  purposes  of  food  is  to  produce  heat,  and 
shelter  is  usually  cheaper  than  food.  For  the  same  reason  it  is 
wise  to  fatten  farm  animals  as  far  as  possible  in  warm  weather, 
when  but  little  of  the  food  will  be  required  to  maintain  vital  heat. 

(5.)  An  animal  to  be  thrifty  must  be  comfortable ;  therefore, 
a  good  bed  and  kind  treatment  are  equivalent  to  food. 

5th.  In  order  that  animals  should  be  managed  so  as  to 
increase  the  fertility  of  the  farm,  requires  that  the  pastures  be 
not  overstocked,  for  there  must  be  grass  enough  for  full  feed  and 
some  left  on  the  ground.  The  stock  must  not  be  allowed  to 
roam  over  the  farm  in  winter  and  early  spring,  wasting  their 
manure  and  injuring  the  land  by  tramping  it  when  wet. 

The  manure  made  must  be  protected  from  loss  by  leaching 
or  firing,  and  applied  to  the  soil  in  the  way  that  will  secure 
the  best  and  most  lasting  results.  It  is  a  wonderful  and  benefi- 
cent arrangement  of  Providence  that  the  waste  and  offensive 


442  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

matter  of  the  farm  may  be  transmuted  in  the  soil  into  golden 
grains,  luscious  fruits,  and  palatable  and  nutritious  vegetables ; 
that  the  vegetable  matter  decaying  on  the  surface,  or  in  the  soil, 
should  furnish  the  elements  necessary  to  produce  the  plants  that 
are  to  follow.  The  poet  says : 

"Life  evermore  is  fed  by  death, 

In  earth  and  sea  and  sky; 
And  that  a  rose  may  breathe  its  breath, 
Something  must  die. 

Earth  is  a  sepulcher  of  flowers, 

Whose  vitalizing  mould 
Through  endless  transmutation  towers 

In  green  and  gold. 

The  oak-tree  struggling  with  the  blast 

Devours  its  parent  tree, 
And  sheds  its  leaves  and  drops  its  mast, 

That  more  may  be." 

On  the  farm  the  offensive  poisonous  excrement,  which,  if 
allowed  to  accumulate  would  contaminate  air  and  water,  and  the 
decaying  vegetable  matter  are  vitalized  and  utilized  in  the  soil, 
so  as  to  give  health  and  wealth  to  the  farmer  who  uses  them 
intelligently. 

Stock  Growing  on  High-priced  Lands. — It  is  thought 
by  many  farmers  that  to  make  stock  growing  profitable,  cheap 
lands  are  necessary,  and  that  this  branch  of  farming  is  only 
suited  to  a  new  country,  or  broken  lands  unsuited  to  the  plow. 
I  believe  that  on  farms  suitable  for  grain  growing,  and  which 
are  worth  one  hundred  dollars  or  more  per  acre,  by  intelligent 
management  stock  growing  can  be  combined  with  the  produc- 
tion of  grain,  so  as  to  give  a  greater  profit  with  less  labor, 
and  a  much  better  condition  of  soil,  than  would  be  possible  if 
grain  alone  was  produced.  I  give  below  the  views  on  this  sub- 
ject of  Mr.  Chambers  Stewart,  a  farmer  now  over  eighty  years 
old,  who  has  spent  his  life  on  a  farm  such  as  I  describe,  and 
whose  success  gives  weight  to  his  words. 

"The  greatest  distinction  conferred  on  man  at  the  creation 
was  dominion  over  all  things,  animate  and  inanimate.  Invested 


INTROD  UCTION.  44  $ 

with  this  grand  heritage,  how  to  obtain  the  fruits  of  the  earth 
and  subordinate  to  his  use  the  animals  necessary  to  his  subsist- 
ence and  comfort,  must  have  been  one  of  the  first  questions  that 
occupied  his  mind ;  and  now,  after  the  lapse  of  ages,  we  are  en- 
gaged in  the  study  of  precisely  the  same  question.  How  shall 
we  make  the  most  of  the  gifts  of  a  munificent  Providence  ? 
Can  stock  growing  as  a  part  of  our  mixed  husbandry  be  made 
profitable  on  our  high-priced  lands  ? 

"  There  are  those  with  whom  it  has  become  a  conviction  that 
stock  growing  is  not  a  paying  business,  and  who  do  not  propose 
to  raise  even  the  horses  required  to  cultivate  their  own  farms. 
Our  railroads,  furnishing  a  cash  market  for  grain  at  every  depot,, 
have  induced  many  of  our  farmers  to  devote  their  lands  almost 
entirely  to  the  production  of  grain  to  be  sold.  Farms  of  very 
rich  soil  may  endure  this  incessant  plowing  for  a  time;  but 
already  we  hear  of  farms  that  are  growing  poor  and  unproduc- 
tive. For  a  man  to  so  cultivate  his  land  as  to  be  obliged  to 
admit  that  it  is  growing  poor  under  his  management,  is  to  exclude 
himself  from  the  number  of  those  who  may  be  called  good 
farmers.  We  believe  farming  on  land  worth  one  hundred  dol- 
lars per  acre  may  be  so  conducted  as  to  make  it  a  reasonably 
lucrative  occupation,  and  at  the  same  time  the  fertility  of  the 
soil  be  retained  and  even  improved.  But  we  also  believe  this 
can  only  be  done  by  making  stock  growing  a  part  of  our  mixed 
husbandry.  This  can  only  be  done  by  having  good  stock  and 
keeping  it  well. 

"  In  stock  growing  there  is  an  opportunity  offered  for  every 
one  to  consult  his  taste,  or,  if  you  choose,  his  talent.  Some 
men  have  a  talent  for  producing  a  superior  quality  of  a  certain 
kind  of  stock.  Let  such  cultivate  their  talent.  A  higher  de- 
gree of  success  is  often  attained  by  making  a  specialty  of  one 
kind  of  stock.  I  believe,  however,  the  average  farmer  will  do 
best  to  raise  and  keep  a  variety,  and  in  this  way  the  various 
products  of  the  farm  can  be  utilized  with  more  economy  and 
greater  profit.  If  one  has  a  taste  for  sheep,  they  may  be  kept 
with  profit,  especially  if  a  large  portion  of  the  farm  be  of  broken 
land  or  thin  soil.  The  breeding  and  feeding  of  hogs  has  been 


444  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

a  source  of  wealth  to  a  large  number  of  farmers,  notwithstand- 
ing some  losses  from  cholera. 

"In  determining  the  relative  profits  of  the  several  products 
of  our  farms  or  of  a  single  product,  we  must  take  a  series  of 
years,  and  the  farmers  who  have  adhered  to  the  business  of 
raising  and  feeding  hogs  have  found  it  profitable.  While  this 
business  is  so  generally  and  so  well  understood,  I  will  venture 
the  single  criticism  that  as  a  rule  hogs  are  kept  too  exclusively 
on  corn,  and  would  do  better  to  use  more  grass  and  clover. 

"I  have  said  we  must  have  good  stock.  In  most  localities 
•where  hogs  are  a  leading  product  of  the  farm  there  has  been 
such  marked  improvement  that  but  little  trouble  or  expense 
will  be  required  to  furnish  the  farmer  with  a  good  stock  of  hogs. 

"As  regards  cattle,  the  case  is  different.  The  farmer  who 
keeps  five  or  six  cows,  will  say  he  can  not  afford  to  buy  a  thor- 
oughbred short-horn  bull;  but  five  or  six  farmers  living  on  con- 
tiguous farms  can  unite  in  the  purchase  of  one.  In  my  neigh- 
borhood there  are  two  groups  of  farmers  operating  on  this  plan. 
The  sire  should  be  changed  once  in  three  years,  and  at  the  end 
of  twelve  years  most  of  the  stock  on  these  farms  will  be  seven- 
eights  and  fifteen-sixteenths  short-horn.  These  would  be  called 
high  grades,  and  are  as  good  for  grazing  and  feeding  as  the 
thoroughbreds.  Men  largely  engaged  in  raising  and  feeding 
cattle  find  from  experience  that  the  grain  and  grass  that  will 
grow  two  hundred  pounds  on  a  scrub  steer  will  make  three 
hundred  pounds  on  a  high  grade.  My  own  experience  and  ob- 
servation assure  me  that  the  same  treatment  which  will  make 
a  scrub  steer  weigh  twelve  hundred  pounds  at  three  years  old, 
will  bring  the  high  grade  to  fifteen  hundred  pounds  at  the  same 
age,  and  the  grade  will  bring  five  cents  a  pound  as  readily  as 
the  scrub  will  four.  One  is  worth  seventy-five  dollars,  the 
other  forty-eight.  This  illustrates  the  difference  between  the 
highly  improved  and  the  common,  in  all  the  meat  producing 
animals.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  there  may  be  a  profit  in  one 
when  there  would  be  none  in  the  other. 

"  I  believe  it  is  only  those  who  have  been  raising  stock  of 
an  inferior  quality,  who  think  there  is  no  profit  in  stock  grow- 


INTR  OD  UC  TION.  445 

ing.  In  horses  the  difference  in  quality  makes  a  much  greater 
difference  in  value  than  in  other  stock.  I  think  every  farmer 
who  owns  eighty  acres  of  land  might  find  it  profitable  to  have 
one  good  brood  mare.  Let  her  be  large,  strong,  and  handsome ; 
if  she  is  well  bred  and  suitably  mated,  he  may  expect  valuable 
progeny.  When  not  breeding  she  will  be  as  good  as  any  horse 
for  work,  and  even  when  raising  a  foal,  may  perform  a  great 
deal  of  service.  In  this  way  the  farmer  can  supply  his  own 
wants  and  occasionally  have  a  horse  to  sell. 

"  There  is  another  class  of  horses  that  is  in  great  demand 
and  at  high  prices,  which,  if  a  man  has  taste,  judgment,  and  skill 
in  breeding  and  training,  may  afford  a  greater  profit.  They  are 
large,  handsome,  and  elegant  horses  that  travel  well,  among 
horsemen  formerly  called  harness-horses.  They  are  now  more 
frequently  called  coach-horses,  and  are  adapted  to  the  gentle- 
man's family  carriage,  the  omnibus  and  express  wagon,  and  are 
the  best  for  general  purposes.  For  several  years  past  there  has 
been  an  active  demand  for  horses  of  this  class  for  exportation. 
The  farmer  who  has  mares  adapted  to  breeding  such  horses,  by 
mating  them  properly  may  do  a  large  proportion  of,  if  not  all,  the 
work  on  the  farm  with  these  mares  and  the  three  and  four  year 
old  horses  of  their  produce.  It  is  better  for  horses  of  this  age 
to  be  worked  on  the  farm  for  two  years.  They  make  better 
horses.  They  are  better  trained  and  more  reliable,  and  at  five 
or  six  years  old  sell  readily  in  the  market  at  good  prices,  and 
are,  I  think,  the  most  profitable  horse  for  the  farmer  to  raise, 
because  he  can  make  the  colts  pay  their  way  at  work  from  the  time 
they  are  three  years  old  until  they  go  to  market.  I  would 
allow  the  farmer  to  feel  a  just  pride  and  ambition  to  produce  a 
team  that  will  draw  the  plow  at  the  depth  of  six  inches  from 
morning  to  evening  and  from  day  to  day ;  a  team  that  can  be 
relied  upon  at  all  times  and  under  any  circumstances  to  move  a 
load  if  it  is  in  their  power. 

"A  slight  modification  of  this  class  by  taking  the  lighter 
mare  (lighter  because  they  have  been  bred  with  a  larger  infu- 
sion of  pure  blood)  and  breed  these  to  the  handsome  and  well- 
bred  trotter,  and  you  may  hope  to  produce  as  good  a  roadster 


446  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

as  any  one ;  an  active,  light-footed  horse,  with  spirit  and  mettle 
disposing  him  to  promptly  respond  to  every  call,  and  seem  de- 
lighted to  accommodate  you  with  any  rate  of  speed  down  to 
2.40,  if  you  choose,  with  ease,  grace,  and  elegance  in  every 
movement ;  one  that  will  occasion  persons  meeting  you  to  look 
back  just  to  enjoy  the  poetry.  To  sit  behind  such  a  horse 
helps  a  man's  digestion,  and  to  produce  such  a  one  is  just  as 
laudable  an  ambition  as  to  make  improvements  in  mechanics. 

"  And  here  I  am  willing  to  record  my  protest  against  the 
overshadowing  consequence  given  by  nearly  all  our  live  stock 
journals  and  agricultural  boards  to  the  mere  trotter.  The  horse 
that  can  go  his  mile  on  a  track  as  smooth  as  can  be  made, 
attached  to  a  vehicle  as  light  as  can  possibly  be  constructed  to 
carry  the  weight  of  one  man,  and  can  come  out  two  seconds 
ahead,  without  regard  to  size,  form,  or  color — that  such  a  test 
should  be  regarded  as  a  standard  of  merit,  is,  we  think,  an  ab- 
surdity. But  it  is  not  so  much  to  the  trotter  that  we  object  as 
to  the  undue  space  and  consideration  given  this  class  in  our 
papers,  and  the  disproportionate  awards  by  our  agricultural 
boards.  We  believe  it  is  exceedingly  doubtful  whether  this 
course  has  resulted,  or  will  result,  in  any  material  improvement 
in  our  roadster  horse.  It  leads  to  the  neglect  and  under-value 
of  qualities  other  than  mere  speed  at  the  trot.  While  the  cul- 
tivated aesthetic  taste  of  men,  women,  and  children  is  ever 
ready  to  proclaim  a  thing  of  beauty  a  joy  forever,  we  should 
cultivate  beauty  and  docility,  and  this  can  be  done  without  sacri- 
ficing any  other  desirable  quality. 

"  We  have  said  something  of  the  kind  and  quality  of  stock 
that  we  think  may  be  produced  with  profit,  but  this  will  de- 
pend entirely  on  the  treatment  it  receives,  and  to  insure  suc- 
cess the  first  and  indispensable  thing  to  be  done  is  to  provide 
an  abundance  of  pasture.  We  recognize  the  red  clover,  mixed 
with  timothy,  as  the  grand  fertilizer  and  renovator  of  our  fields, 
and  at  the  same  time  it  furnishes  the  largest  amount  of  pas- 
ture ;  and  we  hold  that  the  management  that  secures  the  largest 
possible  amount  of  benefit  to  the  stock  is  entirely  consistent 
with  a  large  benefit  to  the  soil.  The  stock  must  have  an  abun- 


IN  TROD  UC  TION,  447 

dance  and  some  left;  reduce  the  number  of  stock  rather  than 
fail  in  this.  Have  some  left  to  protect  and  encourage  the 
growth  of  the  roots.  It  should  be  allowed  to  grow  in  the  spring 
until  a  considerable  portion  of  the  clover  is  in  bloom,  and  it  may 
be  so  managed  that  a  portion  will  be  in  bloom  all  season.  On 
almost  every  farm  there  may  be  some  permanent  pasture.  All 
good  clay  limestone  land  will  produce  bluegrass.  Timber  land 
where  the  timber  is  not  too  dense,  hillsides  that  would  soon 
become  poor  if  plowed  much,  corners  cut  off  by  a  ravine,  if 
well  set  in  bluegrass  and  properly  managed  will  afford  a  great 
deal  of  pasture.  It  enables  the  farmer  to  alternate,  to  have 
some  growing  while  some  is  being  eaten  down.  If  this  variety 
of  pasture  is  provided,  stock  can  be  carried  over  a  much  greater 
portion  of  the  year  on  pasture,  and  there  is  no  feed  equal  to 
good  pasture  for  young  stock. 

"The  treatment  of  stock  during  winter  should  be  made  a 
study.  To  carry  stock  through  the  winter  it  should  be  classi- 
fied. The  younger  and  weaker  should  be  separated  from  the 
stronger,  and  very  special  attention  given  to  the  young.  An 
old  and  successful  farmer  and  stock  grower  once  made  a  single 
remark  to  me,  when  I  was  yet  quite  a  young  man,  that  has  been 
worth  more  to  me  than  the  reading  of  some  volumes.  He  said, 
"  Do  not  forget  that  every  young  thing  needs  nursing,"  and  he 
intended  the  remark  to  apply  to  plants  as  well  as  animals. 

"  Young,  growing  stock  should  have  such  care,  attention,  and 
feed,  as  will  secure  a  constant,  uninterrupted  growth,  winter  and 
summer.  Nature  demands  this,  and  if  from  any  cause  growth 
is  suspended  for  any  considerable  time,  loss  and  injury  are  sus- 
tained. This  is  especially  true  of  the  meat-producing  animals 
that  are  sold  by  weight.  Whatever  these  animals  may  eat  dur- 
ing the  period  that  growth  is  intermitted  is  more  than  a  clear 
loss.  The  disposition  to  take  on  flesh  and  mature  early  is 
injured.  And  now  I  do  not  think  I  am  putting  it  too  strongly 
when  I  give  it  as  an  opinion  that  one-half  of  the  young  cattle 
stock  will  from  year  to  year  weigh  more  on  the  scales  in  the 
month  of  November  than  they  will  the  following  April.  If 
children  were  treated  in  this  way — if  their  diet,  clothing,  and 


448  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

lodging  were  so  unsuitable  as  to  entirely  suspend  growth  for  five 
months  in  the  year,  and  this  continued  from  year  to  year — the 
consequences  would  be  ruinous.  Protection  from  the  rigors  of 
winter,  ample  provision  of  suitable  food,  strict  care  and  atten- 
tion that  this  is  given  them  regularly  and  with  economy,  is  an 
absolute  necessity,  A  good  authority  on  the  subject  has  said, 
4  Be  diligent  to  know  the  state  of  thy  flocks  and  look  well 
to  thy  herds.'  All  this  is  a  condition  of  success. 

"In  farming,  especially  if  stock  growing  is  included,  as  in 
every  other  business  or  profession,  a  man  who  has  a  taste  and  love 
for  it,  who  takes  into  his  business  some  degree  of  enthusiasm 
and  a  purpose,  if  possible,  to  excel,  is  the  man  most  likely  to 
succeed. 

"Let  us  congratulate  ourselves  that  ours  is  a  mixed  hus- 
bandry. Favored  with  a  great  variety  of  soil  and  climate,  we  can 
successfully  cultivate  a  great  variety  of  crops,  and  breed  and 
rear  all  the  domestic  animals  necessary  for  our  use  and  comfort. 
Our  occupation,  thus  varied,  is  far  more  attractive,  and  makes 
necessary  a  higher  degree  of  intelligence,  and  is  relieved  of  the 
monotony  and  irksome  drudgery  that  attach  to  farm  life  in  less 
favored  countries." 

Stock  on  the  farm,  intelligently  managed,  gives  a  home  mar- 
ket for  its  bulky  products,  thus  making  of  the  farmer  a  manufac- 
turer, and  furnishes  the  means  of  enriching  the  soil  and  improv- 
ing and  greatly  increasing  its  productions. 

The  breeding,  rearing,  feeding,  and  care  of  stock  will  be 
treated  in  these  pages  from  a  practical  stand-point,  and  I  shall 
avail  myself  of  all  the  help  I  can  get  from  practical  farmers,  be- 
lieving that  a  record  of  successful  management  will  be  of  greater 
benefit  to  our  readers  than  histories  of  breeds,  long  pedigrees, 
or  fine-spun  theories. 


LIVE  STOCK  DEPARTMENT. 


CHAPTER    I . 

THE  HORSE— HISTORY.* 

THE  Fossil  Horse. — Paleontology  teaches  that  the  horse 
inhabited  America  during  the  post-pliocene  period,  contem- 
poraneous with  the  mastodon  and  Megalonyx.  He  was 
unknown  to  the  natives  of  America  at  the  time  of  the  discovery 
of  America.  Fossil  remains,  chiefly  molar  teeth,  have  been  so 
frequently  found  on  the  plains  and  plateaus  of  the  Southern 
States,  and  in  Central  and  South  America,  and  have  been  so 
carefully  identified  by  such  paleontologists  as  Dr.  Lund,  Profes- 
sor Owen,  and  other  competent  paleontologists,  that  there  is  no 
longer  room  for  doubt  that  the  horse  found  existence  in  the 
Western  world  congenial  to  his  nature. 

Though  the  vast  plains  of  the  Northern  and  Central  and 
Southern  divisions  of  the  American  continent  are  perfectly 
adapted  by  climate,  soil,  and  products  to  the  necessities  of  the 
species,  no  single  living  specimen  was  found  by  the  Europeans 
in  America.  The  rapid  increase  of  horses,  that  swelled  into  vast 
herds  on  the  plains  and  plateaus,  shows  how  well  adapted  is  this 
country  to  the  production  of  the  species. 

Just  when,  in  the  past  geological  periods,  the  horse  became 
extinct  as  a  living  fauna,  weuld  be  interesting  to  know,  but  as 
yet  science  has  not  revealed  it  to  us.  The  broad  plains  of  both 
continents  seem  perfectly  adapted  to  the  necessities  of  the  genus 
ffippus,  as  is  proved  by  the  readiness  with  which  the  individuals 
that  have  escaped  from  the  control  of  man  have  been  speedily 
succeeded  in  their  wild  homes  by  vast  herds  of  wild  horses. 
Science  has  failed  to  show  that  the  specimens  of  the  fauna  of 

*  Contributed  by  L.  N.  BONHAM,  Agricultural  Editor  Cincinnati  Commercial. 

29  449 


450  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

the  periods  which  produced  the  fossil  horse  have  escaped  the 
fate  of  its  contemporaries,  the  mammoth  or  mastodon,  and  we  are 
left  to  surmise  only  as  to  how  and  where  the  horse  of  to-day 
originated,  unless  we  accept  the  solution  offered  in  Mosaic  his- 
tory. The  preservation  of  the  species  by  means  of  the  ark  is 
corroborated  by  circumstances  attending  the  propagation  and  dis- 
semination of  the  horse  of  ancient  and  modern  times. 

That  the  plains  of  Southern  Africa  are  more  likely  to  have 
been  the  original  habitat  of  the  genus  Equus  can  not  justly  be 
inferred  from  the  better  adaptation  of  the  soil  and  climate  of 
that  region  to  the  existence  of  the  horse,  since  the  rapid  spread 
and  successful,  healthful  growth  of  the  animal  in  the  wild  state 
on  the  plateaus  of  the  Western  continent,  show  the  perfect  adap- 
tation of  soil  and  climate  and  produce  in  the  Western  home  to 
the  wants  of  the  species.  From  the  few  horses  which  escaped 
from  the  discoverers  of  America  have,  in  a  short  period,  sprung 
as  by  magic,  such  vast  numbers  of  powerful  and  hardy  animals, 
that  the  wants  of  their  nature  are  as  fully  met  as  on  the  plains 
of  Africa.  It  is  a  question,  then,  of  time,  of  beginning,  or  ap- 
pearance of  individual  specimens  of  the  species  on  the  plains 
of  Africa  and  America,  and  not  of  unfitness  of  the  West  as  an 
original  habitat. 

The  history  of  the  horse  in  Africa  goes  not  farther  back 
than  the  Flood  of  Genesis.  Assuming  what  seems  most  prob- 
able, in  the  light  of  Scriptural  history  and  absence  of  any 
clearly  arranged  chain  of  scientific  records  to  the  contrary,  that 
the  horses  of  ancient  and  modern  times  have  proceeded  from 
the  individuals  that  escaped  destruction  in  the  great  Flood,  there 
are  good  reasons  for  belief  that  the  plains  of  the  Eastern  conti- 
nent have  been  dotted  and  grazed  by  the  descendants  of  the 
specimens  which  escaped  on  Ararat.  Until  a  more  rational  and 
scientific  explanation  of  the  origin  of  the  horse  appears,  we  are 
compelled  to  conclude  that  the  horses  of  the  Eastern  and  West- 
ern Hemispheres  have  descended  from  the  remnant  remaining 
somewhere  on  the  Eastern  Hemisphere. 

In  speaking  of  the  history  of  the  horse,  Colonel  Hamilton 
Smith,  in  Vol.  XII  of  the  Naturalist's  Library,  says  :  "We  know 


THE  HORSE— HISTORY.  451 

so  little  of  the  primitive  seat  of  civilization,  the  original  center, 
perhaps  in  Bactria,  in  the  higher  valleys  of  the  Oxus,  or  in 
Cashmere,  whence  knowledge  radiated  to  China,  India,  and 
Egypt,  that  it  may  be  surmised  that  the  first  domestication  of 
the  post-diluvian  horse  was  achieved  in  Central  Asia,  or  com- 
menced nearly  simultaneously  in  several  regions  where  the  wild 
animals  of  the  horse  form  existed.  The  fossil  beds  of  New 
Mexico,  Utah,  and  Wyoming  belong  to  the  eocene  period,  arid 
furnish  us  fossils  of  the  earliest  forms  to  which  the  modern 
horse  can  be  traced.  This  would  indicate  that  the  horse  inhab- 
ited America  before  Asia  or  Africa,  as  similar  evidence  can  not 
now  be  shown  in  favor  of  their  being  the  ancient  habitat  of  the 
horse.  Yet  this  is  not  proof  to  the  contrary,  since  paleontolo- 
gists have  not  explored  the  immense  tracts  of  older  Asia  and 
Africa  as  they  have  this  newer  continent." 

On  this  subject  the  American  Cyclopedia  says :  "  The  E.  neo- 
geus  (Lund),  and  E.  Major  (De  Kay),  two  species  of  the  closely 
allied  genus  Hipparion,  and  one  of  the  Hippotherium,  indicate  that 
the  equine  family  were  well  represented  in  America  in  former 
geological  periods.  Whether  this  ancient  horse,  of  about  the 
same  size  as  the  recent  one,  and  distinguished  by  the  usually 
more  complex  folds  of  the  enamel  of  the  molars,  became  entirely 
extinct  before  the  creation  of  man,  may  admit  of  question." 
Professor  Leidy  says,  "  There  is  no  room  to  doubt  the  former 
existence  of  the  horse  on  the  American  continent  at  the  same 
time  with  the  mastodon,  and  that  'man,  probably,  was  his  com- 
panion.' "  The  fossil  horse  has  also  been  found  in  the  Old  World 
in  the  pliocene  of  Europe  with  the  mastodon  and  tapir,  and 
through  all  the  diluvial  period,  and  in  the  upper  tertiary  of 
Asia;  there  are  two  or  three  species  described  in  Europe  and 
as  many  in  Asia.  From  this  it  appears  that  the  horse  inhab- 
ited the  Old  World,  as  well  as  the  New,  before  the  advent  of 
man,  while  others  persisted  in  a  declining  condition  during  the 
early  part  of  the  human  epoch. 

Written  History. — EGYPT  THE  PRODUCER  OF  HORSES. — The 
earliest  writings  pertaining  to  the  horse  are  of  Sanskrit  ori- 
gin. The  hieroglyphics  of  Egypt  show  that  Egyptians  used 


452  THE  PEOPLE 'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

horses  to  chariots  and  for  riding,  but  not  for  labor  in  bearing 
burdens  or  drawing  the  plow.  There  is  little  doubt  that  the 
horse  was  domesticated  among  Egyptians  two  thousand  years 
before  the  Christian  era.  The  Hebrews  furnish  the  world  the 
earliest  written  accounts  of  existence  and  use  of  horses.  Stone- 
henge  says :  "  The  earliest  record  of  the  horse  which  we  pos- 
sess is  in  the  Old  Testament,  where  we  first  find  him  inferen- 
tially  mentioned  in  the  thirty-sixth  chapter  of  Genesis  as  exist- 
ing in  the  wilderness  of  Idumea  about  the  beginning  of  the  six- 
teenth century  before  Christ."  But  1650  B.  C.,  Joseph  pro- 
ceeded from  Egypt  into  Canaan  with  his  father's  body,  accom- 
panied with  chariots  and  horsemen,  which  shows  that  horses  had 
at  least  become  recognized  as  valuable  among  men  of  high  rank. 
But  as  they  had  long  been  used  by  Egyptians  for  war  purposes 
before  they  were  used  in  pageants  and  as  a  means  of  transpor- 
tation, their  use  dates  further  back  than  1600  B.  C. 

Lenormant  dates  the  introduction  of  the  horse  into  Egypt  at 
the  time  of  the  "  Shepherd  Kings,"  2200  B.  C.  We  may  safely 
say  that  the  horse  has  been  an  important  factor  in  civilization  four 
thousand  years.  What  civilization  would  have  been  without  the 
horse  is  difficult  to  imagine.  Professor  Brewer  says :  "  The 
higher  the  enlightenment  of  a  people,  the  greater  the  variety  of 
uses  to  which  horses  are  applied."  In  the  earlier  civilizations 
the  ass,  the  ox,  the  sheep,  and  even  the  dog,  figured  on  their 
monuments  before  the  horse  was  recognized  of  great  public  value. 
Even  among  the  Assyrians  and  Phoenicians  the  horse  appears  to 
have  been  subordinate  in  rank  to  the  ass,  ox,  and  sheep.  Egyp- 
tian civilization  gave  him  a  place  on  monuments  and  works  of 
art  some  five  hundred  years  before  he  was  alluded  to  in  the 
writings  of  the  Israelites.  They  spoke  of  the  horse  as  belong- 
ing to  their  enemies.  Pharaoh  is  recorded  as  taking  "  six  hun- 
dred chosen  chariots,  and  all  the  horses,"  in  his  pursuit  of  the 
Israelites  to  the  Red  Sea.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  in  the 
history  of  Arabia,  it  has  become  most  noted  as  the  home  of  the 
Arab  horse,  yet,  while  the  Israelites  wandered  there,  we  find 
an  entire  omission  of  record  to  show  that  there  were  horses  used 
by  this  peculiar  people.  Even  six  hundred  years  later,  Stone- 


THE  HORSE-HISTORY.  453 

henge  says,  "Arabia  could  not  have  been  remarkable  in  any 
way  for  her  horses ;  for  Solomon,  while  he  resorted  to  her  for 
silver  and  gold,  mounted  his  cavalry  from  Egypt." 

The  Israelites  were,  indeed,  a  peculiar  people,  viewed  in  the 
light  of  the  civilization  of  the  nineteenth  century;  for  they  even 
hamstrung  the  horses  of  the  Canaanites,  which  fell  into  their 
hands.  They  were  able  to  drive  out  the  inhabitants  of  the 
mountain,  but  could  not  drive  out  the  inhabitants  of  the  valleys, 
because  these  had  chariots  of  iron.  (Judges  i,  19.) 

The  Lesson  of  History. — Thus  we  have  the  lesson  of 
history  begun,  that  the  people  who  fought  with  horses  could 
not  be  conquered  by  those  who  owned  not  cavalry. 

The  Israelites  became  possessors  of  a  hill  country,  where 
horses  and  chariots  could  not  be  employed.  This  was  1443 
B.  C.  A  few  years  later  we  find  in  Deuteronomy  the  order, 
"  But  he  [their  chosen  king]  shall  not  multiply  horses  to  him- 
self, nor  cause  the  people  to  return  to  Egypt  to  the  end  that  he 
should  multiply  horses."  This  warning  shows  that  about  1450 
B.  C.,  kings  were  accustomed  to  make  themselves  strong  by  mul- 
tiplying horses  and  chariots,  and  that  Egypt  was  rich  in  horses, 
and  had  them  to  sell  to  princes  who  would  increase  their  power 
by  well-appointed  cavalry.  Though  Egypt  was  rich  in  horses, 
we  may  not  infer  that  it  was  the  native  land  of  the  horse.  The 
presumption  is  rather  that  Egypt  was  more  advanced  in  civiliza- 
tion and  the  arts  and  agriculture,  and  had  learned  much  of  *the 
value  of  the  horse  as  a  means  of  gain  and  power. 

Youatt,  in  an  early  edition  of  his  book,  was  inclined  "  to 
trace  the  first  domestication  of  the  horse  to  Egypt ;"  but  later, 
on  further  investigation,  he  adopted  the  opinion  of  Colonel  Ham- 
ilton Smith,  "  that  it  took  place  in  Central  Asia,  and,  perhaps, 
nearly  simultaneously  in  the  several  regions  where  the  wild 
animals  of  the  horse  form  existed.  From  the  higher  valleys  of 
the  Oxus,  and  from  Cashmere,  the  knowledge  of  his  usefulness 
seems  to  have  radiated  to  China.  India,  and  Egypt."  "The 
original  horse  of  the  Southern  and  Western  countries  came  from 
the  north-eastern  part  of  Asia,  the  domicile  of  those  who  escaped 
from  the  ravages  of  the  Flood."  "  To  ancient  Egypt  we  appear 


454  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

to  be  indebted  for  the  first  systematic  attention  to  reviving  and 
improving  the  breeds  of  horses.  Numerous  carved  or  outlined 
pictures  represent  steeds,  whose  symmetry,  beauty,  and  color 
attest  that  they  are  designed  from  high-bred  types." 

Egypt  seems  to  have  taken  the  lead  of  all  other  nations  in 
breeding  and  propagating  horses.  We  do  not  find,  however, 
any  authority  supporting  the  view  that  the  Egyptians  first 
tamed  and  brought  the  ass  or  horse  into  use  for  riding  or  draw- 
ing chariots  in  war.  Her  civilization  and  higher  cultivation  of 
the  soil  and  the  arts  of  husbandry,  however,  gave  special  facil- 
ities for  breeding  and  rearing  horses,  and  her  commerce  facili- 
tated the  dissemination  of  them  among  the  nations  that  came  to 
her  for  supplies. 

The  Hebrew  Horse. — THE  HORSE  POTENT  IN  CIVILIZA- 
TION.— The  Hebrews  make  record  of  horses  owned  and  used  by 
the  kings,  five  hundred  years  after  they  were  common  among 
the  Egyptians.  The  learned  Dr.  William  Smith  says,  "David 
first  established  a  force  of  cavalry  and  chariots  after  the  defeat 
of  Hadadezer  (2  Sam.  viii,  4),  when  he  reserved  a  hundred 
chariots,  and,  as  we  may  infer,  all  the  horses."  From  Sam. 
xvi,  we  may  infer  that  Absalom  was  the  possessor  of  horses. 
But  not  until  the  days  of  Solomon  do  we  find  that  the  Hebrew 
leader  found  it  convenient  to  disregard  the  orders  in  Deuter- 
onomy, and  multiply  horses  to  himself,  and  draw  his  supplies 
from  Egypt.  His  kingdom  had  come  to  embrace  all  the  land 
from  the  river  Euphrates  to  the  land  of  the  Philistines,  even  to 
the  frontiers  of  Egypt  on  the  south.  He  had  grown  so  strong  as 
to  have  the  kingdoms  of  Syria,  Damascus,  Uwat,  and  Aminon 
for  his  tributaries.  But  from  these  he  did  not  obtain  his 
"forty  thousand  stalls  of  horses  for  his  chariots  and  twelve 
thousand  cavalry  horses,"  but  such  war  supplies  he  drew  from 
Egypt;  and  the  sacred  historian  says  in  these  days  of  Solomon, 
"  Judah  and  Israel  dwelt  safely,  every  man  under  his  vine  and 
under  his  fig-tree,  from  Dan  even  to  Beersheba."  Thus  the 
possession  of  horses  gave  security  to  that  people.  All  history 
shows  the  value  of  horses  as  an  element  of  strength  in  a 
nation's  resources. 


THE  HORSE— HISTORY.  455 

The  Tartars  and  the  Bedouins  have  been  the  scourge  of  na- 
tions in  proportion  as  they  had  horses.  "  By  the  horse  and 
on  the  horse  Mohammedan  conquests  were  made."  The  Israelites 
only  followed  the  law  of  national  development  when  they  added 
the  horse  to  their  possessions  of  asses  and  cattle.  Like  the 
nomads  of  the  plains  in  America,  they  were  feeble  to  resist  or 
invade  until  they  got  unto  themselves  horses.  Our  Indian 
tribes  before  1795  had  only  dogs  as  their  beasts  of  burden;  but 
after  they  began  to  draw  horses  from  Mexico,  these  wild  men 
of  the  plain  were  metamorphosed  into  horsemen  ;  and  of  their 
power  for  evil  ever  after,  the  history  of  our  frontier  attests. 
The  nations  and  tribes  in  history  were  feeble  and  little  to  be 
feared  until  they  got  unto  themselves  horses.  The  horse  has 
been  adopted  by  nations  in  their  progress  into  civilization. 

The  Greek  Horse. — A  GREAT  FACTOR  IN  CIVILIZATION.— 
On  this  principle  we  find  the  Greeks  become  powerful  as  they 
possess  horses.  So  great  is  he  as  a  factor  in  civilization, 
1500  B.  C.  horsemen  in  the  chase  and  war  were  seen  in  the 
paintings  of  the  palace  of  Nimroud,  which  are  supposed  to  be 
coeval  with  the  siege  of  Troy.  The  horses  first  used  by  the 
Greeks  were  small.  Those  of  the  Quirinal  are  mere  ponies,  in 
contrast  with  the  human  figures  in  same  paintings.  As  the 
Greeks  advanced  in  power,  we  note  their  increased  use  of  horses. 
In  their  early  history,  the  horse  was  only  used  for  riding. 
Then  neither  bridle,  saddle,  nor  whip  was  used.  The  chariot  was 
long  in  use  in  Persia  before  in  Greece,  and  the  Greeks  employed 
the  chariot  in  their  great  games  long  before  they  did  in  war. 
In  the  age  of  Phidias  it  is  evident  the  horse  was  held  in  high 
esteem.  The  statues,  coins,  engraved  gems,  bas-reliefs,  and  other 
works  of  art  that  have  come  down  to  us,  show  that  the  Greek 
horse  could  not  have  been  speedy  as  the  English  thoroughbred 
or  the  American  trotter.  We  know  this  from  the  form  given  in 
their  ideals.  Their  bodies  were  compact,  neck  and  shoulders 
heavy,  buttocks  round  and  short,  while  we  never  see  a  speedy 
animal  without  the  long  sloping  shoulder-blade,  the  more  open 
flank,  and  the  longer  hip.  On  the  Elgin  marbles,  or  portion  of 
the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon  now  in  England,  may  be  seen  over 


456  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

two  hundred  representations  of  horses.  In  the  art  school  of 
Yale  College,  there  are  casts  of  twenty-eight  horses,  represent- 
ing the  ideal  horse  of  the  third  century  before  Christ.  They 
are  small,  tough,  muscular  beasts,  all  dish-faced  like  the  Oriental 
breeds  of  modern  times.  The  representations  of  horses  of 
ancient  Egypt,  Assyria,  and  Phoenician  art  are  of  similar  type. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact,  too,  seen  in  all  these  ancient  works 
of  art,  that  in  the  attitudes  given  the  figures,  there  is  not  one 
trotting,  but  ambling,  or,  as  we  say  in  the  West,  pacing,  and 
running.  The  pacing  gait  suited  best  peoples  and  tribes  who 
used  no  stirrups,  and  did  not  drive  in  vehicles  or  trotting 
wagons.  Greek  art,  then,  tells  us  more  than  of  the  form  and 
trappings  of  the  horse ;  it  also  tells  of  the  gait  and  how  he 
was  ridden.  This  ambling  gait  was  the  ideal  for  eight  centu- 
ries before  the  Christian  era.  The  later  works  of  art  may  have 
but  followed  the  style  of  the  masters,  which  is  more  probable, 
than  that  ambling  and  running  were  the  only  two  gaits  of  the 
horse  during  the  history  of  Greece.  Professor  Brewer  teaches 
this,  and  in  speaking  of  the  horses  represented  in  the  earliest 
Egyptian,  Assyrian,  and  Greek  sculptures,  says :  "  However 
much  the  individual  animals  differed,  or  even  the  breeds  differ, 
the  most  prized  animals,  as  a  whole,  were  strong  rather  than 
swift,  heavy  for  their  height,  with  heavy  necks,  broad  chests, 
and  well-rounded  buttocks." 

As  the  civilization  of  the  Greeks  rose  above  that  of  pre- 
ceding and  surrounding  nations,  we  would  expect  to  learn 
more  from  writings  of  Greek  authors  and  artists  concerning  the 
horse,  not  only  in  Greece,  but  also  in  other  parts  of  the  world. 

Improvement  of  Horses  Came  From  Egypt. — The 
improvement  of  the  horse  in  Greece  came  with  the  colonies  of 
Egyptians  that  emigrated  into  Greece.  The  first  colony  that  came 
about  the  time  of  the  birth  of  Moses,  while  the  Pharaohs  were 
in  power,  settled  in  Thessaly,  in  the  north  of  Greece.  The  soil 
and  produce  of  Greece  were  not  favorable  to  production  of  best 
horses.  Thessaly  abounded  in  rich  pastures  and  pure  waters. 
The  Thessalians,  after  the  emigration  of  Egyptian  colonists,  ex- 
celled as  breeders  of  horses.  As  about  this  time  horses  became 


THE  HORSE— HISTORY.  457 

a  recognized  factor  as  a  means  of  defense  and  offense,  horse- 
breeding  in  Thessaly  became  a  matter  of  profit. 

Instead  of  using  the  horse  for  breaking  the  ground  and 
preparing  for  crops,  the  Egyptian  colonist's  first  business  was  to 
rid  the  forests  of  wild  cattle  and  other  dangerous  beasts.  In 
this  way  the  horse  became  most  useful  as  a  hunter. 

Horse-races  Instituted.— As  the  next  step  in  his  im- 
provement, horse-races  were  instituted.  These  races  gratified 
the  pride  of  owners,  and  gave  zest  to  public  spectacles.  Soon 
followed  those  most  celebrated  at  Olympia  in  the  Peloponnesus, 
in  honor  of  Jupiter.  The  feats  of  horsemanship,  accompanied 
by  manly  exercises,  drew  multitudes  from  all  parts  of  Greece. 
This,  with  similar  games  in  other  districts,  stimulated  horseman- 
ship and  athletic  exercises,  which  were  so  liberally  rewarded  and 
honored  by  the  government  as  to  strengthen  love  of  country, 
for  which  the  Greeks  became  distinguished.  In  the  course  of 
one  century  the  wrestlers  and  runners  and  boxers  gave  way  to  the 
horsemen  and  steeds,  who  alone  appeared  at  this  national  contest. 
Each  horse  was  ridden  by  his  owner.  The  space  to  be  run  over 
was  four  miles,  which  was  designed  not  only  to  test  the  powers 
of  endurance  and  speed  and  training  of  the  horses,  but  also  the 
horsemanship  of  his  owner.  In  the  twenty-fifth  Olympiad  the 
horse  first  appeared  in  chariot-races. 

Endurance  and  Docility  Sought. — The  endurance  and 
docility  of  .the  horses  and  skill  of  the  driver  were  severely 
tested,  as  the  course  was  one-third  of  a  mile,  at  the  end  of  which 
was  a  pillar,  around  which  the  horses  were  sent  at  full  speed 
and  back  over  the  course  six  times.  It  was  a  severe  test  of  skill 
of  driver  and  of  docility  of  the  horses.  Near  it  was  the  enor- 
mous and  horrid  statue,  called  Taraxippus,  the  terrifierof  horses. 
A  little  further  on,  in  the  center  of  the  course,  was  a  defile,  be- 
tween rocks,  on  which  a  group  of  men  with  blaring  trumpets 
tested  the  courage  of  the  steeds.  The  unfortunate  and  wrecked 
teams  and  drivers,  of  which  there  were  many,  were  jeered  by  the 
crowds  of  spectators.  The  crown  of  the  victor  was  hardly 
enrned  in  such  a  fearful  contest.  But  these  national  games,  in 
the  course  of  one  century,  became  grand  tournaments  of  horse- 


458  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

inanship.  The  finest  horses  of  Greece  and  Thessaly,  and  even 
neighboring  countries,  competed  there,  and  the  athletes  and 
boxers  of  the  earlier  times  were  wholly  superseded  by  the  gen- 
eral interest  in  the  more  powerful  animal,  the  horse.  Orators, 
poets,  sculptors,  and  painters  eulogized  and  extolled  his  power 
and  form,  by  eloquence,  poetry,  and  art.  When  a  nation  should 
in  a  short  century  become  entranced  with  admiration  of  the 
horse,  his  improvement  must  be  marked.  The  Greek  ideal  of 
the  horse  impressed  itself  on  all  the  nations  brought  under  the 
influence  of  Greek  civilization. 

The  Olympian  Races  Lead  to  Improved  Breed- 
ing.— If  we  consider  the  rank  the  Olympic  games  had  attained, 
while  only  athletes  appeared  in  the  games,  and  then  reflect 
that  when  the  improvement  of  horses  in  Greece  had  become  of 
so  grand  proportions  that  princes  and  kings  and  men  of  highest 
rank  and  wealth  expended  fortunes  in  obtaining  and  fitting 
their  horses  for  these  contests,  we  may  get  a  partial  view  of 
the  esteem  in  which  breeding  of  good  horses  was  held  in 
Greece.  Homer  has  many  examples  wherein  princes,  heroes, 
and  great  men  distinguished  themselves  in  the  handling  of 
horses  and  the  chariot. 

The  owners  were  persons  of  considerable  rank.  Kings 
themselves  aspired  to  the  glory  of  the  victor  at  Olympian  races, 
and  considered  that  the  Olympic  palm  added  new  dignity  to  the 
splendors  of  a  throne.  Gelon  and  Hiero,  kings  of  Syracuse,  and 
later  Dionysius,  were  among  the  competitors.  In  the  Electro,  of 
Sophocles  we  have  a  vivid  description  of  a  chariot-race  run  by 
ten  competitors.  In  the  twelfth  and  last  round,  Orestes,  having 
only  one  antagonist  left — the  rest  having  been  thrown  out — 
broke  a  wheel  against  the  boundary,  and  was  dragged  by  his 
horses  and  torn  in  pieces.  Philip  was  equally  delighted  by 
three  couriers  bringing  him  advices  at  the  same  time ;  first,  that 
the  Illyrians  had  been  defeated  by  his  general  Palermo;  second, 
that  he  had  won  the  prize  at  a  horse-race  in  the  Olympic 
games;  and  third,  that  his  queen  was  delivered  of  a  son.  When 
Hiero  sent  horses  to  these  races  he  caused  a  magnificent  pavil- 
ion to  be  erected  for  them.  History  tells  us  that  no  one  ever 


THE  HORSE— HISTORY.  459 

carried  ambition  to  display  at  the  public  races  of  Greece  so  far 
as  did  Alcibiades.  He  distinguished  himself  by  the  great  num- 
ber of  horses  kept  only  for  the  races.  He  sent  seven  chariots 
at  one  time  to  the  Olympic  games,  at  which  contest  he  carried 
off  the  first,  second,  and  third  prizes.  This  victory  had  never 
been  equaled,  and  was  the  theme  for  a  celebrated  ode  by  the 
distinguished  poet,  Euripides. 

The  interest  aroused  among  citizens  of  Greece  and  neigh- 
boring countries  by  these  feats  of  horsemen  and  their  teams  of 
two,  three,  and  four  trained  horses,  is  manifest  by  artists  and 
poets,  while  statues  were  erected  in  honor  of  the  victors,  and 
even  of  the  horses. 

A  Monument  to  a  Mare. — In  the  sixth  book  of  Pausa- 
nias  we  are  told  of  a  monument  erected  in  honor  of  the  mare 
Aura.  Her  rider  having  fallen  off  at  the  beginning  of  the  race, 
the  mare  continued  to  run  us  if  he  had  been  on  her  back.  She 
outran  all  competitors,  and  at  the  final  sound  of  the  trumpets, 
near  the  close  of  the  contest,  she  rounded  the  goal  as  if  con- 
scious that  she  had  won  the  race,  and  presented  herself  proudly 
before  the  judges.  When  we  consider  that  these  games  were 
attended  by  the  flower  of  Greece,  and  that  the  audiences  were 
entertained  by  the  finest  orators,  historians,  and  poets  the  world 
had  then  produced,  we  can  appreciate  to  some  extent  the  impe- 
tus that  must  have  been  given  to  the  business  of  breeding  and 
training  a  class  of  horses  possessing  the  style,  speed,  docility, 
and  endurance  demanded  in  the  contestants  of  these  world- 
renowned  games.  Herodotus  read  his  history  at  these  games  to 
all  Greece.  His  contemporary,  the  famous  Athenian  orator, 
Lysias,  chose  the  occasion  of  these  games  to  congratulate  the 
Greeks  on  the  reconciliation  of  their  States. 

The  Greek  Horse  Improves  those  of  Southern 
Europe. — I  have  enumerated  some  of  the  influences  in  Greek 
civilization  that  led  to  the  improvement  of  the  horse  in  the 
southern  part  of  Europe.  The  type  of  horse  developed  in 
Greece  became  that  of  Eastern  Asia,  Thrace,  Macedonia,  and 
the  more  distant  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 
Wherever  the  commerce  of  Greece  extended,  it  carried  a  knowl- 


460  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

edge  of  a  mighty  people,  made  more  powerful  by  her  ships  and 
horses.  A  better  knowledge  of  the  history  of  the  nations  bor- 
dering on  the  Mediterranean,  doubtless,  would  show  that  the 
influence  of  the  highly  bred  horses  of  the  Greek  Empire  has 
improved  the  horses  of  every  land  in  Southern  Europe  that  has 
felt  the  elevating  power  of  Greek  civilization.  The  language,  cus- 
toms, and  learning  of  the  Greeks  had  much  to  do  in  improving 
the  people  of  the  Roman  Empire,  and  the  ide;is  mid  tastes  of 
the  Greek  manifested  themselves  among  the  Romans  in  their 
religion  and  games,  races  and  feasts,  art  and  literature ;  their 
highest  attainments  in  art,  oratory,  poetry,  agriculture,  horse- 
manship, and  seamanship  became  models  for  the  Roman  people. 

The  Ideal  Greek  Horse  was  described  by  Xenophon  in 
a  masterly  manner,  and  we  find  in  the  writings  of  T.  Varro  a 
description  of  a  horse  so  like  that  of  Xenophon's  ideal  that  the 
Roman  must  have  been  familiar  with  the  writings  of  Xenophon; 
and  as  each  wrote  the  best  description  of  the  horse  of  his  day 
and  country,  it  is  a  reasonable  inference  that  the  ideal  of 

The  Roman  Horse  was  not  very  unlike  that  of  the  Greek. 
Varro  says  :  "  We  may  prognosticate  great  things  of  a  horse  if, 
when  running  in  the  pastures,  he  is  ambitious  to  get  before  his 
companions,  and  if  coming  to  a  river  he  strives  to  be  first  to 
plunge  into  it.  His  head  should  be  small  and  bony,  his  limbs 
clean  and  compact,  his  eyes  bright  and  sparkling,  his  nostrils 
open  and  large,  his  ears  placed  near  each  other,  his  mane  strong 
and  full,  his  chest  broad,  his  shoulders  flat  and  sloping  back- 
ward, his  barrel  round  and  compact,  his  loins  broad  and  strong, 
his  tail  full  and  bushy,  his  legs  straight  and  even,  his  knees 
broad  and  well  knit,  his  hoofs  hard  and  tough,  and  his  veins 
large  and  swelling  over  all  his  body."  This  was  written  in  the 
century  before  Christ.  Virgil,  in  the  century  after  Christ, 
speaks  in  his  florid  style  of  the  horse  taken  from  pursuits  of 
war,  and  his  powers  turned  to  the  advantage  of  agriculture. 

Had  not  the  irruptions  of  Goths  and  Vandals,  soon  after, 
swept  away  every  record  of  science  in  the  Eastern  and  West- 
ern Hemispheres,  the  history  of  the  development  of  the  horse  in 
Southern  Europe  would  not  have  been  so  unsatisfactory  as  it  is. 


THE  HORSE-HKTORY.  461 

Roman  Horse  Inferior  to  the  Greek. — From  the  history 
of  the  Roman  Empire  we  find  that,  while  the  people  learned  much 
from  the  civilization  of  the  Greeks  in  the  way  of  art,  poetry, 
and  oratory,  they  did  not  profit  by  the  example  of  the  noble 
Greek  in  the  improvement  of  horses.  They  imitated  the  games 
of  Greece,  so  far  as  they  were  theatrical  and  spectacular  enter- 
tainments, but  they  lost  the  central  idea  of  the  later  Olympiads, 
where  the  Grecian  games  were  made  to  develop  the  speed, 
docility,  and  endurance  of  the  Greek  horses.  Italy  may  be  un- 
favorable in  climate  and  soil,  and  this  may  be  another  cause  for 
the  Roman  cavalry  always  proving  inferior  to  that  mustered  by 
their  enemies  in  Macedonia,  Thessalia,  Epirus,  Parthia,  and 
farther  east  and  north. 

Caesar,  with  the  cavalry  he  had  drawn  from  Gaul,  easily  rode 
down  that  of  Pompey,  drawn  from  Italy.  During  the  dissen- 
sions that  wrecked  the  empire  the  best  cavalry  was  made  up  of 
horses  from  bordering  tribes  and  nations.  After  conquest  be- 
came the  ruling  idea  in  the  Roman  Empire,  agriculture  in  all  its 
parts  declined,  and  the  Romans  procured  better  horses  for  cav- 
alry from  surrounding  provinces  than  could  be  found  in  Italy. 
The  intelligence  of  a  people,  in  the  case  of  the  Romans,  does 
not  seem  to  be  as  important  a  factor  in  the  development  of  the 
highest  type  of  horses,  as  do  the  agencies  of  food,  climate,  and 
soil,  and  the  peaceful  pursuits  of  agriculture. 

The  Arab  Horse  illustrates  this.  The  devotion  of  the 
Arab  to  his  horse  atones  for  the  want  of  fertile  fields  and  abun- 
dant stores  for  the  support  of  his  horses.  Barley  and  straw 
and  milk  form  the  diet  of  the  horse  of  the  Bedouins,  Mame- 
lukes, and  Arabs.  But  these  are  not  the  breeders  of  the  Ara- 
bians that  have  had  so  wonderful  an  influence  on  the  blood  of 
horses  in  England,  France,  and  America.  Burckhardt  says  it  is 
a  mistaken  idea  that  Arabia  is  very  rich  in  horses.  The  breed 
in  that  country  is  limited  to  the  extent  of  its  fertile  pasturing 
districts,  and  it  is  in  these  parts  only  that  the  breed  prospers ; 
while  the  Bedouins,  who  are  in  possession  of  poor  ground,  sel- 
dom possess  any  horses.  We,  therefore,  see  that  the  tribes 
richest  in  horses  are  those  who  dwell  in  the  comparatively  fertile 


THE  HORSE— HISTORY.  463 

plain  of  Mesopotamia,  on  the  borders  of  the  Euphrates,  and 
in  the  Syrian  deserts.  It  is  there  the  horses  can  feed,  for  sev- 
eral spring  months,  upon  the  green  grass  and  herbs  of  the  val- 
leys and  plains,  produced  by  rains  which  seem  to  be  an  absolute 
requisite  for  its  reaching  its  full  vigor  and  growth. 

The  Origin  of  the  Arabian  Horse. — BufFon  and  many 
subsequent  writers  claim  that  Arabia  is  the  birthplace  of  the 
horse.  Stonehenge,  with  a  learned  following,  does  not  agree. 
He  thinks  the  dry  nature  of  the  country  and  the  scantiness 
of  herbage  show  that  in  a  wild  state  the  horse  could  hardly 
exist  there,  and  that  it  is  only  by  the  care  and  superintendence 
of  man  that  the  Arabian  horse  has  become  famous.  The  condi- 
tions of  the  climate  surely  favor  hardy  growth,  and  the  concen- 
trated, aromatic  grasses  and  herbage  of  that  country  favor  better 
development  of  bone  and  muscle  than  do  the  more  succulent 
grasses  of  a  damper  climate  and  richer  soil  like  that  of  Italy. 

Low,  in  his  great  work,  attaches  great  importance  to  the 
agencies  of  food  and  climate  in  the  development  of  the  horse. 
"  There  may  be  other  causes  unknown  to  us."  The  "  other 
causes"  are  as  yet  the  unknown  quantity  in  the  problem  of  the 
existence  of  so  grand  a  breed  of  horses  in  a  seemingly  infer- 
tile, austere  country,  among  a  semi-civilized  people.  While  the 
people  have,  in  the  last  seventeen  centuries,  declined  below 
the  average  of  the  nations  of  the  East,  their  horses  have  been 
models  of  style,  fleetness,  and  endurance  for  centuries.  It  is 
probable  they  drew  their  first  good  blood  from  the  famous  studs 
of  Solomon,  and  their  almost  superstitious  devotion  to  the  horse, 
coupled  with  the  salubrity  of  the  atmosphere  and  the  fragrant 
and  concentrated  nature  of  the  grasses  and  herbage  and  food, 
together  with  their  singular  fidelity  to  pedigree  and  care  in 
breeding,  have  evolved  the  wonderful  Arabian  horse.  Similar 
influences  combine  in  the  ancestral  history  of 

The  Barb,  to  make  it  one  of  the  most  valuable 
breeds  the  world  has  known.  The  barb  is  of  Arab  stock. 
The  Arabs  now  found  in  Barbary  are  emigrants.  It  includes 
that  northern  part  of  Africa  extending  along  the  coast  of 
the  Mediterranean,  and  inland  to  the  great  desert,  from  the 


464  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

frontiers  of  Egypt.  Bruce  writes  that  "the  best  African 
horses  are  said  to  be  descended  from  one  of  five,  on  which 
Mohammed  and  his  four  immediate  successors  fled  from 
Mecca  to  Medina,  on  the  night  of  the  Hegira."  Youatt  says, 
"  The  barb  alone  excels  the  Arabian  in  noble  and  spirited 
action ;  but  if  there  is  a  defect  in  the  barb,  he  is  perfect  for  that 
which  he  was  designed.  The  barb  improves  toward  the  west- 
ern coast  of  Africa,  both  in  his  form  and  graceful  action." 
The  Arabs  found  in  Barbary  are  descendants  or  emigrants  from 
Eastern  Arabia.  "  The  horses  are  likewise  all  of  Arab 
stock  considerably  modified  by  change  of  climate,  food,  and 
management." 

Berenger  furnishes  the  following  description  of  a  true  barb : 
"  The  neck  is  long,  slender,  and  ill-furnished  with  mane,  but 
rising  distinctly  and  boldly  out  of  the  withers;  the  head  is 
small  and  lean ;  >^the  ears  well-formed  and  well-placed ;  the 
shoulders  light,  sloping  backward,  and  flat;  the  withers  fine  and 
high ;  the  loins  straight  and  short ;  the  flanks  and  ribs  round  and 
full,  and  with  too  much  bend ;  the  haunches  strong ;  the  croup, 
perhaps,  a  little  too  long ;  the  quarters  muscular  and  well  de- 
veloped ;  the  legs  clean,  with  tendons  boldly  detached  from 
the  bone ;  the  pastern  somewhat  too  long  and  oblique ;  and  the 
foot  sound  and  good.  They  are  rather  lower  than  the  Arabian, 
seldom  exceeding  fourteen  hands  and  an  inch,  and  have  not 
his  spirit  or  speed  or  continuance,  although  in  general  form 
they  are  probably  his  superior." 

The  barb  is  the  chief  element  of  excellence  in  the  Spanish 
horse,  and  was  at  a  very  early  period  of  systematic  improve- 
ment of  the  English  thorough-bred  introduced  into  England. 
The  Godolphin  Arabian  was  a  barb,  and  to  him  traces  some  of 
the  best  racing  blood  in  England.  The  Barbary  and  Arabian 
horse  are  found  on  the  south  of  the  Desert  of  Sahara,  among 
the  inferior  tribes.  These  horses  are  "  small,  weak,  unsafe, 
and  untractable." 

Horse  Degraded  With  Man. — As  we  go  to  the  west, 
along  the  African  coast,  we  find  fewer  horses,  and  greatly  in- 
ferior in  form  and  quality.  It  is  worthy  of  note  here,  that  as 


THE  HORSE— HISTORY.  465 

we  have  descended  the  stream  of  time,  and  along  the  course  of 
the  emigration  of  the  Arabs,  with  their  horse,  bred  from  their 
best  ancient  stock,  from  the  plains  east  of  Egypt  to  the  coun- 
try along  the  coasts  of  Africa,  that  the  people  and  horses  de- 
cline in  courage  and  value  as  we  approach  the  African  slave- 
trade  region.  Some  of  the  tribes  neighboring  Egypt  will  not 
own  a  good  horse,  or  if  they  should,  they  deform  or  injure  it  to 
prevent  the  Egyptian  and  Turkish  tyrants  from  robbing  them 
of  their  horses.  The  improvement  of  the  breeds  of  horses 
seems  to  be  influenced  by  the  liberty  and  independence  of  the 
people  as  well  as  the  character  of  soil  and  climate. 

Although  the  Arab  horse  and  his  descendant,  the  barb,  have 
done  so  much  for  the  improvement  of  the  horse  of  modern 
times,  it  is  not  capable  of  proof  that,  in  very  early  times,  the 
horse  could  be  found  in  Arabia.  Solomon  imported  spices, 
gold,  and  silver  from  Arabia,  but  not  horses.  He  procured  them 
from  Egypt,  which  at  that  time  led  the  world  as  a  civilized 
power.  Egypt  exported  horses  into  Arabia  as  presents  to  reign- 
ing monarchs.  In  the  fourth  century  the  Roman  Emperor  sent 
two  hundred  Cappadocian  horses  as  a  present  to  a  powerful 
prince  in  Arabia.  As  late  as  the  seventh  century  the  Arabs 
must  have  had  few  horses.  Mohammed  could  muster  only  two 
horses  when  he  attacked  the  Koreish  near  Mecca;  nor  did  he 
get  a  single  horse  from  the  vanquished. 

The  history  of  the  horse  in  Barbary  shows  that,  though  the 
common  horse  of  that  country  is  a  very  inferior  animal,  just 
such  as  years  of  debasement  and  degradation  of  a  nation  must 
produce,  yet  the  infusion  of  Arab  blood  in  the  best  parts  of  the 
country  has  produced  a  vast  improvement.  Those  about 
Morocco,  Fez,  and  the  interior  of  Tripoli  are  the  best.  Though 
rather  lower  than  the  Arab,  seldom  exceeding  fourteen  hands, 
the  general  form  is  thought  by  many  superior  to  the  Arab, 
yet  they  lack  the  courage,  spirit,  speed  and  endurance  of  the 
best  Arab. 

Influence  of  Barb  on  Arab  and  English  Horse.— 
The  Godolphin  Arabian  was  a  true  barb,  and  to  him  is  traced 
some  of  the  best  racing  blood  in  England.  The  African  mares 

30 


466  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

imported  from  Barbary  into  England  have  been  the  source  of 
some  of  the  best  turf-horses.  The  males  are  never  castrated. 
There  is  about  him  a  sort  of  religious  reverence,  as  a  descend- 
ant from  the  five  which  Mohammed  escaped  with  in  the  Hegira. 
"A  Mussulman  would  not  mutilate  or  sell  the  skin  of  the  beast 
of  the  Prophet."  This  reverence  for  the  valuable  horses  has 
done  much  to  improve  the  race  of  horses  wherever  the  religion 
of  Mohammed  has  had  power. 

The  African  never  rides  the  mare  in  war.  The  Asiatic  or 
Arabian  never  rides  the  horse.  The  reason  of  this  may  be 
found  in  their  different  modes  of  warfare.  The  Arab  is  always 
at  war  with  his  neighbor,  and  plans  to  take  his  enemy  by  sur- 
prise. A  stallion  is  not  suitable  for  this,  since  as  soon  as  he 
comes  into  the  neighborhood  of  the  enemy,  and  smells  the  stale 
of  mares,  his  shrill  neigh  tells  of  his  approach.  The  African 
fights  in  an  open  country,  and  his  approach  can  be  known  when 
afar  off;  so  he  must  rely  on  the  energy,  endurance,  and  spirit  of 
his  stallions.  The  barb  improves  towards  the  western  coast  of 
Africa,  both  in  form  and  graceful  action. 

Godolphin  Arabian. — A  brief  history  of  the  Godolphin 
Arabian  may  be  of  interest,  as  his  blood  is  found  mingled  with 
that  of  so  many  noted  racers.  He  is  believed  to  have  been  pre- 
sented to  Louis  XIV  by  the  Emperor  of  Morocco.  He  was  so 
little  appreciated  in  Paris  that  he  was  then  used  in  a  water-cart. 
A  Mr.  Coke  bought  him,  and  presented  him  to  the  keeper  of  the 
St.  James  Coffee-house,  who  presented  him  to  the  Earl  of 
Godolphin.  The  horse  was  used  by  the  Earl  as  a  teaser  to 
Hobgoblin.  He  was  allowed  to  cover  Roxana  simply  because 
Hobgoblin  refused.  The  produce  of  this  cross  was  Lath,  one  of 
the  best  horses  of  his  day.  His  excellence  as  a  foal-getter 
proved  to  be  even  better  than  that  of  the  Darley  Arabian,  im- 
ported some  twenty  years  before. 

The  Darley  Arabian. — The  Darley  Arabian  was  the  par- 
ent of  some  of  England's  best  racing  stock.  He  was  purchased 
at  Aleppo,  and  bred  in  the  desert  of  Palmyra.  Flying  Childers 
and  Bartlett's  Childers  were  the  two  stallions  by  which  the 
blood  and  fame  of  the  Darlev  Arabian  became  famous.  The 


THE  HOUSE— HISTORY.  407 

blood  of  the  Darley  and  Godolphin  both  unite  in  that  of  the 
celebrated  horse  Eclipse,  whose  superiority  was  such  that  his 
owner,  O'Kelly,  placed  the  wager  on  "  Eclipse  first,  and  the  rest 
nowhere ;"  or,  in  other  words,  the  roarer  distanced  the  field. 
These  two  horses — Darley  Arabian,  from  the  desert  of  Palmyra, 
and  the  barb,  called  Godolphin  Arabian — made  such  a  marked  im- 
provement on  the  English  horses  of  their  day  that  any  history 
of  English  horses  would  be  most  defective  without  notice  of 
them.  I  will  quote  from  Stonehenge: 

"  Pure  Arabs  are  considerably  smaller  than  our  modern 
thorough-breds,  seldom  exceeding  fourteen  hands,  two  inches  in 
height.  The  head  is  remarkable  for  the  width  across  the  fore- 
head, which  is  also  full  and  square,  while  the  muzzle  is  finer,  the 
face  more  hollowed  out,  and  the  jaws  more  fully  developed  in 
their  proportions  than  any  other  breed  with  which  we  are 
acquainted.  The  eye  is  full  and  soft,  yet  sparkling  with  anima- 
tion at  the  least  excitement ;  the  ear  is  small ;  the  neck  arched  ; 
the  shoulders  oblique,  but  muscular;  the  withers  moderately  high 
and  thin ;  the  chest  rather  light  in  girth,  but  the  back  ribs  rather 
deep  in  proportion ;  and  the  hips,  though  narrow,  well  united  to 
the  back  by  a  rounded  mass  of  powerful  muscles;  the  croup  is 
high,  and  the  tail  set  on  with  a  considerable  arch;  the  bones  of 
the  leg  are  large  in  proportion  to  the  size,  and  the  tendons  full 
and  free,  the  suspensory  ligaments  being  particularly  clean  and 
strong ;  the  hocks  are  large  and  free  both  from  curbs  and  spav- 
ins ;  and,  lastly,  the  feet,  though  small,  are  sound,  and  capable 
of  bearing  an  amount  of  battering  which  few  well-bred  English 
horses  can  sustain.  From  the  full  development  of  the  brain  in 
this  breed,  it  might  be  expected,  a  priori,  that  the  amount  of 
intelligence  and  courage  possessed  by  them  would  be  far  above 
the  average  ;  and  such  is  the  result  of  -experience." 

They  are  generally  docile,  and  have  "fine  tempers."  If, 
however,  they  are  highly  fed,  and  deprived  of  the  necessary 
amount  of  exercise  and  cruelly  treated,  their  nervous  system 
is  so  sensitive  that  they  rebel,  and  when  they  fight  they  per- 
severe to  the  death.  "  The  colors  of  the  Arabian  horse  are 
mostly  bay,  chestnut,  and  gray,  but  occasionally  black.  The  skin 


468  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

itself  of  the  gray  horses  is  of  a  deep  slate-color,  and  the  manes 
and  tails  are  darker  than  the  rest  of  the  body." 

The  Origin  of  the  Arabian  Horse. — The  origin  of 
this  wonderful  race  of  horses  will  probably  never  be  fully 
known.  Many  historians  accept  the  tradition  that  Mohammed, 
desiring  mares  for  his  steed,  selected  a  number  from  his  best 
cavalry,  and  kept  them  two  days  without  water.  When 
frenzied  with  thirst,  they  were  turned  out  to  water.  As  they 
approached  the  drinking-place,  the  war-charge  was  sounded  by 
his  trumpeters.  Five  of  the  mares  abandoned  the  water,  and 
hastened  at  once  to  the  spot  where  the  call  indicated  the  excite- 
ment of  battle.  These  five  mares  were  selected  for  the  founda- 
tion of  his  royal  stud.  Oriental  travelers  assert  that  pedigrees 
trace  back  five  hundred  years,  and  even  to  the  time  of  Solo- 
mon. Many  ceremonies  are  performed  at  the  covering  of  these 
royally  bred  mares.  "After  the  birth  of  the  foal,  a  certificate 
is  made  out "  in  due  form,  by  local  authorities,  within  one  week 
after  the  foal  is  dropped. 

The  Arab  Mare  as  a  War-horse. — The  mare  is  highly 
prized  by  the  Arab,  and,  as  has  been  said,  is  used  by  the  Arab 
in  war,  he  never  trusting  his  stallion  in  surprising  an  enemy. 
For  this  reason  many  writers  have  argued  that  the  Arabs  value 
more  highly  the  qualities  of  the  mare  than  the  horse;  but  their 
motto  el  hbr  ilebal  el  fahal — "  the  foal  follows  the  sire  " — does 
not  warrant  the  conclusion.  Under  the  Laws  of  Breeding  we 
shall  notice  this  again. 

The  Unique  Character  of  the  Arabian. — The  reader 
who  is  interested  in  a  fuller  history  of  the  horse  will  find  that 
the  Arab  horse  has  given  character  to  the  horses  of  every  na- 
tion bordering  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  the  lands  invaded 
by  the  devotees  of  Mohammed.  In  modern  times  the  English 
thorough-bred  traces  many  of  the  best  families  to  the  Arabians. 
What  influence  the  Arabian  has  had  on  the  celebrated  French 
horses  we  can  not  now  tell ;  but  that  his  blood  has  given  char- 
acter to  the  noble  Percheron  and  the  ancient  Norman  we  can 
not  doubt.  The  Turkish  horse  "seems  to  be  merely  the  Arab 
developed  by  higher  food  into  a  larger  size  and  more  massive 


THE  HORSE— HISTORY.  469 

proportions,"  says  Stonehenge.  The  best  horses  of  Persia  are 
found  on  the  border  of  the  gulf,  and  their  ancestors  were 
brought  from  the  opposite  shore  of  Arabia. 

The  unique  character  of  the  Arabian  excites  our  admira- 
tion. Its  ability  to  impress  its  rare  qualities  on  every  other 
breed  on  which  it  has  been  crossed,  we  conclude,  comes  from 
the  fact  that  for  centuries  it  has  been  bred  with  greater  care 
than  any  other  animal  that  blesses  the  earth.  Its  feed  and 
surroundings  and  use  have  given  stamina  and  quality.  The 
centuries  of  kind  treatment,  which  has  been  a  peculiarity  of  the 
Arab,  have  developed  a  docility  without  a  parallel. 

The  Thorough-bred. — The  excellence  of  the  English  and 
American  thorough-bred  horses  trace  directly  to  Oriental  ances- 
try. The  countries  which  have  races  most  nearly  related,  and 
possessing  peculiarly  valuable  characteristics,  are  Arabia,  Syria, 
Persia,  Turkestan,  and  the  Barbary  States.  We  have  shown  be- 
fore that,  in  all  these,  the  Arab  and  barb  have  given  character 
to  the  horses  of  the  East.  As  England  became  a  power  in  civ- 
ilization, and  her  commerce  extended  to  these  Eastern  countries, 
we'  find  her  looking  to  them  for  blood  to  improve  the  En- 
glish horses,  just  as  did  Greece,  when  she  rose  to  a  high  civiliza- 
tion, look  to  the  older  country,  Egypt,  for  horses  to  improve  the 
Grecian  horse.  In  the  English  and  American  thorough-bred  we 
have  the  accumulated  excellences  that  have,  by  centuries  of 
selection  and  development,  arising  from  improved  methods  of 
systematic  breeding,  centered  in  the  best  of  the  race. 

The  marvelous  tales  of  travelers,  colored  by  all  the  imagery 
peculiar  to  Eastern  and  mythical  stories,  together  with  the 
charm  of  the  past  and  distance,  have  led  many  to  believe  that  the 
Arab  has  never  been  equaled.  We  believe  that  the  close  student 
of  the  development  of  the  species  will  find  that  the  evolution  of 
the  thorough-bred  must  go  back  in  history  to  the  Egyptian, 
thence  to  the  days  of  Solomon  in  all  his  wisdom  and  glory, 
thence  to  the  Grecian  and  the  regions  whore  its  highest  civiliza- 
tion had  influence,  and  thence  to  the  countries  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.  Under  the  wonderful  influence  of  Moham- 
med the  people  of  the  desert  country  collected  and  developed 


470  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

the  flower  of  the  race,  and  the  modern  civilizations  have  felt 
and  further  developed  the  power  of  the  well-bred  animals,  that 
had  made  the  history  of  the  horse  brilliant  all  along  the  line  of 
progress  of  the  human  race. 

The  Arab  Element. — The  history,  then,  of  the  thorough- 
bred is  so  linked  to  that  of  the  Oriental  horse  as  to  be  really 
lost  in  antiquity.  James  I  bought  of  Mr.  Markham  the  first 
Arab  stallion,  early  in  the  seventeenth  century.  Either  from 
national  prejudice  or  lack  of  merit,  this  horse,  called  Markham 
Arabian,  failed  to  become  popular.  Charles  I  gave  some  atten- 
tion to  the  importation  of  ancient  blood ;  but  little  was  done  till 
Charles  II  imported,  for  breeding  purposes,  animals  afterwards 
known  as  the  "royal  mares  of  the  Stud-book." 

The  Barb  Element. — James  II  continued  importations 
from  the  South.  The  "royal  mares,"  "to  which  nine-tenths  of 
our  modern  thorough-bred  horses  trace,"  Herbert  claims,  "were 
Tunisian  or  Tangier  barbs.  But  the  horse  of  England,  before  this 
time,  probably,  had  been  improved  by  ancient  blood,  brought  to 
the  island  in  the  course  of  the  invasions  by  the  Gauls,  who 
ravaged  Upper  Greece  and  Northern  Italy.  Herbert  argues  that 
the  horses  of  the  earliest  times  of  England  were  probably  im- 
proved by  specimens  of  an  Oriental  race,  that  came  by  way  of 
Thessaly,  and  improved  later  by  waifs  from  the  Numidian  cav- 
alry, employed  by  the  Carthaginian  Barcas,  long  before  the 
invasion  of  Brittany  by  Caesar  in  his  Gallic  campaigns.  Youatt 
affirms  that  Caesar  thought  the  British  horses  "  so  valuable  that 
he  carried  many  of  them  to  Rome."  Of  course,  during  the  oc- 
cupation of  England  by  the  Romans,  the  British  horse  was  im- 
pressed by  the  influence  of  the  cavalry  of  Caesar,  which  had 
been  collected  from  the  various  parts  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

The  German  Element. — After  the  Romans  left  England 
we  find  the  Saxon  conquerors  giving  attention  to  the  improve- 
ment of  horses,  and  after  Alfred  "  running  horses  were  imported 
from  Germany." 

Herbert  says,  "  This  is  the  first  intimation  we  have  of  run- 
ning horses  in  England."  It  is  a  fair  inference  that  the  Gor- 
man horses  presented  by  Hugh  Capet  to  Athelstan,  together  with 


THE  HORSE— HISTORY.  471 

the  blood  introduced  by  the  Roman  and  Gallic  horse,  improved 
the  horses  of  England ;  for  they  were  at  this  time  prized  on  the 
Continent.  In  Athelstan's  reign,  history  tells  us,  many  Spanish 
horses  were  imported,  which  we  know  were  largely  imbued 
with  the  blood  of  the  horses  of  the  States  of  Barbary.  In  930 
A.  D.,  there  was  a  law  made  to  prohibit  the  exportation  of 
horses,  which  shows  the  characteristic  desire  of  the  English  to 
hold  a  monopoly  of  a  good  thing. 

Spanish,  Norman,  and  Flanders  Blood. — William  the 
Conqueror  improved  horses  of  his  kingdom  by  the  importation 
of  many  fine  animals  from  Normandy,  Flanders,  and  Spain. 
His  powerful  cavalry  gave  him  the  victory  at  the  battle  of  Has- 
tings; nevertheless,  he  showed  his  appreciation  of  the  Southern 
and  Oriental  blood  by  riding  a  Spanish  horse.  It  will  be  no- 
ticed that,  thus  far  in  the  history  of  the  horse,  his  use  has 
been  exclusively  under  the  saddle,  if  we  except  the  chariot- 
races  in  ancient  history. 

The  Horse  in  Agriculture. — Under  William  the  Con- 
queror we  find  the  first  mention  of  the  use  of  the  horse  for 
purposes  of  agriculture.  It  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  the 
ancient  historians  were  monks  and  priests,  and  that  book  learn- 
ing was  largely  confined  to  the  monasteries,  which  will  help  us 
to  understand  how  it  comes  that  so  little  is  left  recorded  about 
the  development  of  the  breed  or  breeds,  and  their  use  as  a  fac- 
tor in  the  development  of  the  nations. 

The  English  Begin  to  Use  Horses. — The  Venerable 
Bede,  an  English  monk,  who  wrote  just  after  the  triumph  of 
the  Roman  over  the  Scottish  Church,  is  high  authority,  and  in- 
forms us  that  the  English  began  to  use  horses  as  early  as  631 
A.  D.  Ecclesiastical  history  tells  us  that  Alexander  I,  king 
of  Scotland,  presented  a  considerable  estate  and  an  Arab  horse, 
with  valuable  accouterments,  to  the  Church  of  St.  Andrews. 
What  this  horse  did  for  the  Church  or  people,  the  monks  have 
not  thought  of  enough  importance  to  record.  This  was  during 
the  reign  of  Henry  I. 

First  English  Race-course. — During  his  reign  the  first 
race-course  was  established  at  Smithfield,  which  was  used  both 


472  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

as  a  horse-market  and  race-course.  Let  us  keep  in  mind  that 
Henry  I  was  the  son  of  William  I,  surnamed  Conqueror,  and 
Matilda  of  Flanders,  and  that  these  kings  held  power  in  England 
and  on  the  continent.  It  is  plain  that  under  such  intimate  rela- 
tions of  Flanders  and  England  the  blood  of  their  horses  was 
freely  mingled,  and  the  value  of  the  Flanders  horse  became  ap- 
preciated in  England  for  war  and  agriculture.  We  have  said 
the  Spanish  horse  was  esteemed  by  William  at  Hastings.  Her- 
bert doubts  if  the  English  then  were  aware  that  the  value  of 
their  horses  came  from  the  large  per  cent  of  Oriental  blood  in 
their  veins. 

The  Flanders  Element. — King  John,  who  gained  pos- 
session of  England  and  Normandy  in  1199,  "  paid  great  atten- 
tion to  the  improvement  of  horses  for  agricultural  purposes,  and 
he  has  the  credit  of  originating  the  draught-horses  of  England. 
He  imported  at  one  time  one  hundred  chosen  stallions  from 
Flanders.  He  was  so  anxious  to  possess  the  finest  stock  from 
them,  that  he  accepted  strong  horses  for  rent  of  crown  lands. 
One  hundred  years  later,  Edward  II  purchased  thirty  war- 
horses  and  twelve  draught-horses  from  Flanders  and  Germany. 
Edward  III  had  many  running  horses,  and  purchased  fifty 
Spanish  horses,  at  a  cost  of  £160  each.  Coming  down  to 
Henry  VII,  we  find  that  he  caused  under-sized  horses  to  be  de- 
stroyed, and  had  great  numbers  of  full-sized  mares  and  stallions 
kept  in  the  deer-parks  and  rural  parishes.  His  reign  was  marked 
by  an  increase  of  powerful,  well-formed  animals,  adding  greatly 
to  the  wealth  of  his  people.  One  authority  states  that  at  the 
•close  of  a  May  party  the  king  and  his  brother-in-law,  the  Duke  of 
Suffolk,  rode  races  on  great  coursers,  like  the  Flemish  breed  of 
Arab  horse.  During  the  reign  of  Henry  VII  (1509-1547),  an 
"annual  race  was  run  at  Chester,  the  prize  being  a  wooden  ball, 
handsomely  embellished,  for  which,  in  1540,  a  silver  bell,  called 
St.  George's  Bell,  was  substituted.  Hence  the  phrase,  "Bear  the 
Bell."  "  In  the  reign  of  James  I  races  were  merely  matches 
against  time,  trials  of  speed  and  bottom,  for  long  and  '  cruel 
distances.' "  From  this  time,  the  history  of  English  racing  may 
be  said  to  fairly  begin. 


THE  HORSE— HISTORY.  473 

The  Pedigree  of  Race-horse. — The  pedigrees  of  the 
race-horse  do  not  clearly  trace  to  the  time  of  James  I;  but  from 
his  reign  down  to  the  present  time  there  has  been  an  increasing 
carefulness  as  to  the  matter  of  breeding  horses  for  speed  and 
endurance,  as  well  as  for  intelligence  and  strength.  From  what 
has  been  gathered  from  the  writers  on  the  horse,  and  from  ex- 
tended research  among  history  arid  literature  incidentally  detail- 
ing items  of  interest  about  the  horse,  we  see  that  what  is  now 
known  as  the  thorough-bred  or  race-horse  had  its  origin  in 
England  prior  to  the  seventeeth  century,  and  that  the  Oriental 
horse,  coming  to  England  through  Spain,  Gaul,  Italy,  Arabia, 
Barbary,  and  Thessaly,  together  with  the  more  ponderous  ani- 
m  ils  of  Normandy  and  Flanders,  made  the  base  on  which  the 
English  breeders  of  horses  have  builded,  and  by  an  intelligent 
selection  have,  in  the  course  of  two  centuries,  produced  a  horse 
far  superior  to  any  that  contributed  to  the  make-up  of  the 
parent  stock  of  the  matchless  thorough-bred. 

The  Historic  Trio.— The  breeders  of  the  English  thor- 
ough-bred of  this  country  have  special  pride  in  tracing  the  an- 
cestral lines  of  the  best  race-horses  to  three  animals,  of  which 
history  furnishes  fairly  intelligent  and  accurate  accounts.  First, 
the  Byerly  Turk,  used  by  Captain  Byerly  in  King  William's 
war  in  Ireland ;  second,  the  Darley  Arabian,  imported  from 
Aleppo,  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne  (1700-1706)  ;  third,  the 
Godolphia  Arabian,  of  which  we  spoke  under  the  history  of 
Arabians.  These  horses,  bred  to  English  mares  already  infused 
with  Oriental  blood,  produced  horses  of  rare  speed,  endurance, 
and  quality.  The  value  of  the  Arabian  blood  became  so  es- 
teemed that  the  proof  of  its  presence  became  important. 

The  Stud-book.— In  1791  a  Stud-book  was  established. 
The  first  volume  appeared  in  1808.  It  traced  pedigrees  back 
to  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Of  course  it  con- 
tained inaccuracies;  but  it  is  now  accepted  as  the  most  reliable 
authority  in  matters  of  breeding  of  the  race-horse  or  thorough- 
bred. From  our  history  it  is  evident  the  term  thorough-bred  is 
a  misnomer,  as  the  breed  of  race-horses  has,  perhaps,  as  many 
elements  in  its  make-up  as  has  any  breed  of  animals  of  which  a 


474  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

record  now  is  made.  The  Arabian,  the  barb,  the  Turk,  the 
Spanish,  and  the  Gallic  horse  mingled  with  the  blood  of  the  pon- 
derous Flanders,  Norman,  and  English  horses. 

From  such  an  ancestry  came  the  breeds  of  England.  But 
the  forms  the  horse  in  the  British  isles  has  been  made  to 
assume  under  the  laws  of  selection  and  variation,  guided  by  the 
intelligence  and  good  judgment. of  the  English  and  Scotch  breed- 
ers, fill  us  with  admiration  at  the  wonders  nature  and  man  may 
perform.  By  a  judicious  crossing  and  training  and  feeding,  the 
same  tight  little  isle  has  in  two  centuries  evolved  the  wonder 
of  the  ages  in  the  thorough-bred;  and  from  and  by  the  aid  of 
his  ancient  ancestry  come  the  hunters,  hackneys,  coach  and  cart 
horses,  each  of  great  excellence  for  their  special  uses. 

Climatic  Influence. — There  is  nothing  in  the  climate  to 
account  for  the  rapid  development  of  the  horse  in  England. 
Darwin  in  his  Domestication  of  Plants  and  Animals  shows  that  a 
damp  climate  does  not  favor  the  development  of  the  highest 
type  of  the  horse.  In  climate  the  Arabian  or  barb  had  the 
advantage,  and  Darwin  says  that  America  favors  a  higher  develop- 
ment of  the  species,  because  of  its  superior  climate  and  excel- 
lence of  forage.  Mr.  William  Percivall,  in  1834,  at  University 
College,  said  :  "  The  grand  first  cause  of  this  success  appears  to 
come  from  a  steady  prosecution  and  scientific  management  of 
breeding,  by  which  I  do  not  only  mean  the  procuration  of  orig- 
inal stock  of  a  good  description,  but  the  continual  progressive 
cultivation  of  that  stock  in  the  progeny,  by  the  greatest  care  in 
rearing  and  feeding,  and  by  the  most  careful  selection.  On 
these  two  circumstances,  and  particularly  on  the  latter,  a  great 
deal  more  depends  than  on  the  original  characters  or  attributes 
of  the  parents.  Thus  we  have  progressed  from  good  to  better, 
losing  sight  of  no  subsidiary  help  until  we  have  attained  a  per- 
fection in  horse-flesh  unknown  in  the  whole  world  beside." 

Size  and  Power  Sacrificed  to  Speed. — The  fusion  of 
bloods  has  added  size  and  strength  to  the  finely  formed  Oriental 
horse,  and  diminished  none  of  his  spirit  and  docility.  The 
thorough-bred  excels  the  best  Arabian  blood  in  size  and  speed 
and  endurance. 


r 


476  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

The  thorough-bred  was  bred  for  running.  In  his  early  his- 
tory endurance  and  power  were  of  more  importance  than  speed. 
It  is  to  be  regretted  that,  in  the  last  half  century,  speed  has 
been  the  great  desideratum,  and  to  secure  it  there  has  been 
a  reduction  in  weight,  the  shoulders  are  lighter,  the  hips  not  so 
broad,  and  the  muscles  finer.  As  a  means  of  improving  other 
horses  for  the  road  and  the  farm,  or  for  war,  he  has  lost  in  pro- 
portion as  his  stoutness  has  diminished. 

The  farmer  and  the  business  man  demand  a  horse  that  can 
make  himself  generally  useful.  "  Without  high  breeding,  how- 
ever, this  is  impossible,"  says  Stonehenge.  He  thinks  the  En- 
glish should  interfere  and  prevent  the  diminishing  of  size  and 
quality  of  the  thorough-bred  in  the  mad  effort  to  attain  speed 
only.  Youatt  likewise  deplores  the  same  evil.  By  careful 
selection  and  breeding  for  the  most  powerful  and  lasting  horse, 
it  is  argued  that  England  can  furnish  the  model  horse  for  busi- 
ness, pleasure,  and  the  cavalry,  by  use  of  thorough-bred  sires  of 
stamina  and  substance.  Stamina,  or  power  to  endure,  comes 
with  the  best  breeding,  as  is  indicated  by  the  old  proverb,  "  An 
ounce  of  blood  is  worth  a  pound  of  bone."  Stonehenge  says : 
"  But,  in  spite  of  all  this  recognized  superiority  of  blood,  it  is 
indisputable  that,  for  the  highest  degree  of  success,  there  must 

be  not  only  high  purity  of 
blood,  and  that  of  the  .most 
winning  strains,  but  there  must 
also  be  a  frame  of  the  most 
useful  character  if  not  always 
of  the  most  elegant  form." 

Draft  Horses. — We  now 
come  to  a  class  of  horses  that 
should  interest  every  farmer, 
teamster,  and  breeder  of  horses 
for  profitable  use  or  sale.  In  the 
history  of  thorough-breds  we  al- 

HEAD  OF  FRENCH  HOUSE.  hided    to    the    Flanders     hoi'SCS, 

and  those  of  Normandy,  and  showed  that  they  were  important 
factors   in   the   improvement   of  even    the   ancient  and    power- 


THE  HUR^K— HISTORY.  477 

ful  race-horse  of  England.  If  a  complete  history  of  the  horse 
in  the  feudal  ages  could  be  found,  it  would  doubtless  show 
that  the  English  as  well  as  the  French  are  indebted  to  the 
farmers  of  Flanders  for  the  foundation  crosses  on  which  have 
been  produced  by  selection,  and  infusion  of  the  choice  Ori- 
ental blood,  the  modern  breeds  of  draft-horses,  now  so  much 
esteemed. 

The  Flanders  Element. — William  the  Conqueror  im- 
ported many  fine  horses  from  Flanders  and  Normandy.  His 
powerful  cavalry  gave  him  the  victory  at  Hastings,  but  he 
showed  his  appreciation  of  Oriental  blood,  in  that  he  rode  a 
Spanish  horse.  Under  his  reign  we  find  the  first  mention  of  the 
horse  in  agriculture.  Henry  I,  the  son  of  William  the  Con- 
queror and  Matilda  of  Flanders,  was  influential  in  transporting 
the  large  horses  of  Normandy  and  Flanders  across  the  Straits 
of  Dover,  for  use  in  the  studs  and  on  the  farms  of  England. 
King  John  took  possession  of  England  and  Normandy  about 
1200,  and  took  pride  in  the  improvement  of  the  horses  of  Eng- 
land for  purposes  of  agriculture.  He  has  the  credit  of  origi- 
nating the  draft-horses  of  England  and  Scotland.  He  valued 
the  Flanders  horse  so  highly  that  history  tells  us  he  imported 
at  one  time  one  hundred  stallions  from  Flanders. 

The  reign  of  Henry  VII  was  marked  by  increase  of  power- 
ful, well-formed  horses.  At  a  May-party,  he  and  the  Duke  of 
Suffolk  rode  a  race  on  "  great  coursers  like  the  Flemish  breed 
of  dray-horses."  By  the  time  of  Henry  VIII  the  Flemish 
breed  of  draft-horses  must  have  been  well  known  in  England, 
for  immense  size  and  massive  proportions.  He  said  of  Princess 
Anne  of  Cleves  when  he  first  saw  her,  "  Egad !  she  is  built 
like  unto  a  great  Flanders  mare."  His  coarse  remark  was  ap- 
preciated by  his  courtiers  as  a  fitting  simile,  and  was  received 
with  shouts  of  laughter. 

The  low  country  in  Western  Europe,  now  included  in  Bel- 
gium, Holland,  and  France,  stretching  along  the  German  Ocean 
from  the  west  inlet  of  the  Scheldt  to  the  entrance  of  Straits  of 
Dover,  joining  the  province  of  Artois  on  the  south,  was  first 
called  Flanders  in  the  seventh  century.  It  took  the  name  of 


478  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Normandy  about  the  beginning  of  the  tenth  century,  from  the 
Northmen,  who  then  got  possession  of  it. 

The  Norman  Name. — The  first  duke  of  Normandy  and 
direct  ancestor  in  the  sixth  generation,  of  William  the  Con- 
queror, "  was  so  mighty  of  stature,"  says  Snorro  Sturleson, 
"  that  there  was  no  horse  of  strength  and  size  to  bear  him.  He 
was  therefore  always  on  foot,  and  was  called  '  Hollo  the 
Marcher.' '  This  was  in  the  tenth  century.  He  distributed 
among  his  followers  the  lands  of  Neustria,  and  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  the  feudal  system,  which  later  was  transplanted  to  Eng- 
land. With  this  vigorous  race  of  people  came  marked  and 
rapid  changes  in  the  low  country,  where,  even  during  the  feudal 
ages,  agriculture  flourished,  and  the  abundant  crops  produced 
along  the  fertile  valleys  in  a  genial  climate  soon  gave  size  to 
the  cattle  and  horses  of  that  noted  country.  Because  of  the 
enterprise  of  these  Northmen,  now  called  Normans,  we  find  the 
name  became  a  synomym  of  power. 

From  euphony  or  association  must  come  the  precedence  given 
the  name  Norman,  to  the  horses  of  that  country,  rather  than 
that  of  Flanders.  The  Flanders  horse  was  the  product  of  high 
agriculture.  The  climate,  liberal  feed,  and  diligent  care,  com- 
bined with  the  infusion  of  the  blood  of  the  best  horses 
which  a  line  of  conquerors  could  gather  from  the  nations  they 
ravaged,  laid  the  foundation  for  the  noted  breeds  of  powerful 
horses  that  have  become  most  valuable  in  this  age,  when  the 
sword  is  less  trusted  than  the  plowshare. 

The  Norman  Conquests  Mingle  Bloods. — We  may 
find  a  clue  to  the  large  infusion  of  good  blood  into  the  powerful 
horses  of  this  noted  country,  in  the  conquests  of  the  Nor- 
mans. Rollo  devastated  Holland,  and  appeared  as  far  south  as  the 
Seine.  A  band  sacked  Bordeaux,  Lisbon,  and  Seville.  They 
defeated  the  Moorish  conquerors  of  Spain,  crossed  the  straits 
into  Morocco  and  back,  overran  Tuscany,  and  returned  to 
France.  They  made  safe  winter-quarters  in  Spain,  and  from 
there  ravaged  Naples,  Sicily,  and  the  coasts  of  the  Greek  Empire. 
These  very  countries  will  be  recognized  as  those  especially 
rich  at  that  time  in  horses  of  Oriental  blood.  The  Moors  had 


THE  HORSE— HISTORY.  479 

the  finest  of  cavalry,  when  they  entered  Spain.  Their  horses 
were  of  the  breeding  such  as  gave  the  barb  power  to  impress  the 
best  blood  of  England  with  new  life,  courage,  endurance,  and 
fleetness.  In  912  the  most  redoubtable  of  the  Northmen,  Hrolf, 
afterwards  called  Rollo,  accepted  the  hand  of  a  daughter  of 
Charles  the  Simple,  and  the  territory  north  of  the  Seine,  from 
Audleys  to  the  sea,  known  as  modern  Normandy,  in  exchange 
for  Christian  baptism  and  an  oath  of  fealty,  and  from  this  date 
we  find  the  energy  of  this  wonderful  people  turned  from  conquest 
to  the  arts  of  peace.  The  rich  country  was  made  richer  and 
more  powerful  by  the  infusion  of  the  best  blood  of  the  horses 
of  every  nation  that  had  made  progression  in  civilization,  which 
then  was  synonymous  with  the  improvement  of  the  horse  for 
war  and  ceremony. 

Soil  and  Climate  Affect  Size. — In  the  low  country  of 
East  and  West  Flanders  the  country  is  generally  flat,  and  along 
the  Scheldt  and  its  tributaries  have  been  agricultural  prosperity, 
and  great  numbers  of  horses  and  cattle  produced.  The  climate, 
soil,  and  herbage,  and  diligent  care,  have  combined  to  produce 
great  growth  among  the  horses  of  that  region.  It  is  there  En- 
glish and  American  buyers  find  the  massive  horses  that  are 
sought  especially  for  size  and  powerful  draft. 

In  the  interior  of  France,  where  the  country  is  more  elevated 
and  varied  in  surface,  and  the  air  rare  and  bracing,  and  the  pas- 
tures closer  and  more  concentrated,  we  find  a  smaller  type  of 
horse,  with  more  activity  and  endurance.  The  history  bearing 
on  the  development  and  foundation  of  the  long-established 
breed  of  powerful  horses  will  help  us  to  understand  something 
of  the  elements  of  blood,  and  the  training  and  uses  that  have 
combined  to  establish  a  powerful  type  of  horses,  combining  ex- 
cellencies of  form  and  temper,  and  action  and  power,  such  as  to 
attract  the  attention  and  admiration  of  all  nations  and  people 
who  have  advanced  in  civilization  and  the  arts  of  husbandry  far 
enough  to  make  the  horse  a  valuable  factor  in  labor.  From  the 
foundation  laid  in  that  historic  country  we  note  an  advance  to 
make  such  improvements  as  the  taste,  habits,  and  necessities  of 
a  people  demand. 


480  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

This  ancient  history,  thus  briefly  and  imperfectly  traced,  may 
be  fairly  considered  the  early  history  of  all  noted  draft-horses 
of  the  present  century.  France  and  England,  located  near  this 
remarkable  territory,  where  the  Northmen  settled  and  founded  a 
mighty  people  and  a  mighty  breed  of  horses,  have  not  only 
been  most  affected  in  their  language,  habits,  and  history  by  con- 
tact and  intercourse,  but  have  also  drawn  from  it  horses  which 
have  enabled  them  to  establish  their  best  breeds  of  draft-horses, 
as  well  as  horses  of  power  and  action  and  docility,  suited  to  the 
work  of  the  plow  or  wagon. 

The  French  Draft-horse. — In  the  United  States  the 
farmer  is  bewildered  by  the  number  of  names  given  to  the  draft- 
horses  imported  from  France.  He  hears  them  called  Normans, 
Percherons,  Percheron-Normans,  and  Norman-Percherons.  The 
advocates  of  the  name  Norman  claim  this  name,  because  two 
centuries  ago  there  was  a  noted  breed  of  powerful  horses  in 
Normandy;  but  they  have  failed  to  show  that  this  breed  had 
any  more  to  do  in  the  make-up  of  the  horses  of  the  ancient 
province  of  La  Perche,  than  had  the  powerful  horses  of  Flanders, 
which  became  noted  before  those  of  the  country  south  of  it. 

La  Perche  was  an  ancient  division  of  France,  in  the  old 
province  of  Maine,  and  is  now  divided  among  the  departments 
of  Orne,  Eure-et-Loire,  and  Eure,  and  is  not  so  insignificant  a 
department  as  some  would  have  us  believe.  But  the  powerful 
horses,  which  are  the  base  of  the  modern  Percheron,  were  not 
confined  to  Normandy,  nor  does  history  warrant  the  conclusion 
that  they  were  superior  to  those  of  Flanders  or  Picardie,  or  of 
the  country  along  the  Scheldt,  whence  the  modern  breeders  of 
draft-horses  in  England  and  France  have  drawn  mares  and  stall- 
ions of  great  excellence.  It  is  clear  that  the  mighty  race  of 
horses  was  not  confined  to  any  one  of  the  provinces  named. 
As  far  back  as  the  time  of  William  the  Conqueror  we  know 
they  had,  from  the  Scheldt  south  to  Bretagne,  a  most  powerful 
horse  ;  large,  active,  and  spirited,  well  suited  for  the  mode  of 
warfare  when  the  riders  wore  heavy  coats  of  mail,  and  carried 
heavy  lance  and  battle-ax  and  sword.  How  these  wonderful 
horses  were  produced  has  not  been  recorded  in  history.  But 


482  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARJf  AND  STOCK  CYLOCPED1A. 

the  country  was  well  suited  to  raising  horses,  because  of  the 
fine  climate,  rich  pastures,  and  abundant  feed  at  all  seasons  of 
the  year,  so  the  foals  never  had  check  in  growth. 

The  Demands  of  War  Mould  the  Type.— The  use 
of  the  horse  in  their  mode  of  warfare  led  to  the  selection  of 
the  hardiest  and  most  imposing  in  appearance.  Great  weight 
and  powerful  action  were  requisites  in  their  onslaughts,  when 
riders  were  unhorsed  and  horses  hurled  to  the  ground  by  the 
violence  of  their  collisions.  In  such  uses  the  horse  of  greatest 
weight  and  activity  had  the  advantage.  The  feed,  climate,  and 
necessities  of  their  uses  developed  a  powerful  race.  But  the 
high  courage  and  docility  and  activity  of  these  great  horses 
point  to  a  large  infusion  of  Oriental  blood.  This  came  with  the 
frequent  incursions  from  the  south,  invited  by  the  fertility  and 
abundance  which  have  characterized  this  eastern  coast  of 
France  for  centuries.  The  Saracens,  three  hundred  thousand 
strong,  as  far  back  as  732  A.  D.,  invaded  this  land,  and  left  the 
finest  blood  of  Arabia  and  Barbary  on  the  plains,  between 
Poictiers  and  Tours,  in  the  possession  of  Charles  Martel  and  his 
valiant  followers.  The  crusaders  brought  another  installment 
of  the  choicest  blood  of  Arabia. 

These  were  some  of  the  means  by  which  the  noble  race  was 
made  more  noble  within  the  time  of  well-authenticated  history. 
From  the  same  we  may  learn  of  frequent  irregular  supplies  of 
fresh  blood  from  Arabia  and  Andalusia.  Then  we  come  to  the 
men  of  wealth  and  public  spirit,  like  Lord  Montdoubleau, 
Geoffroy  IV,  Rotrou,  Count  of  Mallart,  Count  of  La  Perche, 
Count  Roger,  and  many  others  of  the  nobility  who  interested 
themselves  in  the  improvement  of  the  horses  of  France.  As 
late  as  1820  we  find  the  government  of  France  fostering  the 
breeding  of  horses  and  the  historic  gray  stallions,  Godolphin 
and  Gallipoli,  left  their  impress  in  the  studs  of  the  Empire. 

The  Evolution  of  the  Percheron. — The  country  of  La 
Perche  was  especially  favorable  in  elements  of  soil  and  climate 
for  producing  horses.  The  people,  too,  were,  and  are,  as  fond 
of  their  favorites  as  ever  were  the  Arabs  in  their  best  estate. 
The  pride  of  the  people  was  gratified  by  the  fostering  care  of 


THE  HORSE— HISTORY.  483 

the  government.  Like  the  Arab,  they  left  entire  their  horses 
that  they  might  have  the  widest  range  of  selection  for  crosses. 
Their  uses  in  war  made  a  demand  for  the  horse  of  greatest 
power,  hardiness,  and  spirit,  for  which  centuries  of  like  wants 
created  a  constant  demand,  which  it  was  to  the  interest  of  farmer 
and  ruler  to  supply.  Such  influences  were  more  powerful  and 
constant  in  the  evolution  of  the  Percheron  horse  than  can  be 
the  fitful  and  limited  aims  of  the  most  enthusiastic  combina- 
tions of  men  of  diverse  interests  and  tastes.  While  we  may 
search  in  vain  for  the  starting-point  in  the  history  of  the  French 
draft-horse,  at  which  there  was  a  distinct  breed  formed  by  a 
known  and  recorded  combination  of  blood,  we  are  assured  that 
a  distinct  type  has  been  established  on  the  law  of  selection  and 
"  survival  of  the  fittest."  We  find  in  France  a  most  wonderful 
race  of  horses,  so  allied  to  the  Arab  and  the  ponderous  ancient 
breeds  of  Normandy  and  Flanders,  as  to  concentrate  in  a  better 
form  the  excellences  of  both. 

Ohio  Investigates  the  French  Horse. — In  1865  the 
Ohio  State  Board  of  Agriculture  sent  their  Secretary,  Hon.  J. 
II.  Klippart,  to  France  and  the  German  States  to  study  methods 
of  agriculture  and  stock-raising.  His  report  may  be  found  in 
the  Ohio  Agricultural  Report  for  1865.  He  describes  the  vari- 
ous subdivisions  of  Percherons  as  follows  : 

"  In  the  Percherons,  various  subdivisions  may  be  distin- 
guished :  The  *  FINE  PERCHERON,'  chiefly  in  the  departments  of 
Eure  and  Loire  and  Cher,  is  a  powerful,  fiery  animal,  very  well 
fed  from  youth  up,  with  oblique  shoulders,  long  croup,  and  pro- 
jecting hips ;  very  fine  specimens  are  found  on  the  Cantons  d'll- 
liers,  Courville,  and  Chateauneuf,  where  they  are  fed  as  much 
oats  as  they  can  eat." 

"THE  'HEAVY  PERCHERON'  on  the  Orne,  Sarthe,  and  Eure,  is 
nothing  less  than  a  fine  or  well-built  animal,  but  a  horse  re- 
nowned for  heavy  draft." 

"  THE  '  SMALL  PERCHERON,'  in  the  west,  in  the  vicinity  of 
1'Aigle  and  Mortague  is  much  smaller  and  lighter,  has  straighter 
shoulders,  a  shorter  croup,  hips  more  level  than  fine ;  yet  he  is 
a  solid  and  useful  horse,  but  not  very  fast."  The  "  Small  Per- 


THE  HORSE— HISTORY.  485 

cherons"  are  found  in  large  numbers  in  the  omnibus  stables,  but 
a  few  only  of  the  "  Fine,"  because  they  are  used  by  the  admin- 
istration. The  latter  are  more  frequently  seen  in  the  mail  om- 
nibus, conveying  the  letter-carriers  to  their  respective  districts, 
and  in  private  wagons. 

"  The  Percherons  are  mostly  dapple-gray,  and,  while  young, 
iron-gray." 

So-called  Percherons.— In  1873  Mr.  Klippart,  in  a  letter 
to  a  Chicago  journal,  wrote :  "  Since  1866  a  great  number  of 
so-called  Percherons  have  been  imported  into  Ohio  from  France." 
He  says  he  has  not  seen  one  of  these  so-called  Percherons  which 
possesses  all  the  points,  style,  and  action  of  the  Percherons  he 
saw  in  France.  He  expresses  surprise  "  that  some  of  our  other- 
wise well-informed  horsemen  dispute  the  existence  of  a  breed 
known  as  Percherons."  He  cites,  after  thorough  examination  of 
written  history  in  Paris,  and  after  close  study  of  the  horse  and 
the  methods  of  breeding  and  handling  them,  the  best  of  authority 
found  in  authentic  encyclopedias  of  agriculture  to  prove  that  so 
early  as  1790  it  was  recognized  there  as  a  separate  and  distinct 
race  or  breed.  "  The  origin  of  the  breed  is  no  less  obscure  than 
that  of  the  Short-horn."  Those  desiring  to  further  examine 
the  history  of  the  noted  Percherons  are  referred  to  his  report. 

Corroborative  of  the  views  presented  before,  we  quote  from 
Vol.  I,  Percher on- Norman  Stud-book,  revised  edition :  "  In  that 
part  of  Normandy  lying  along  the  coast,  especially  north  of  the 
Seine  River,  the  Flemish  element  seems  to  have  made  its  influ- 
ence more  strongly  felt,  and  there  the  horses  possess  more  of 
the  Flemish  and  less  of  the  Percheron  characteristics  than  those 
bred  farther  south,  in  the  heart  of  La  Perche,  which  will  ac- 
count for  the  diversity  in  the  character  of  the  horses  brought 
to  this  country  by  our  importers.  Those  who  have  purchased 
near  the  coast,  or  north  of  the  river  Seine,  have  usually  ob- 
tained horses  that  leaned  strongly  toward  the  Flemish  type. 
They  are  larger,  coarser,  and  more  sluggish,  with  less  energy, 
endurance,  .and  action  than  those  bred  in  Eure  et  Loire  and  the 
adjacent  departments.  They  are  better  adapted  to  heavy  draft 
purposes  than  their  lighter  but  more  hardy,  active,  and  stylish 


486  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

relations  of  the  interior,  frequently  weighing  from  seventeen 
hundred  to  two  thousand  pounds  in  high  flesh,  and  producing 
larger  horses  when  crossed  on  our  common  stock. 

The  Flemish  Blood  preponderating  in  the  composition  of 
the  former,  they  and  their  progeny  partake  more  of  the  draft- 
horse  type,  while  south  of  the  Seine  and  towards  the  interior 
may  be  found  a  type  which  possesses  nearly  all  of  the  good  qual- 
ities which  have  made  the  pure  Percheron  race  so  famous,  mod- 
ified by  a  reunion  with  its  ancient  kindred  blood  of  Northern 
France,  which  has  given  it  greater  size  and  other  qualities  which 
justly  entitle  it  to  be  called,  par  excellence,  the  farmer  s  horse." 

The  Name  Norman  in  America.  —  This  remarkable, 
many-named  breed  of  horses  is  destined  to  have  a  wonderful 
effect  on  the  horses  of  America,  and  a  history  would  be  most 
defective  which  does  not  notice  the  introduction  of  this  blood  to 
our  country.  The  energy  and  enterprise  of  the  Norman  people  led 
them,  as  early  as  the  16th  century,  to  explore  the  St.  Lawrence 
river,  and  to  attempt  to  colonize  its  banks.  They  founded  Quebec, 
and  as  at  that  time  they  possessed  the  best  horses  in  all  Europe, 
and  were  improving  their  lands  at  home,  making  it  "  one  of  the 
best  cultivated  and  most  industrious  provinces  in  France,"  it  is 
scarcely  possible  that  they  would  not  bring  to  their  new  colony 
some  of  their  choice  horses.  We  have,  in  the  Canadas,  a  breed 
of  horses  which  inherit  marked  characteristics  of  the  French 
horses  called  Normans,  modified  by  climate,  feed,  and  uses  pe- 
culiar to  the  more  severe  climate.  The  Pilots,  the  Royal 
Georges,  the  St.  Lawrences,  the  Copperbottoms,  and  the  Mor- 
gans, all  show  marked  characteristics  of  the  race  as  bred  two 
centuries  ago  in  La  Perche,  then  a  part  of  Normandy. 

About  the  year  1816  a  stallion  came  into  Canada  from 
France,  called  European  or  McNitt  horse.  He  was  sire  of  the 
Morse  horse,  and  founder  of  the  famous  Norman  family,  of  which 
Lula,  May  Queen,  and  the  Blackwoods  have  been  especially 
noted.  "  This  horse  is  described  as  a  large,  dapple  gray ;  nearly 
white,  about  sixteen  hands  high ;  clean  flat  legs,  beautiful  head, 
body  long  and  round,  back  short,  loins  strong,  lofty  carriage, 
strong,  active,  and  a  very  fast  trotter.  Mr.  James  McNitt,  of 


THE  HORSE— HISTORY.  487 

New  York,  bought  him  near  Montreal,  about  1826  or  1827,  and 
the  stallion  became  better  known  through  his  own  son,  the  Morse 
horse,  sire  of  Alexander's  Norman.  The  McNitt  horse  was 
known  as  an  imported  horse,  and  in  every  particular  of  color, 
size,  form,  action,  and  character,  he  may  be  considered  a  true 
representative  of  the  race,  as  bred  at  that  date. 

The  French  Blood  in  Canada  and  New  Jersey.— 
In  1839  Mr.  Edward  Harris,  of  Moorestown,  New  Jersey,  pur- 
chased two  stallions  and  two  mares  of  French  blood,  but  landed 
only  one,  that  a  mare,  safely  on  his  farm  at  Moorestown,  New 
Jersey.  In  three  weeks  time  he  returned  to  France,  and  was 
more  fortunate,  bringing  back  the  stallion  Diligence,  and  two 
mares.  In  writing  to  a  friend  about  these  horses,  he  says: 
"Those  who  are  acquainted  with  the  thorough-bred  Canadian 
horse  will  see  in  him  a  perfect  model,  on  a  small  scale,  of  the 
Perdieron  horse."  This  is  a  peculiar  breed  of  Normandy,  and, 
from  the  best  French  authorities,  he  claims  they  were  produced 
by  the  cross  of  the  Andalusian  horse  on  the  heavy  Norman  horse. 
This  horse  Diligence  was  heavy,  compactly  built,  and  a  little 
over  fifteen  hands  high.  He  is  said  to  have  made  a  valuable 
impress  on  the  stock  of  New  Jersey  and  Eastern  Pennsylvania. 

French  Horse  in  Ohio. — In  1851  Messrs.  Charles  Full- 
ington and  Erastus  Martin,  of  Union  County,  Ohio,  went  to 
France,  in  quest  of  fine  cattle  and  sheep,  for  the  Darby  Plains 
Importing  Co.  Mr.  Fullington,  like  Mr.  Harris,  became  im- 
pressed with  the  superiority  of  the  French  horses,  when 
riding  behind  them  over  hills  and  valleys  in  the  heavy  dili- 
gences of  that  country.  It  is  told  that  Mr.  Fullington  was  led 
to  select  and  buy  the  big,  gray,  three-year  colt  through  the 
persuasive  powers  of  his  landlady,  Madame  Bailleau.  The  colt 
proved  the  lady  to  be  a  good  judge  of  a  horse ;  for  that  short- 
legged,  blocky,  close-ribbed  colt  was  none  other  than  the  famous 
Louis  Napoleon. 

"  The  French  horse,"  as  he  was  called  by  Mr.  Fullington's 
neighbors,  was  not  appreciated  until  his  foals  began  to  develop. 
In  the  autumn  of  1854  Mr.  A.  P.  Cushman,  of  DeWitt  County, 
Illinois,  purchased  him  for  $1,500.  and  he  kept  him  until  1858, 


488 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


selling  him  to  Messrs.  Dillon,  who  kept  him  until  his  death,  in 
1871.  He  got  glory  for  himself,  and  shekels  for  his  owners 
and  the  State  of  Illinois.  "  He  was  undoubtedly  the  best  known 
and  most  popular  French  horse  ever  brought  to  America,"  says 
the  author  of  the  Percheron-Norman  Stud-book.  It  is  estimated 
that  he  left  over  400  successful  sires  among  his  sons.  In  1851, 


OLD  LOUIS  NAPOLEON.    281. 

First  French  Draft -horse  imported  to  the  West.    Imported  by  Fullington<$  Martin,  of  Union  Co.,  Ohio, 
in  1851.    Died  Aug.  13,1871,  aged  23  years,  the  property  of  Dillon  Bros.,  Normal,  Ills. 

Dr.  Marcus  Brown,  of  Circleville,  Ohio,  imported  Normandy,  or 
the  Valley  horse.  He  was  kept  at  Circleville  until  1856,  when 
he  was  taken  to  Pleasant  Valley,  Madison  County,  Ohio,  where 
he  died  in  1872. 

The  French  Horse  in  Illinois.  — In  1868,  W.  J.  Ed- 
wards, of  Illinois,  imported  Success  and  French  Emperor.  Suc- 
cess has,  since  1874,  been  at  the  head  of  Mr.  M.  W.  Dunham's 
stud,  and  French  Emperor  was  sold  to  Hon.  J.  B.  Grinnell,  of 
Iowa.  These  horses  and  their  get,  have  established  the  character 
of  the  French  horse  in  America. 


490  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

• 

By  the  politeness  of  Mr.  A.  J.  Sanders,  author  of  the  Per- 
cheron  Stud-book,  we  are  able  to  present  the 

Model  for  Percheron  Horse. — "  Head  clean,  bony,  and 
small  for  size  of  animal ;  ears  short,  mobile,  erect,  and  fine 
pointed;  eyes  bright,  clear,  large,  and  prominent;  forehead 
broad;  nostrils  large,  open,  and  red  within;  jaws  rather  wide; 
chin  fine  ;  lips  thin ;  teeth  sound  and  even.  Neck  a  trifle  short, 
yet  harmoniously  rounding  to  the  body ;  throttle  clean ;  crest 
rigid,  rather  high  and  gracefully  curved;  mane  abundant  with 
silky  hair.  Breast  broad  and  deep,  with  great  muscular  de- 
velopment; shoulders  smooth,  and  sufficiently  sloping  for  the 
collar  to  sit  snug  to  them ;  withers  high ;  back  short  and 
strongly  coupled;  body  well  ribbed  up,  round,  full,  and  straight 
on  the  belly,  which  is  much  longer  than  the  back;  rump  broad, 
long  and  moderately  sloping  to  the  tail,  which  is  attached  high; 
hips  round  and  smooth  at  top,  and  flat  on  the  sides;  quarters 
wide,  well  let  down,  and  swelling  with  powerful  muscles.  Dock 
strong ;  tail  long,  heavy,  and  gracefully  hanging  out  from  the 
croup,  when  the  animal  is  in  full  motion.  Legs  flat  and  wide, 
standing  square  and  firm,  and  well  under  the  body ;  with  hard, 
clean  bones,  and  extra  large,  strong  joints,  cords,  and  tendons ; 
short  from  the  knees  and  hocks  down ;  pasterns  upright ;  fet- 
locks thin ;  hoofs  full  size,  solid,  open,  tough,  and  well  set  up 
at  the  heels.  Height,  fifteen  to  sixteen  and  one  half  hands ; 
weight  1,300  to  1,700  pounds.  Color  various  as  with  other 
horses,  but  a  clear,  dapple  gray  is  preferred,  as  the  best  of  the 
original  breed  were  thus  marked.  Action  bold,  square,  free,  and 
easy ;  neither  fore-reaching  nor  interfering ; .  the  walk,  four  or 
five  miles  per  hour;  the  trot,  six  to  eight,  on  a  dry  and  mod- 
erately level  road,  but  capable  of  being  pushed  much  faster  on 
the  latter  gait  when  required.  Temper,  kind  ;  disposition,  docile, 
but  energetic  and  vigorous  ;  hardy,  enduring,  and  long-lived  ;  pre- 
cocious, able  to  be  put  to  light  work  at  18  to  24  months  old ; 
possessing  immense  power  for  his  size;  never  balking  or  refus- 
ing to  draw  at  a  dead  pull ;  stylish,  elegant,  and  attractive  in 
appearance  ;  easy,  elastic,  and  graceful  in  motion.  No  tendency 
to  disease  of  any  sort,  and  especially  free  from  diseases  of  the 


THE  HORSE— HISTORY.  491 

legs   and   feet,  such  as   spavin,   splint,   ring-bone,   grease,   and 
founder.     An  easy  keeper  and  quick  feeder. 

Model  for  Mare. — With  rather  less  size  than  the  horse, 
the  points  and  qualities  of  the  mare  should  be  essentially  the 
same,  with  the  exception  of  possessing  a  finer  head,  mane,  and 
tail,  and  a  considerably  thinner  neck ;  when  in  foal,  able  to  work 


MODESTY,  998. 

FULL  BLOOD  NORMAV  MARK.  81  re  St.  Ln  irent,  7M;  dam  imported  Gertrude,  M3.  Bred  and  now  owned 
by  Dillon  Bros.,  Normal,  Illinois.  First  premium  and  sweepstakes  at  Illinois  State  Fair  In  1881 
an  d  sweepstakes  1  n  1883. 

moderately  to  within  a  few  days  of  giving  birth  to  it,  and,  a 
short  time  after,  able  to  resume  her  work ;  a  careful  nurse  and 
good  milker. 

The  points  of  excellence  of  the  Normans  are  so  similar  to 
those  given  above  that  we  submit  this  description  as  covering 
the  leading  characteristics  of  the  French  horses,  whether  called 
Percheron  or  Norman. 


THE  HORSE— HISTORY.  493 

The  French  Horses  in  Motion. — Instances  are  on 
record  of  performances  of  the  diligence  horses  in  France  that 
show  wonderful  powers  of  endurance  and  great  speed,  when  the 
vehicles  and  loads  carried  are  considered.  A  French  horse  of 
the  class  "  Small  Percheron"  made,  in  four  hours  and  two  min- 
utes, fifty-eight  miles,  and  came  back  over  the  same  road  the 
next  day  in  a  half  minute  less  time,  without  urging.  Another 
was  driven  fifty-five  and  three-fifth  miles  over  a  hilly  and  diffi- 
cult road  in  four  hours  and  twenty-four  minutes,  without  dis- 
tress. It  is  difficult  to  draw  the  line  between  the  larger  and 
lesser  types;  but  the  large  horse,  of  great  power,  good  action, 
and  fine  style  will  always  be  in  demand,  call  him  by  what  name 
we  may. 

The  Norman  Horse. — The  hot  rivalry  between  import- 
ers of  the  French  draft-horses  has  led  to  confusion  of  names. 
Those  who  have  sought  the  larger  type  of  French  horses  have 
preferred  the  name  Norman.  That  name  is  historic  when 
attached  to  the  grand  old  Northmen,  who  overran  Europe  and 
the  British  Isles,  and  affixed  the  name  Normandy  to  a  province 
of  France.  After  the  days  of  Hollo  the  Walker,  the  Normans 
seem  to  have  turned  their  attention  to  the  arts  of  husbandry, 
in  which  they  excelled,  as  they  had  in  the  pursuit  of  war. 
The  climate  and  soil,  and  care  or  management  of  horses, 
favored  the  growth  of  large  horses  in  the  coast  regions  of  Nor- 
mandy, as  in  Flanders  and  the  fens  of  England  and  Scotland. 
But  the  horses  of  such  lands,  while  larger,  were  more  sluggish 
than  the  horses  of  the  inland  and  more  elevated  portions, 
which  have  furnished  a  hardy,  active,  and  spirited  style  of 
horses. 

The  history  that  attaches  to  the  conquests  of  the  old  Nor- 
rians  has  given  a  charm  to  the  Norman  war-horse,  and  distance 
has  lent  enchantment,  and  made  the  name  Norman  attractive 
and  expressive  of  power  and  victory. 

The  first  French  horses  that  made  their  impress  on  the 
horses  of  Canada  were  named  Norman,  rather  than  French 
horses.  After  the  overthrow  of  the  French  in  Canada,  it  was 
good  policy  and  natural  for  the  conquerors  not  to  attach  the 


494  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

name  French  to  any  thing  left  by  them  in  the  Canadas.  The 
Norman  name  was  sufficiently  expressive  and  indefinite  to 
attach  to  the  noble  specimens  of  horses  the  French  left  behind 
them.  The  impress  made  on  the  Canadian  horse  was  felt  on 
the  New  England  horses ;  the  Morgans,  and  the  St.  I^yrence 
family,  and  the  Morse,  McNitt,  and  Blackwood  families,  all  trace 
to  the  French  horses  of  Canada,  known  as  Norman.  But  those 
horses  were  not  of  the  ponderous,  massive  order  that  claim  that 
name  to-day. 

There  is  no  good  and  sufficient  reason  why  the  French 
draft-horses,  that  came  to  America  through  Canada  and  the 
United  States,  should  have  two  names,  Percheron  and  Norman. 
But  the  war  of  names  now  is  on,  and  no  man  can  safely  say 
when  it  may  end.  It  is  worthy  of  note,  however,  that  the  Per- 
cheron association  and  Norman  association  held  conventions  the 
same  night,  the  former  at  the  Grand  Pacific  and  the  latter  at 
the  Sherman  House,  in  Chicago,  November  14,  1883.  They 
both  passed  resolutions  of  delight  at  the  establishment  of  a  rec- 
ord in  France,  and  resolved  not  to  admit  to  record  here  any  im- 
ported horse  that  is  not  on  record  in  the  French  Record. 

The  Norman  is  the  name  first  used  in  America.  The  Per- 
cheron is  the  name  used  in  France.  Now  as  the  Societe  Hip- 
pique  Perchcronne  of  France  is  to  be  the  arbiter  of  the  breed- 
ing of  animals  that  are  hereafter  to  be  imported  into  America 
the  name  FRENCH  DRAFT-HORSE  seems  fitting  and  correct.  The  de- 
scription and  history  given  the  French  draft-horse  covers  the 
French  importations  sufficiently,  and  we  may  see  that  the  war 
of  names  has  more  significance  and  interest  to  the  parties  who 
have  espoused  them  than  to  the  public  generally. 

We  have  spoken  of  the  famous  Louis  Napoleon,  which  was 
the  first  French  draft-horse  brought  west  of  the  mountains,  and 
the  horse  whose  get  brought  the  race  into  notice  in  the  West. 

We  will  speak  of  another  famous  horse,  St.  Laurent,  im- 
ported by  Messrs.  Dillon  in  1870.  He  is  a  Norman  horse  of  rare 
excellence,  and  his  colts  readily  bring  $1,000  to  $2,000.  His 
owners  have  sold  mares  and  stallions  sired  by  him  to  the  amount 
of  $27,000.  His  services  up  to  January,  1882,  brought  $23,060. 


THE  HORSE— HISTORY. 


495 


The  value  of  his  get  still  on  hand  November,  1882,  $44,000; 
making  a  total  from  the  horse,  between  1870  and  1882,  of 
$94,060.  But  as  others  have  sold  in  McLean  County  many  of 
his  colts,  it  is  claimed  that  St.  Laurent  has  been  worth  to  his 
owners  and  the  farmers  of  McLean.  County,  Ills.,  the  fabulous 
sum  of  $200,000. 


ST.  LAURENT,  75S. 

NORM AN  STALLION.    "  Largest,  heaviest -boned,  and  most  powerful  horse  ever  Imported ;"  weight, 
?.K'JO  pounds.    Imported  and  owned  by  Dillon  Bros.,  Normal,  Ills. 

The  Canadian  Horse. — Some  one  has  said  the  Canadian 
horse  was  but  the  French  draft-horse  in  miniature.  Herbert  says, 
"The  Canadian  horse  is  originally,  beyond  doubt,  the  French 
Norman  horse."  His  type  is  not  obliterated  by  a  cross  of  thor- 
ough-bred or  hunter.  His  characteristics  are,  head  rather  large, 
but  lean  and  bony,  and  well-formed  ;  forehead,  broad  ;  ears,  far 
apart,  carried  well  up ;  eye,  small  and  clear ;  aspect,  bold  and 


496  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

courageous;  crest,  thick;  chest,  full  and  broad;  shoulder,  strong 
and  a  little  apt  to  be  too  straight,  as  well  as  low  and  heavy  at  the 
withers;  the  barrel  is  stout,  somewhat  flatsided  and  not  unfre- 
quently  too  long ;  loins,  excellent ;  croup,  round  and  fleshy ; 
thighs,  muscular,  and,  "  above  all,  the  soundest,  most  undenia- 
ble, flat-boned  legs  that  are  to  be  found  in  any  race  not  thor- 
ough-bred, and  the  toughest,  hardest,  and  most  iron-like  feet  that 
are  to  be  found  in  any  race  whatsoever."  They  are  singularly 
exempt  from  all  ordinary  diseases  of  the  foot.  The  prevailing 
color  is  black,  and  the  next  is  a  rich,  dark  brown,  often  dappled 
on  the  shoulders  and  quarters.  Some  chestnuts,  with  legs  and 
tails  lighter  than  the  body,  are  seen;  and  next  occur  dark  iron- 
grays,  with  black  legs.  The  tail  and  mane  are  very  heavy,  and 
the  hair  fine  and  wavy.  The  fetlocks  up  to  the  knee  are  cov- 
ered with  long,  shaggy  coat.  They  are  compactly  built,  and 
range  from  fourteen  to  fifteen  hands  in  height.  They  are  not 
fast,  but  are  hardy  and  have  wonderful  endurance.  Whether 
the  load  be  light  or  heavy,  they  bear  it  rapidly.  They  can 
make  the  eight  miles  per  hour  and  keep  it  up.  Herbert  says 
not  a  few  can  be  found  which  will  accomplish  sixty,  seventy, 
eighty,  and  even  ninety  miles  in  one  day. 

The  points  of  excellence  which  seem  to  be  common  to  the 
Canadian  and  French  horses  leads  to  the  inquiry,  How  comes  it 
to  be  so  ?  The  question  can  not  be  answered  in  exact  terms, 
but  there  are  some  historical  facts  that  would  help  to  an  under- 
standing of  how  the  French  blood  made  its  impress  on  the 
Canadian  horses. 

Their  Origin. — It  is  known  that  a  colony  from  Normandy 
settled  along  the  banks  of  the  St.  Lawrence  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  they  founded  Quebec  in  1608.  Now,  let  us  remem- 
ber that  the  Normans  had  then  become  in  Norrnundy  as  cele- 
brated in  the  arts  of  agriculture  as  they  had  been  famous  in 
war.  They  were  ingenious  and  enterprising,  and  Normandy 
was  the  best  cultivated  part  of  France.  As  early  as  the  elev- 
enth century  adventurous  knights  from  Normandy  subdued 
Southern  Italy  by  the  power  of  their  fine  cavalry,  and  the  suc- 
cesses of  Norman  princes  for  centuries  depended  largely  on  their 


THE  HORSE— HISTOR  Y. 


497 


powerful  cavalry.  It  was  their  pride,  and  in  their  efforts  at 
conquest  and  colony  it  can  not  be  supposed  they  would  neglect 
to  carry  with  them  horses  enough  for  defense  and  agriculture. 
The  similarity  of  type  of  the  Norman  and  Canadian  teaches  as 
surely  a  common  origin  as  if  the  historians  of  Canada  had 
given  us  a  well  kept  record  of  crosses  made  and  new  blood 
infused. 


CROWN  JEWEL. 
NOKMAN  STALLION.    Imported  and  owned  by  Dillon  Bros,  Normal,  Ills 

Climate  and  Environment. — But  how  comes  the  de- 
creased size  of  the  Canadian?  The  cold  and  long  winters,  and 
the  hardships  endured  by  the  neglected  animals  of  a  people  of 
little  intelligence  or  enterprise,  would  decrease  the  size  of  all 
their  domestic  animals.  Climate,  and  environment,  give  character 
to  all  the  animals.  The  fens  of  England  and  Scotland  and  Flan- 

82 


498  THE  PEOPLE'*  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

ders  favor  the  growth  of  large  horses.  The  bleak  and  barren 
Shetland  Isles  give  us  the  diminutive  pony  of  that  region. 
The  climate,  feed,  and  neglect  have  made  the  Canadian  horse  a 
diminutive  Norman,  and  though  two  centuries  of  neglect  and 
scanty  fare  have  reduced  the  size,  yet  the  stamina  and  hardi- 
ness remain.  A  half  century  of  selection  of  largest  and  best, 
and  breeding  only  such,  and  giving  abundance  of  suitable  feed 
and  exercise,  will  restore  the  plucky  little  Canadian  to  the  size 
of  his  Norman  ancestors. 

As  a  base  on  which  to  build  for  improvement,  Herbert  says : 
"  By  breeding  the  Canadian  mare,  or,  still  better,  improved  prog- 
eny, to  well  selected  thorough-bred  horses,  a  very  good  roadster 
and  highly  improved  light  carriage-horse  will  be  the  result,  and 
by  breeding  the  female  offspring  of  this  cross  again  to  the  thor- 
ough-bred of  sufficient  bone  and  size,  we  do  not  doubt  that  the 
finest  saddle-horses,  phaeton  horses,  or  light  carriage-horses  in 
the  world  can  be  produced,  nearly  of  the  same  style  as  the 
Morgans,  but  superior  to  what  the  Morgans  ever  were  in  their 
best  day." 

The  English  Draft-Horse. — The  horses  known  by  this 
name  in  this  country  are  known  in  England  as  cart  or  shire 
horses.  The  term  shire  horse  applies  to  all  heavy  horses  of 
England  except  those  of  Suffolk  County.  These  are  esteemed 
as  a  special  breed,  and  are  called  the  SUFFOLK  PUNCH.  Their 
origin  is  unknown.  Some  breeders  claim  them  to  be  descended 
from  the  Norman  or  Flanders  race.  They  are  sometimes  in  Eng- 
land called  the  "  Agricultural  Horse."  It  is  the  draft-horse  of 
the  Midland  Counties.  An  elaborate  table  in  Vol.  I,  of  the 
English  Cart-horse  Stud-book,  shows  something  of  the  care  long 
taken  in  his  breeding.  The  first  horse  of  note  was  the  "  Packing- 
ton  Horse,"  named  from  the  town  in  which  he  was  owned.  He 
was  in  his  prime  about  1755.  He  traveled  a  number  of  years 
and  begot  hundreds  of  valuable  colts.  The  true  Suffolk,  like  the 
true  Cleveland,  is  nearly  extinct.  But  their  virtues  in  compar- 
ison with  successors  in  their  former  places  have  called  for  an 
effort  to  save  them  from  becoming  extinct  from  want  of  care  in 
breeding.  In  England  horses  are  bred,  not  only  to  meet  the 


500  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

wants  of  different  lines  of  use,  but  shires  and  counties  have  pe- 
culiar points  to  breed  for. 

There  is  a  wide  range  thus  in  weight,  height,  and  style  of 
English  drafts,  but  they  all  are  noted  for  great  strength,  hardi- 
ness, courage,  and  endurance.  The  heaviest  of  the  cart-horses 
are  bred  in  Lincolnshire  and  Cambridgeshire.  They  range  from 
eighteen  hundred  to  two  thousand  pounds,  have  very  heavy 
bone,  and  abundance  of  hair  on  the  legs  from  knee  down.  This 
is  called  "  the  feather."  In  America  we  find  them  spoken  of  as 
horses  "  with  bangs." 

In  the  Midland  counties  the  horses  are  generally  smaller, 
but  of  same  general  style.  In  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  the 
weight  runs  from  sixteen  hundred  to  eighteen  hundred,  with 
compact  form,  heavy  bone,  full  sinews,  and  less  feather.  They 
are  noted  as  rapid  walkers,  and  some  of  the  lighter  can  travel 
six  to  eight  miles  per  hour  with  ease.  This  class  of  English 
drafts  cross  admirably  on  American  mares,  and  give  us  active, 
strong  horses,  well  suited  for  farm  or  general  purpose  work. 

Effect  of  Soil  and  Climate. — "The  fens  of  Lincolnshire 
produce  the  heavy  drafts  in  the  highest  perfection,"  says 
Youatt.  Though  its  soil  is  not  better  than  other  counties, 
there  is  something  in  the  herbage,  water,  or  soil,  that  favors 
great  growth.  It  is  another  illustration  of  type  of  animals 
arising  from  peculiar  natural  conditions.  Size  of  animals  seems 
greatest  in  the  fens  of  England  or  Scotland,  or  Flanders  or 
Normandy,  and  in  such  soils  we  find  the  powerful  growth  and 
ponderous  draft-horses.  Elephants  and  hippopotami  are  never 
found  in  high  uplands  or  desert  regions,  nor  do  we  in  such 
regions  expect  to  find  the  massive  ox  or  more  powerful 
draft-horse. 

Heavy  Black  Horse. — Before  closing  this  topic  we 
should  speak  of  the  famous  heavy  black  horse,  which  is  "bred 
chiefly  in  the  midland  counties,  from  Lincolnshire  to  Stafford- 
shire." Youatt  says :  "  These  horses  are  adapted  more  for 
parade  and  show,  and  to  gratify  the  desire  which  one  brewer 
has  to  outvie  his  neighbor  than  for  any  peculiar  utility.  They 
are  certainly  noble-looking  animals,  with  their  round,  fat  car- 


THE  HORSE— HISTORY.  501 

casses  and  their  sleek  coats,  and  the  evident  pride  which  they  take 
in  themselves,  but  they  eat  a  great  deal  of  hay  and  corn,  and  at 
hard,  long-continued  work,  they  would  be  completely  beaten  by 
a  team  of  active,  muscular  horses,  an  inch  and  a  half  lower." 
The  same  might  truly  be  said  of  all  the  enormous  draft-horses 
which  American  farmers  are  just  now  getting  on  a  craze  for. 

Points  of  English  Dray-horse.  —  These  ponderous 
black  horses,  or  English  dray  or  brewer's  horse  as  often  called, 
have  a  symmetrical  form ;  head  short  and  heavy,  eyes  mild- 
looking  and  small,  ears  broad,  thick  and  short,  neck  strong  and 
arched,  breast  broad  and  thick,  shoulders  upright  and  heavy, 
barrel  round  and  deep,  loins  broad  and  high,  quarters  ample, 
forearms  and  thighs  thick,  legs  short,  hoofs  round  and  broad  at 
the  heels,  soles  not  too  flat.  By  crossing  with  the  Flanders 
horse  of  late,  Youatt  says  the  forehand  has  been  raised,  the  legs 
have  been  flattened  and  deepened,  and  very  much  has  been 
gained  in  activity.  The  heavy  black,  with  his  gait  of  two  and 
a  half  miles  per  hour,  has  been  lightened,  and  can  step  off  four 
miles  in  the  same  time  and  endure  longer. 

The  Scotch  Draft-horse. — The  Clydesdale  is  the  pride 
of  the  Scotch  farmer.  Bonnie  Scotland  has  found  in  the 
type  of  powerful  horses  bred  on  the  Clyde  her  ideal  of  a  use- 
ful horse. 

The  Clydesdale  owes  its  origin,  says  Youatt,  to  one  of  the 
dukes  of  Hamilton,  who  crossed  some  of  the  best  Lanark  mares 
with  stallions  from  Flanders.  The  Clyde  is  larger  than  the 
Suffolk  Punch,  or  English  horses  generally,  has  a  better  head, 
longer  neck,  lighter  carcass,  deeper  legs.  He  is  strong, 
hardy,  true,  and  rarely  restive.  They  are  sold  from  the  valley 
of  the  Clyde,  for  coach,  draft,  and  farm  uses  into  even  southern 
counties  of  England,  and  recently  the  importation  of  them  to 
Canada  and  the  United  States  has  become  large  and  is  rapidly 
increasing.  They  are  the  "rapid  draft"  horses  of  the  British 
Isles.  "  The  long  stride,"  says  Low,  "  characteristic  of  this 
breed,  is  partly  the  result  of  conformation,  and  partly  of  habit 
and  training;  but  however  produced,  it  adds  greatly  to  the  use- 
fulness of  the  horse,  both  on  the  road  and  in  the  fields,  no 


THE  HORSE— HISTORY.  503 

such  loads  are  known  to  be  drawn  at  the  same  pace  by  any 
horses  in  the  kingdom  as  the  single-horse  carts  of  carriers  and 
others  in  West  of  Scotland."  "  Though  inferior  in  weight  to 
the  largest  English,  they  possess  properties  which  render  them 
exceedingly  valuable  for  ordinary  uses.  On  the  road  they  per- 
form feats  that  can  scarcely  be  surpassed,  and  in  the  fields 
they  are  found  steady,  docile  and  safe." 

There  seems  to  be  a  difference  of  opinion  among  American 
importers  as  to  the  origin  of  the  Clydes,  but,  so  far  as  known, 
the  difference  is  slight,  and  may  serve  as  a  means  of  sharpen- 
ing the  edge  of  the  advertiser  rather  than  adding  to  the  value 
of  the  horse  or  evolving  the  truth  of  history. 

Be  the  origin  detailed  as  it  may,  the  student  of  the  history 
and  origin  of  breeds  will  conclude  that  the  system  of  selection 
and  variation  has  evolved  the  thorough-bred  and  the  hunter. 
The  thorough-bred  is  chiefly  of  Eastern  origin,  with  the  barb  and 
Arab  as  his  base.  The  English  and  Scotch  drafts  have  their 
origin  chiefly  in  the  Flemish  blood,  and  their  individuality  or 
types  have  been  established  on  a  line  of  different  selections, 
and  under  the  varying  influences  of  soil,  feed,  climate,  and 
handling. 

The  claims  of  importers  of  the  English  Drafts,  that  the  Clydes 
have  been  built  up  on  the  English  draft  base,  are  amusing  to  one 
who  has  read  the  history  of  these  breeds  by  men  who  had 
no  ax  to  grind.  Mr.  Dysart,  in  letters  to  Live  Stock  Journal, 
says :  "  The  English  breeders  told  him  that  the  Scotch  breeders 
of  Clydes  had  come  over  and  bought  mares  of  the  cart-horse,  to 
improve  the  Clydes ;  while  the  Scotchman  claims  the  opposite 
to  be  the  case."  He  says  the  English  seem  to  have  bred  solely 
for  size  and  strength,  without  action.  While  the  far-seeing 
Scotchman  had  in  view  size  and  strength,  combined  with  quick 
motion,  and  they  have  succeeded  well  in  obtaining  it  in 
their  horses.  This  accords  with  what  Mr.  Low  says  in  his 
work.  "  Dealers  from  almost  every  part  of  the  United  King- 
dom attend  the  markets  of  Glasgow  and  Rutherglen."  "  Many 
Clydesdales  find  their  way  to  the  central  and  even  southern 
counties  of  England."  "  They  are  longer  in  the  body  than  the 


504  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

English  black  horse,  and  less  weighty ;  compact  and  muscular, 
but  they  step  out  more  freely,  and  have  a  more  useful  action 
for  ordinary  labor."  "  They  draw  steadily,  and  are  usually  free 
from  vice." 

Now,  as  Mr.  Low's  work  is  accepted  as  highest  authority  in 
description  of  domestic  animals  of  the  British  Isles,  his  state- 
ments are  worthy  of  credence  in  this  matter,  rather  than  the 
reckless  assertions  of  dealers,  who  have  assumed  to  instruct  the 
public,  while  advertising  their  stock.  The  statements  of  zealous 
traders  can  safely  be  taken  with  discrimination. 

The  fact  is,  the  Scotchman  and  Englishman  alike  got  the 
size  from  Flanders  stock.  The  Scotchman  has,  in  his  breeding, 
developed  speed  or  free  motion,  while  the  English  breeders  seem 
to  have  lost  sight  of  that,  and  have  produced  draft  animals, 
marvelous  for  strength  and  size,  and  slowness  of  motion. 

Boulonnaise  and  Conestoga. — Before  leaving  the  draft- 
horses  we  should  notice  two  other  breeds,  the  BOULONNAISE  and 
CONESTOGA.  The  latter  was,  in  the  last  generation,  quite  ex- 
tensively bred  in  Pennsylvania,  but  since  the  days  of  better 
roads,  better  vehicles  and  railways,  his  occupation  of  moving 
ponderous  loads  on  to  market  is  gone,  and  a  more  active  class 
of  horses  have  superseded  it.  The  German  emigrants  of  Penn- 
sylvania gave  the  Conestoga  preference.  The  breed  was  de- 
scended from  early  importations  from  Flanders  and  Denmark, 
and  crosses  on  the  stock  found  in  the  state.  He  was  a 
heavy  roadster  and  a  fair  draft-horse.  Some  of  the  best 
specimens  were  used  for  coach  horses.  As  a  class,  they  were 
rather  leggy  and  too  long  in  the  back.  They  are  rarely  met 
now.  The  Clydes  and  Percherons  have  superseded  them. 

The  BOULONNAISE  is  the  name  given  to  a  large  type  of 
horse,  weighing  sixteen  hundred  to  eighteen  hundred  pounds, 
more  clumsy  than  useful.  The  American  demand  for  large, 
French  draft-horses  has  led  some  buyers  to  pick  some  of  the 
best  of  this  stock  from  Boulogne  and  about  Paris  for  the  Ameri- 
can market.  They  are  mostly  gray,  but  bays  and  blacks  are 
not  uncommon.  For  heavy,  slow  draft  they  are  said  to  be  well 
adapted. 


506  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Cleveland  Bays  take  the  name  from  the  uniform  bay 
color  of  this  most  useful  breed  of  horses,  and  the  fertile  district, 
Cleveland,  County  of  York,  England.  Of  them  Prof.  Low,  in  his 
most  valuable  history  of  domestic  animals  of  British  Isles,  writes : 
"  It  is  the  progressive  mixture  of  the  blood  of  horses  of  higher 
breeding  with  those  of  the  common  race,  that  has  produced  the 
variety  of  coach-horse  usually  termed  the  Cleveland  Bay. 
About  the  middle  of  the  last  century  this  district  became  known 
for  the  breeding  of  a  superior  class  of  powerful  horses,  which 
with  the  gradual  disuse  of  the  heavy  old  coach-horse  became  in 
request  for  coaches,  chariots,  and  similar  carriages.  The  breed, 
however,  is  not  confined  to  Cleveland,  but  is  cultivated  through  all 
the  great  breeding  districts  of  this  part  of  England.  It  has  been 
formed  by  the  progressive  mixture  of  the  blood  of  the  race- 
horse with  the  original  breeds  of  the  country.  To  rear  this  class 
of  horses,  the  same  principles  of  breeding  should  be  applied  as 
to  rearing  the  race-horse  himself.  A  class  of  mares  as  well  as 
stallions  should  also  be  used  having  the  properties  sought  for. 
The  district  of  Cleveland  owes  its  superiority  of  this  beautiful 
race  of  horses  to  the  possession  of  a  definite  breed,  formed  not 
by  accidental  mixture,  but  by  continued  cultivation. 

"Although  the  Cleveland  Bay  appears  to  unite  the  blood  of 
the  finer  with  that  of  the  larger  horses  of  the  country,  to 
combine  action  with  strength,  yet  many  have  sought  a  farther  in- 
fusion of  blood  nearer  to  the  race-horse.  They  are  accordingly 
crossed  by  hunters  or  thoroughbred  horses,  and  thus  another 
variety  of  coach-horse  is  produced,  of  lighter  form  and  higher 
breeding ;  and  many  of  the  superior  Cleveland  curricle  four-in- 
hand  horses  are  now  nearly  thorough-bred." 

Youatt  says  :  "  The  Cleveland  horses  have  been  known  to 
carry  more  than  seven  hundred  pounds  sixty  miles  in  a  day,  and 
to  perform  this  journey  four  times  a  week."  In  the  latter  part 
of  last  century,  the  Cleveland  district,  on  the  banks  of  the  Tees, 
became  noted  for  its  heavy  horses,  suitable  for  coach  and  cav- 
alry. The  heavy,  lumbering  coaches  of  those  days,  as  well  as 
the  poor  roads,  made  a  powerful  horse  a  necessity  to  handle  the 
heavy  vehicle.  He  needed  to  be  as  strong  as  our  omnibus 


THE  HORSE— HISTORY. 


507 


horse.  Modern  improvements  in  roads  and  vehicles  have  al- 
lowed lighter  horses  to  be  bred,  and  the  change,  too,  called  for 
more  speed,  which  has  been  obtained  by  selection  and  crossing 
on  choice  mares,  three-fourths  or  thorough-bred  horses  of  sufficient 
substance  and  height.  The  bay  color  has  been  fixed  as  defi- 
nitely as  the  red  in  the  Devon  cattle. 


"''"'/v ''"""/ 

BUCKINGHAM. 

CLEVELAND  BAY  STALLION, at 3  years.    Height,  \$%  hands:  weight,  1,1150  pouuds. 
Imported  by  Geo.  E.  Brown  &  Co.,  Aurora,  Ills. 

They  come  more  nearly  to  the  ideal  of  a  general  purpose 
horse  than  any  other  of  the  English  breeds.  They  might  be 
classed  as  coach,  carriage,  draft,  or  farmers  horse,  according  as 
specimens  of  the  breed  should  be  shown.  One  modern  writer 
describes  the  Cleveland  Bay  as  a  large,  elegant  horse,  standing 


£08  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

sixteen  and  one  quarter  to  sixteen  and  three  quarters  hands, 
and  weighing  from  1,350  to  1,500  pounds;  a  fine  head,  full, 
bright  eye,  long,  arched  neck,  oblique  shoulders,  deep  chest, 
short  back,  long  quarters,  strong,  cordy  legs,  and  perfect  feet. 
Their  color,  bay,  full  flowing  mane  and  tail,  and  black  legs, 
usually  clear  of  white."  They  have  been  long  popular  in  Europe 
as  coach-horses,  and  have  been  sought  for  beyond  the  ability  of 
the  native  region  to  supply,  which  fact  has  largely  injured  the 
reputation  of  the  stock,  as  it  has  led  to  sale  and  use  of  horses  not 
so  well  bred,  and  wanting  the  well-established  and  distinctive 
traits  of  excellence  peculiar  to  this  noble  breed.  When  well- 
bred  mares  of  this  breed  are  crossed  with  large  and  powerful 
thorough-breds  of  bay  color,  the  produce  is  nothing  inferior  to 
the  old  Cleveland  Bay.  Americans  have  turned  their  attention 
to  this  breed,  and  a  few  excellent  specimens  have  been  imported, 
and  the  crossing  of  them  on  our  well-formed,  large  trotting- 
mares  is  giving  a  class  of  horses  with  style,  action,  and  size 
to  command  the  best  prices.  The  market  for  such  horses  will 
not  be  overdone,  since  they  are  not  only  handsome  but 
most  useful. 

The  Farmer's  Horse. — We  have  not  yet  in  America  a 
horse  that  meets  all  the  wants  of  the  well-to-do  farmer.  In  the 
Middle  and  Eastern  States,  where  good  roads  abound,  and  the 
farms  are  not  so  large,  the  horses  which  meet  the  views  of  the 
farmer  are  not  large  enough  for  those  of  the  Western  States,  where 
gravel  and  good  roads  are  scarce.  There  the  heavy,  powerful 
draft-horses  are  finding  a  ready  sale,  and  are  imported  to  cross 
on  the  mares  of  lighter  caliber.  The  horse  of  docile  temper  and 
hardy  constitution,  with  open  gait  and  free  spirit,  prompt  and 
reliable,  never  impatient  under  difficulty,  ready  to  pull  a  light 
or  heavy  load,  on  good  or  bad  roads,  and  able  to  walk  a  mile  in 
six  or  eight  minutes,  or  trot  in  three  or  four,  and  go  to  market 
twenty  miles  and  back  in  a  half  day,  and  to  stand  heat  or  cold, 
soft  roads,  or  hard,  and  not  go  lame,  is  yet  to  be  bred  for  the 
American  farmer.  He  must  be  more  docile  than  the  American 
trotter,  more  patient,  and  yet  as  spirited,  and  free  of  gait.  He 
must  have  the  docility  and  power  of  the  Percheron,  but  greater 


THE  HORSE— HISTORY.  509 

activity;  he  must  have  the  pluck  and  endurance,  the  bone  and 
hoof  of  the  Canadian  or  the  mule,  and  yet  have  more  size  and 
tractability. 

The  farmer's  horse  must  be  handy,  hardy,  prompt,  docile, 
and  true  as  steel.  His  size  must  be  from  fifteen  and  three-quar- 
ters to  sixteen  and  one-quarter  hands,  and  weight  from  eleven 
hundred  to  fifteen  hundred  pounds.  He  is  neither  a  race-horse, 
saddle-horse,  nor  cart-horse.  A  level-headed,  compactly  made 
trotter  comes  nearer  his  ideal  than  any  yet  developed.  The 
farmer's  horse  is  yet  in  the  future.  The  horses  found  with  action, 
spirit,  and  pluck  enough  to  suit  him  on  the  road  to  church,  or 
to  the  village  are  not  usually  docile  and  patient  enough  at  the 
plow,  or  in  the  mud  with  a  heavy  load.  Occasionally  a  strain 
of  horses  has  occurred  in  the  history  of  breeding  which  has 
given  ideal  horses,  but  there  has  not  been  found  the  breeder 
with  intelligence  and  wealth  to  persist  in  breeding  on  that  line 
to  establish  a  well-defined  type.  The  farmer's  horse  of  to- 
day is  a  conglomerate  of  no  well-defined  characteristics;  so  illy 
bred,  and  having  so  many  scrub  crosses,  that  no  one  can  pre- 
dict what  the  foal  may  be  from  the  best  bred  sire.  So  uncertain 
is  the  first  cross  of  a  well  bred  horse  on  these  nondescript  mares 
that  many  farmers,  nay  the  majority,  claim  that  it  does  not  pay 
to  breed  to  a  well  bred  horse.  Until  the  principles  of  breeding 
are  far  better  understood  by  horse  owners  generally,  we  may 
not  hope  to  soon  realize  our  ideal  of  the  farmer's  horse. 

The  Saddle  Horse. — The  day  was  in  Kentucky,  Virginia, 
and  Ohio  when  every  farmer  owned  a  horse  that  would  carry  the 
rider  with  ease,  on  a  walk  of  four  to  five  miles  per  hour,  and 
rack  or  pace  eight  to  ten  miles  an  hour  the  livelong  day.  The 
advent  of  good  roads  and  light  vehicles  has  supplanted  this  most 
useful  and  economical  animal  on  the  farm.  In  his  stead  has 
come  the  half-bred  trotting-horse  that  can  not  walk  a  mile  in  ten 
minutes,  or  trot  in  five ;  instead  of  the  saddle  and  bridle,  come 
the  buggy  and  harness,  costing  double  that  of  the  kindly  and 
ever  ready  saddle-horse  of  the  last  generation. 

We  are  glad  to  note  the  fact  that  a  demand  for  good  saddle- 
horses  is  again  springing  up,  and  that  the  people  are  recognizing 


£10 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


the  fact  that  we  have  lost  that  best  of  all  useful  gaits,  the  rapid 
walk.  The  saddle-horse  has  a  better  disposition  than  the  mod- 
ern buggy  and  road  horse.  He  was  always  in  sympathy  with 
his  rider  and  the  rider  with  him,  and  they  readily  accommoda- 
ted each  to  the  other.  The  change  of  gait  rested  each,  and  they 
combined  to  learn  them.  The  walk,  fox  trot,  rack,  or  single 
foot,  the  pace  or  amble,  the  gallop,  all  came  in  play  to  rest  each 
and  make  the  journey  a  pleasure  to  both.  The  modern  jog  or 


TOM  WONDER. 
GENERAL,  PURPOSE  HORSE.    Sire,  Tom  Crowder ;  Dam  by  Woodpecker. 

spurt  with  a  buggy  soon  becomes  destitute  of  any  thing  that 
enlivens  rider  or  horse.  The  rider  becomes  dull  and  the  horse 
duller,  and  the  work  done  by  each  is  the  merest  drudgery.  It 
develops  neither  horsemanship,  nor  speed,  nor  style.  It  suits  a 
slow-going,  lazy  man,  an  idler,  or  a  lout,  that  has  not  life  or 
spirit  enough  to  enjoy  the  gait  or  style  of  a  spirited  saddle- 
horse.  Let  us  hope  that  the  farmers  may  return  to  the  better 
days,  when  the  handy  saddle-horse  served  us  better  and  at  far 


THE  HORSE— HISTORY.  511 

less  cost  than  now  does  the  mongrel  buggy  nag,  and  the  rattling 
road-cart. 

The  manufacturers  of  vehicles  and  the  breeders  of  the  trot- 
ting-horse  have  introduced  a  fashion  of  buggy  riding  which  has 
captivated  the  young  men  on  the  farm,  and  has  robbed  the  coun- 
try of  the  grand  race  of  useful  horses  under  the  saddle,  ami 
saddled  on  to  the  farmer  an  expense  for  vehicles  greater  than 
the  horse  stock  of  the  farm. 

To  be  sure,  the  model  saddle-horse  should  never  be  used  for 
other  work.  The  same  is  true  of  the  model  driver.  But  the 
fanner's  horse  can  be  both,  and  do  well  the  work  of  the  farm, 
too.  Even  the  Clydes  and  Cleveland  Bays,  Low  tells  us,  have 
been  found  with  so  open  and  easy  gait  as  to  have  led  to  their 
purchase  for  saddle-horses.  It  is  not  retrograding  to  hold  fast 
to  that  which  is  good.  It  is  wisdom  not  to  let  go  of  a  good 
thing  in  mad  haste  to  try  a  novelty.  The  writer  is  by  no  means 
wanting  in  admiration  of  the  noble  American  trotter,  but  he 
thinks  the  trotter  as  now  bred  is  not  the  farmer's  horse.  He 
lacks,  first  of  all,  the  habit  of  slow,  steady  going,  and  is  too 
impatient  under  restraint.  The  true  trotter  loves  to  go,  and  his 
ancestors  have  been  bred  for  speed  and  rapid  motion,  and  not 
for  quiet,  patient  toil,  as  the  plow  and  wagon  horse  must  needs 
adapt  himself  to. 

The  Trotting-horse. — The  trotting-horse  is  the  product 
of  modern  times.  He  did  not  have  his  origin  in  the  pursuits 
of  war  and  of  ceremony,  as  did  the  Arab  and  Barb,  and  their 
lineal  descendant,  the  Andalusian,  and  the  heavy  chargers  of 
the  Norman  type.  The  trotting-horse  originates  in  an  age  when 
men's  thoughts  are  not  mainly  on  war  and  pomp,  but  upon 
trade  and  commerce.  He  is  the  product  of  a  business  age. 

Americans  have  done  most  to  develop  the  race  of  trotters, 
and  we  hear  horsemen  that  know  more  of  horse  than  history 
assert  that  the  trotting-horse  originated  in  America,  and  that 
here  horses  were  first  trained  to  trot.  While  it  is  true  the 
Europeans  and  English  have  done  little  in  developing  the  trot- 
ting instinct  and  training  in  that  gait,  they  began  to  have  tes^s 
of  speed  in  that  gait  before  it  was  done  in  America. 


512  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Early  Records  of  Trotting. — As  early  as  1791  we 
read  of  a  brown  mare,  eighteen  years  old,  that  trotted  on  the 
Essex  road  sixteen  miles  in  fifty-eight  minutes.  In  1779  a 
trial  of  speed  and  endurance  was  made  between  two  geldings 
on  Sunbury  Common,  England. 

We  are  told  that  trotting  matches  at  an  early  day  were  for 
distance  rather  than  speed.  In  1796  a  pair  was  driven  tandem 
sixteen  miles  in  less  than  an  hour.  The  celebrated  English 
trotter,  Archer,  carried  two  hundred  and  ten  pounds,  sixteen 
miles  in  fifty -five  minutes.  About  this  time,  Edward  Astley's 
phenomenon  mare  trotted  seventeen  miles  in  fifty-six  minutes, 
when  twelve  years  old,  and  her  owner  offered  to  trot  her  nine- 
teen and  a  half  miles  in  an  hour.  About  1825  an  American 
horse,  called  Tom  Thumb,  trotted  one  hundred  miles  in  ten 
hours  and  seven  minutes,  in  England,  including  thirty-seven 
minutes  for  feed,  or  actual  time,  nine  hours  and  thirty  minutes. 

Whether  because  of  the  too  heavy  vehicles,  or  of  the  want 
of  skill  among  English  jockeys  in  handling  trotters,  we  can  not 
say,  but  the  fact  remains  that  England  has  not  produced  trotters 
worthy  of  note. 

First  Trot  for  Money  in  America. — Porter's  Spirit  of 
The  Times,  of  December  20th,  1856,  says:  "The  first  time 
ever  a  horse  trotted  in  public  for  a  stake  was  in  1818,  and  that 
was  a  match  against  time,  for  one  thousand  dollars.  The  horse 
was  Boston  Blue,  which  won  by  trotting  his  mile  in  three 
minutes.  He  was  purchased  by  the  tragedian,  Cooper,  who 
drove  him  between  New  York  and  Philadelphia,  enabling  him  to 
perform  engagements  in  either  city  on  alternate  nights.  The 
horse  was  taken  to  England,  and  there  trotted  eight  miles  in 
twenty-eight  minutes  and  fifty-five  seconds,  winning  a  hundred 
sovereigns.  He  was  a  rat-tailed  gray  gelding,  sixteen  hands 
high  ;  of  unknown  pedigree. 

Trotting  Clubs  Organize. — About  1820  the  descendants 
of  Messenger  began  to  attract  attention  about  Philadelphia  and 
New  York.  In  1825  the  New  York  Trotting  Club  was  organ- 
ized. In  1828  Hunting  Park  Association  was  established  in 
Philadelphia,  "  for  the  encouragement  of  the  breed  of  fine 


THE  HORSE— HISTORY.  513 

horses,  especially  that  most  valuable  one  known  as  the  trotter." 
Three  minutes  was  about  the  lowest  time  yet  made  in  England 
or  America.  Trots  had  been  for  four  to  ten  miles.  Now 
efforts  began  to  be  made  for  the  greatest  speed  for  one  mile. 
For  several  years  two  and  three  mile  heats  were  trotted  at 
about  two  minutes,  forty  seconds  to  the  mile;  then  two 
minutes,  thirty  seconds ;  a  few  could  make  it  in  two  minutes, 
twenty-four  seconds,  and  two  or  three  lowered  the  time  to 
two  minutes,  twenty  seconds. 

Among  the  celebrities  we  find  grand-colts  of  Messenger, 
Betsy  Baker,  Topgallant,  Whalebone,  Shakespeare,  Paul  Pry, 
Trouble,  and  Sir  Peter. 

Messenger  Family. — A  history  of  Messenger  and  his 
descendants  would  be  a  fair  history  of  the  eminent  trotting- 
horses  of  the  world. 

In  1780  Messenger  was  foaled,  and  in  1788  he  was  im- 
ported to  New  York.  He  had  been  successful  in  several  races, 
and  had  won  the  King's  plate  at  five  years  old.  Because  of 
his  promise  and  high  breeding  he  was  brought  to  New  York  to 
improve  the  thorough-breds  of  America  at  a  time  when  run- 
ning was  more  common  than  trotting.  He  stood  two  seasons 
in  Bucks  County,  Pennsylvania,  and  was  then  purchased  by  Mr. 
Henry  Astor,  and  kept  at  Long  Island  for  two  years.  He  was 
afterwards  kept  at  several  places  in  the  State  of  New  York, 
and  one  year  in  New  Jersey,  at  Cooper's  Point.  He  died  Jan- 
uary 28th,  1808. 

Messenger  was  a  gray,  fifteen  hands,  three  inches  high,  and 
stoutly  built.  His  shoulders  were  upright,  and  he  was  low  on 
the  withers,  with  a  short,  straight  neck,  and  large  bony  head. 
His  loins  and  hind-quarters  were  powerfully  muscular,  his  wind- 
pipe and  nostrils  of  unusual  size,  his  hocks  and  knees  very 
large,  and  below  them  limbs  of  medium  size,  but  flat  and  clean, 
and  whether  at  rest  or  in  motion  his  position  and  carriage 
always  perfect  and  striking.  It  is  told  of  him  that  the  voyage 
was  rough,  and  three  other  horses  imported  with  him  became  so 
reduced  that  they  had  to  be  assisted  down  the  gang-plank  at 
New  York ;  but  Messenger,  with  a  loud  neigh,  rushed  down  it, 

33 


514  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

and  in  a  slashing  trot  dashed  off  up  the  street,  with  two  strong 
grooms  holding  him  back  with  might  and  main. 

Here  is  the  vigor  and  stamina  which  impressed  his  descend- 
ants, and  made  him  the  sire  of  some  of  the  best  running-horses 
of  his  day,  and  the  illustrious  founder  of  a  family  of  trotters 
which  the  world  has  not  equaled.  His  illustrious  sons,  to 
which  nearly  all  noted  trotters  trace,  are  Plato,  Engineer,  Com- 
mander, Why-not,  Mount  Holly,  Mambrino,  and  Hambletonian. 

The  Light  Vehicle  a  New  Factor. — The  thorough- 
breds of  his  get  were  trained  to  running,  and  not  used  as  road 
horses.  In  fact,  at  that  day  road-wagons  had  not  been  made. 
Good  roads  were  scarce  and  light  vehicles  scarcer,  nearly  all 
travel  being  on  horseback.  Prof.  W.  H.  Brewer  in  his  paper 
on  the  evolution  of  the  trotting-horse,  shows  how  important 
a  bearing  the  improvement  and  use  of  light  vehicles  had  on 
the  developement  of  the  trotter. 

Messenger  blood  is  not  the  only  element  that  gave  an  im- 
petus to  the  development  of  speed  among  trotters  about  the 
first  of  this  century.  Carriage  builders  of  New  Haven  say  that 
light  buggies  with  steel  springs  only  became  common  about  1840 
to  1843.  Prof.  Brewer  aptly  says  :  "  The  introduction  of  light, 
one-horse  wagons,  with  steel  springs,  is  coincident  with  the  for- 
mation of  the  first  organizations  for  the  breeding,  training,  and 
speeding  of  trotters,  and  such  wagons  only  began  to  be  common 
just  at  the  time  when  we  had  developed  the  first  '2.30  trotters. 
Fast  trotters  had  to  develop  in  a  country  where  there  was  a  pas- 
sion and  taste  for  the  animal,  and  something  to  make  a  trotting 
sulky  of;  and  America  is  the  native  land  of  the  hickory  as  of 
the  trotter.  Without  hickory  to  make  wheels  of,  could  we  have 
trotters  with  such  low  records  as  we  now  have?  The  develop- 
ment of  trotters  and  of  vehicles  has  gone  on  together.  We  did 
not  need  the  fast  trotter  for  driving  until  we  had  suitable 
wagons."  With  the  old,  lumbering  chariots  of  Rome,  and  the 
clumsy  carts  of  Old  England,  there  was  no  place  for  the  lively 
roadster,  and  no  means  for  track  handling  and  training  colts  to 
trot.  The  creation  of  light  vehicles  has  helped  to  develop  the 
Americon  trotter. 


THE  HORSE-HISTORY.  515 

The  Trotting  Ability  Discovered. — But,  coming  back 
to  the  influence  of  Messenger  blood  on  the  mongrel  stock  of  the 
country,  we  note  that  the  colts  of  Messenger  were  used  for 
running  horses  or  the  studs.  Breeding  trotters  had  not  been 
commenced.  The  value  of  Messenger  blood  in  the  trotter  was 
a  discovery,  and  not  the  result  of  skillful  planning.  The  thorough- 
bred stock  was  imported  for  sporting  purposes. 

The  colonists  north  of  Delaware  Bay  were  religious  people, 
and  thought  horse-racing  smacked  of  aristocracy  and  immorality, 
and  breeding  race-horses  was  not  encouraged  among  them  so 
much  as  south  of  Mason  and  Dixon  line.  Laws  against  horse- 
racing  became  so  stringent  in  the  Eastern  States  that  the  lovers 
of  good  horses  found  a  new  means  of  gratification  in  the  develop- 
ment of  fleet  roadsters.  The  fashion  of  wealthy  men  driving 
a  single  fast  trotter,  became  a  powerful  factor  in  stimulating  the 
development  of  trotters;  smart  business-men  wanted  smart  busi- 
ness-horses. The  light  hickory  wheels  of  New  England  made  a 
light  wagon  for  the  road,  and  a  means  of  pleasure  with  an  active 
horse  of  lively  gait.  The  thorough-bred  horses  on  the  mongrel 
stock  of  the  time  gave  spirit  and  pluck  and  speed.  The  com- 
mon horse  stock  of  the  country  came  from  as  many  European 
countries  as  did  the  mixed  population.  England,  Holland, 
France,  and  Spain  furnished  the  major  part.  The  influence  of 
the  French  or  Norman  blood  we  may  note  in  the  Canadian  horse, 
or  Canucks.  The  horses  from  England  were  of  the  heavy  draft, 
in  part,  but  mainly  the  thorough-bred.  The  Spanish  blood  gave 
the  handsome  and  stylish  saddle-horses.  But  a  people  of  com- 
mon interests  and  no  aristocracy  soon  commingled  the  bloods  of 
the  several  breeds  of  horses,  and  the  result  was  the  base  for  a 
trotter,  on  which  such  grand  horses  as  Messenger,  in  1788  to 
1808,  Mambrino,  still  later,  Hambletoniari  and  Abdallah,  all 
thorough-breds,  made  their  impress. 

Description  of  great  Sires. — MAMBRINO.  named  after  the 
sire  of  Messenger,  was  a  thorough-bred,  a  bright  bay,  sixteen 
hands  high,  long-bodied,  and  like  his  sire,  upright  in  shoulders. 
He  was  not  only  large,  but  also  a  coarse  horse,  badly  string- 
halted,  as  have  been  many  of  his  descendants.  He  had  a  free, 


516  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

rapid,  swinging  walk,  a  slashing  trot,  and  running  speed  of  first 
order.  He  was  the  sire  of  Betsy  Baker,  of  Abdallah,  who  sired 
Rysdyk's  Hambletonian,  of  Mambrino-Paymaster,  who  sired 
Mambrino  Chief,  from  whom  we  have  such  stars  as  Lady  Thorn, 
Mambrino  Pilot,  Bay  Chief,  etc.  This  son  of  Messenger  stands 
at  the  head  as  a  progenitor  of  trotters. 

Next  comes  HAMBLETONIAN.  He  is  also  a  thorough-bred,  a 
dark  bay,  fifteen  hands  and  one  inch  high,  beautifully  moulded, 
and  without  a  single  weak  point.  He  was  the  sire  of  Topgal- 
lant, Whalebone,  Sir  Peter,  Trouble,  and  Shakespeare,  all  rank- 
ing among  the  first  of  American  trotters. 

ABDALLAH  has  many  noted  celebrities  tracing  to  him.  He 
was  foaled  at  Jamaica,  Long  Island,  in  1826.  His  sire  was 
Mambrino,  his  dam  Amazonia,  a  daughter  of  Messenger.  Thus 
Abdallah  was  closely  in-bred.  He  was  a  bay,  and  plain  like 
his  sire,  but  inherited  the  trotting  quality.  He  was  trained  at 
four  years  old,  and  considered  the  fastest  young  horse  of  his 
day.  To  be  able  to  say  a  horse  is  "  out  of  an  Abdallah  mare," 
is  enough  to  commend  him  to  a  horseman. 

BELLFOUNDER  is  another  imported  horse  that  added  something 
to  the  trotting  power.  He  was  foaled  1817,  and  brought  from 
England  to  Boston  by  James  Boot.  He  was  a  bay  of  fine  form, 
size,  and  action,  and  transmitted  these  characteristics  to  his 
offspring. 

The  imported  Arabian,  GRAND  BASHAW,  is  more  largely 
known,  because  he  was  fortunate  to  have  been  used  on  some 
mares  sired  by  Messenger,  when  in  Bucks  County,  Pennsylvania. 

YOUNG  BASHAW,  a  son  of  the  Arabian,  was  the  first  and  only 
one  of  the  whole  stock  that  was  blessed  with  power  to  trot. 
His  dam  was  a  granddaughter  of  Messenger. 

Diomed  Descendants. — The  American  horses  that  have 
become  noted  as  trotters  and  sires  of  trotters,  and  having  no 
Messenger  blood,  are  not  numerous.  Sir  Henry,  famous  com- 
petitor of  American  Eclipse  and  Duroc,  both  descended  from 
Duroc,  have  transmitted  the  power  to  trot  to  their  descend- 
ants. 

SEELY'S  AMERICAN  STAR  has  sired  some  famous  trotters.     He 


THE  HORSE— HISTORY.  517 

was  sired  by  American  Star  and  out  of  Sally  Slouch,  and 'she 
was  by  Sir  Henry. 

AMERICAN  ECLIPSE  had  Duroc  blood,  but  his  dam  was  by 
Messenger,  which,  with  many  horsemen,  accounts  for  his  success 
in  getting  trotters. 

AMERICUS  was  of  Duroc  blood,  by  Red  Jacket,  and  is  not 
known  to  have  had  any  other  trotting  blood.  He  beat  Lady 
Suffolk  in  a  five-mile  match. 

Canada  Trotters. — We  have  spoken  of  the  Norman  im- 
portation into  Canada  of  the  larger  horses.  In  Lower  Canada 
.along  the  St.  Lawrence,  the  horses  retain  the  form  and  make  of 
the  Percheron,  or  Norman  as  they  were  called,  because  of  the 
Northmen  who  founded  the  colony  which  brought  the  Norman 
horses  to  Canada.  They  are  supposed  to  have  degenerated 
greatly  in  size  from  that  of  their  ancestors  of  1608.  They  are 
called  Canucks.  Their  color  is  not  regular.  Their  heads  are 
generally  good,  face  dished,  showing  gamy  disposition,  necks 
well  arched,  crest  often  heavy,  bodies  round  and  roomy,  ribs  so 
sprung  as  to  make  a  broad,  flat  back.  Their  legs  are  generally 
good,  but  somewhat  inclined  to  knee-spring,  feet  narrow  but 
very  durable.  They  are  short,  quick  steppers,  with  high  knee 
action;  are  spirited,  trappy-harness  horses,  and  long-lived.  The 
Canadian  seems  to  have  gained  in  pluck  and  spirit  as  much  as 
he  has  lost  in  size. 

PILOT  is  the  most  noted  one  that  has  ever  come  to  the  States. 
He  was  a  black  pacing  and  trotting  horse,  whose  descendants 
have  great  endurance  and  aptness  to  trot.  He  is  known  as  Old 
Pacer  Pilo-t.  He  was  foaled  in  1826.  Nothing  is  known  of  his 
breeding.  He  was  bought  of  a  Yankee  peddler  in  New  Orleans, 
about  1832,  for  one  thousand  dollars,  by  Major  0.  Dubois,  and 
was  afterward  sold  to  Mr.  Heinsohn,  in  Louisville,  Ky.,  and  kept 
there  until  1855. 

ALEXANDER'S  PILOT,  JR.,  out  of  Nancy  Pope  by  Havoc,  was 
the  sire  of  many  fast  trotters :  the  fastest  of  which  was 

JOHN  MORGAN,  out  of  a  mare  by  Medoc,  and  he  by  American 
Eclipse.  The  dam  of  Mambrino  Pilot  was  also  by  Pilot,  Jr., 
and,  like  John  Morgan,  was  of  Messenger  descent  on  the  dam's  side. 


518  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

ROYAL  GEORGE,  the  sire  of  Toronto  Chief,  was  a  Canadian 
horse,  not  a  Canuck.  His  sire  was  Black  Warrior,  and  he  by 
an  imported  horse. 

The  sons  of  RYSDYK'S  HAMBLETONIAN,  Bruno  and  Brother  of 
Bruno,  and  their  full  sister,  Brunette,  were  out  of  a  Canadian 
mare.  They  had  remarkable  speed  and  powers  of  endurance. 

GIFT,  a  chestnut  gelding  by  Mambrino  Pilot,  was  out  of  a 
small  pacing  Cannuck  mare.  At  four  years  old  he  received  five 
forfeits;  his  owner  challenged  any  colt  of  same  age  to  trot  in 
harness,  or  to  a  wagon,  for  $1,000,  and  found  no  taker. 

ST.  LAWRENCE  was  a  bay  stallion  of  great  excellence,  and  a 
sire  of  several  fast  trotters. 

BLACK  HAWK,  often  called  VERMONT  BLACK  HAWK,  was  foaled 
in  1833  at  Greenland,  N.  H.,  was  a  son  of  Sherman,  one  of  the 
best  sons  of  Justin  Morgan,  the  founder  of  the  Morgan  family. 
The  dam  of  Black  Hawk  was  of  unknown  breeding.  He  was 
used  for  seven  years  as  a  carriage-horse  in  Lowell,  Mass.,  and 
then  was  sold  to  David  Hill,  of  Vermont,  in  whose  hands  he 
sired  more  high  priced  colts  than  any  other  horse  of  his  day. 
He  was  the  sire  of  Ethan  Allen,  Black  Ralph,  Lancet,  Belle  of 
Saratoga,  Black  Hawk  Maid,  Flying  Cloud,  and  many  others  of 
great  repute.  His  colts  were  in  great  demand  in  the  West  and 
South.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that,  notwithstanding  the  great 
excellence  of  his  colts,  only  three  of  the  fifty-two  trotting  stall- 
ions advertised  in  1868  are  descendants  of  Vermont  Black  Hawk, 
and  all  of  these  are  part  Messenger. 

TOM  WONDER  is  another  rather  remarkable  animal,  tracing  to 
the  Canadian  blood.  "  He  is  by  Tom  Crowder,  dam  by  Wood- 
pecker, thorough-bred." 

Mambrino  Family. — The  Mambrinos  rival  the  Hamble- 
tonians.  They  descend  mostly  from  Mambrino  Chief.  He  was 
bred  in  the  East,  and  taken  to  Kentucky  by  James  B.  Clay  in 
1854,  where  he  died  in  1861.  His  sire  was  Mambrino  Paymas- 
ter by  Mambrino,  Messenger's  best  son.  He  has  a  numerous  and 
noted  progeny,  among  them  Lady  Thorn,  Bay  Chief,  Mambrino, 
Pilot,  Ericsson,  Mambrino  Patchen,  Brignoli,  Kentucky  Chief, 
Ashland,  etc.  The  pedigree  and  performance  of  his  get  accord. 


THE  HORSE— HISTORY.  519 

LADY  THORN  was  noted  for  speed  and  bottom,  both  repre- 
sented in  three  lines  of  descent  from  Messenger,  and  three  from 
Uiomed,  she  being  almost  thorough-bred. 

MA  MERINO  PILOT  is  the  most  distinguished  son  of  Mambrino 
Chief.  His  color  was  brown,  his  size  large  and  pony  built,  of 
matchless  form  and  power,  and  graceful  in  every  motion  and 
attitude.  He  inherits  three  crosses  of  Messenger,  two  of  Dio- 
med,  and  one  of  Old  Pilot,  through  Pilot,  Jr. 

We  might  continue  illustrations  and  histories  of  noted  mem- 
bers of  the  Mambrino  family,  but  space  forbids.  For  the  facts 
and  matter  given  above  on  the  trotting-horse  we  are  largely 
indebted  to  Stonehenge  and  McLure. 

Running  Blood  in  Trotters. — At  this  time  there  seem 
to  be  two  schools  of  theorists  as  to  the  element  that  makes  the 
winning  blood  among  trotters. 

One  holds  that  the  running  horse  gives  the  trotting  power  in 
all  winners  thus  far  developed.  For  proof  they  adduce  the  fact 
that  every  distinguished  trotter  runs  back  and  is  intimately 
connected  with  the  running  horse.  Of  this  school,  Wallace  is 
the  head. 

On  the  other  hand,  J.  H.  Sanders  leads  the  school  that  holds 
the  trotter  of  America  to  be  indebted  partly  and  indirectly  to 
the  thorough-bred  for  pluck  and  endurance,  and  more  directly 
for  the  trotting  instinct  or  tendency  to  the  well-developed  breed 
of  trotters  for  which  America  has  become  famous.  In  proof  of 
this  they  cite  cases  innumerable  almost  where  trotters  have  be- 
come noted,  and  have  no  thorough-bred  cross  since  the  days  of 
Messenger,  and  others  that  have  not  had  a  thorough-bred  cross 
since  the  days  of  Mambrino.  In  fact,  recent  attempts  to  improve 
the  trotters  of  this  day  by  a  new  cross  of  thorough-bred  have 
invariably  proven  disastrous. 

The  trotting  quality  has  become  so  well  fixed  in  many  fam- 
ilies by  selection  and  development,  that  breeders  of  trotters 
to-day,  as  a  general  rule,  prefer  that  no  thorough-bred  blood 
be  found  since  the  days  of  Lexington  or  Mambrino  Chief. 
Jay-Eye-See,  Phallas,  and  Majolica  are  the  sensational  trotters 
of  1883. 


THE  HORSE— HISTORY.  521 

JAY-EYE-SEE  is  a  five-year-old,  is  by  Dictator;  dam  by  Mid- 
night, by  Pilot  Jr.,  a  son  of  old  pacing  Pilot.  Dictator,  son  of 
Rysdyk's  Hambletonian  was  a  trotter  and  got  trotters.  He  is 
the  sire  of  Phallas.  Phallas  does  not  resemble  a  runner,  but  a 
great  trotter.  His  father  was  a  trotter,  so  was  his  grandfather, 
but  his  great-grandfather  had  running  blood  in  his  veins,  and  by 
this  token  the  through-bred  theorists  claim  him  as  an  example 
in  proof  of  their  theory. 

It  seems  to  the  writer  that  it  is  too  soon  yet  in  the  history 
of  the  development  of  the  breed  of  trotters  to  assert  positively 
as  to  the  power  of  the  thorough-bred  in  development  of  the  trot- 
ter. It  is  true  that  all  the  noted  families  of  trotters  are  in- 
debted to  near  or  remote  crosses  of  thorough-bred  blood  for 
valuable  qualities.  It  is  also  true  that  the  thorough-bred  was 
an  important  factor  in  the  make-up  of  the  Clydesdale  and  Cleve- 
land bay,  but  at  so  remote  a  day  that  no  man  now  claims  that 
the  special  working  qualities  of  these  breeds  would  be  improved 
by  a  fresh  cross  of  the  speedy  race-horse.  The  next  generation 
of  men  will  see  the  breed  of  trotters  so  well  established  and  fixed 
that  he  who  would  attempt  to  improve  the  gait  and  staying  qual- 
ity of  a  well-bred  trotter  of  the  Hambletonian  line  by  a  cross  of 
running  blood,  would  be  the  laughing-stock  of  the  trotting  fra- 
ternity. There  are  successful  families  of  trotters  which  prove 
in  the  stud  and  on  the  track  their  superiority,  and  the  wise 
breeders  are  to-day  looking  to  a  concentration  of  this  blood 
rather  than  to  running  blood  for  their  success  in  breeding.  Be- 
fore passing  to  the  table  of  trotters  of  the  last  year,  it  may  not 
be  amiss  to  notice,  in  this  connection,  the  death  of  Governor 
Sprague.  He  was  foaled  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  in  1871,  died  of 
pneumonia  at  Lexington,  Ky.,  May  5,  1883,  cutting  short  a  life 
of  rare  promise  and  great  usefulness.  He  made  his  first  ap- 
pearance on  the  track  when  four  years  old.  He  made  a  public 
mile  that  season  in  2.2 li.  Horsemen  said  his  equal  had 
never  been  seen.  In  his  five  year  old  form  he  trotted  the  first 
half  of  his  third  mile  at  Chicago  in  1.08,  but  was  taken  up  by 
his  driver  and  jogged  under  the  wire  in  2.30.  In  less  than  half 
an  hour  after  this  feat  Mr.  J.  I.  Case  bought  him  for  $27,500 


522 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


The  table  of  the  new  2.30  trotters  of  1883,  will  help  those 
interested  to  see  where  the  new-comers  are  from : 


NAME. 

SIRE. 

SIRE  OK   DAM. 

RECORD 

Majolica  b  g  

Startlp     

Clark  Chief  .... 
Clark  Chief  .... 

2.17 

2.18} 
2  22 
£23 
2.23} 
2.23} 
2.25} 
2.25} 
2.25* 
2.26 
2.26 
2.26 
2.26} 
2.26} 
2.26} 
2.27} 
2.27} 
2.27* 
2.27| 
2.28 
2.28 
2.28} 
2.28* 
o  '^9" 

Phallas  b  h  

Dictator  

Judge  Davis,  b.  g  
H.  B.  Winship,  blk.  g.  . 
St.  Cloud,  b.  g  
Madeline,  b.  m  
Dixie  Sprague,  br.  m  .  . 
Speedress,  b.  m  
Blanchard,  b.  g  
Backman  Maid,  b.  m  .  . 
Prince  b  g  

Joe  Brown     

Aristos    

Colonel  Moulton  .  . 

Conklin's  Star 

Rysdyk'sHambletonian 
Governor  Sprague.  .    . 
King  Philip,  

Seely's  Amer'n  Star. 
Pilot  Jr  

Star  

Daniel  Lambert  .... 
Charles  Backman  .  .    . 

Young  Columbus.  . 
Volunteer  

Stephen  G.,  b.  g  

Knickerbocker  .... 

Mambrino  Sotham,  blk.  h 
Alexander  b  g  

Mambrino   Gift  .... 

Happy  Medium  .... 
Blue  Bull  

Bully  King  .... 

Blanche  H.,  blk.  m  .  .  . 
Harry  Mills,  br.  g.  .  .  . 
Adelaide  b  m  

Sweepstakes  
Milwaukee     .... 

Bay  Mambrino.  .    . 

Black  Ju0"  blk  g  .  .  .  . 

AVestern  ch  g  

Tramp  Dexter  .... 

Kitty  Burch  ch  m  • 

Index,  b.  g  
Erebus,  blk.  g  
Harry  Pelham,  gr.  g.  .  . 
Flight  b  m  

J.  R.  Breeze  
Scott's  Hiatoga  .... 

Thomas  Jeflferson  .  .    . 

Buccaner    

Flaxtail     

Lady  Scud,  b.  m  .  .  .  . 

2  29} 

Bonnie  L.,  ch.  g  
Sleepy  Joe  br  g  .  .  .  . 

Charley  B  

2.29} 
2  29} 

Little  Miss,  b.  m  .  .  .  . 
Neva,  b.  m  

Goldsmith's  Abdallah  . 
Strader's  Hambletonian 
General   Stanton  .    .    . 

9  29V 

Tom  Strader  .... 

o  tc  to  to  to 
c  tc  tc  i  i  tc 

~  --c  --c  ;c  cc 

Fides,  ch.  g  
Lady  Elgin,  b.  m  
^Vallace  b  g  •  • 

Legal  Tender,  Jr  .    .    . 

Blue  Bull 

Maggie  F.,  b.  m  
Mambrino  George,  b.  h  . 
Morocco  b  g  

Newrv  

Fisk's  Mambrino  Chief 
J  R.  Breeze  

2.30 
2.30 

A  Remarkable  Trio. — The  Chicago  meeting  of  1883 
brought  to  the  front  a  great  trio  of  horses — Jay-Eye-See,  Phal- 
las, and  Director — all  of  them  by  Dictator.  Their's  is  trotting 
blood  all  through,  coming  from  such  noted  sources  as  Rysdyk's 
Ilambletonian,  American  Star,  Mambrino  Chief,  and  Pilot,  Jr. 
"There  are  no  near  crosses  of  the  thorough-bred,  and  none  are 
needed."  "Trotting  blood  makes  trotters,  and  running  blood 
makes  runners,"  says  the  editor  of  the  Breeders  Gazette. 

The  Noted  Double  Teams. — These  noted  teams,  Maud 
S.  arid  Aldine,  Cleora  and-  Independence,  Edward  and  Dick 


THE  HORSE— HISTORY.  523 

Swiveler,  owned  by  wealthy  men,  have  attracted  much  atten- 
tion. The  breeder  of  good  horses  at  once  asks,  "How  are  they 
bred?"  We  answer  Maud  S.,  Edward,  Dick  Swiveler,  and 
Cleora  are  by  sons  of  Rysdyk's  Hambletonian.  Aldine  is  by 
Almont,  his  grandson,  Independence  is  by  General  Knox,  a  di- 
rect descendant  of  Sherman  Black  Hawk. 

Of  the  dams  of  these  six  noted  performers,  one  was  by  a  son 
of  Rysdyk's  Hambletonian ;  one  by  Mambrino  Patchen,  son  of 
Mambrino  Chief;  one  by  Henry  Clay,  Jr.;  one  by  Johnson's 
Toronto ;  one  by  Pilot,  Jr.,  and  one  said  to  be  by  Bacchus. 
The  breeding  of  such  teams  is  instructive,  and  shows  that 
breeding  in  line  for  trotters  gets  trotters,  and  of  such  rare  qual- 
ity that  there  is  no  shadow  of  excuse  for  seeking  running 
blood  as  a  new  element. 

The  Element  of  Running  Blood. — The  dam  of  Maud 
S.  was  Miss  Russell,  by  Pilot,  Jr.  She,  out  of  Sally  Russell, 
by  the  thorough-bred  horse,  Boston,  the  sire  of  Lexington.  In 
this  breeding,  the  thorough-bred  claimants  find  comfort,  arid 
generally  neglect  to  say  that  the  sire  of  Maud  S.  was  Harold, 
a  trotter  bred,  and  an  in-bred  Hambletonian  and  getter  of  trot- 
ters. Miss  Russell  certainly  can  not  be  claimed  as  a  thorough- 
bred, or  largely  so.  She  is  by  Pilot,  Jr.,  and  he  by  Pacing 
Pilot,  of  whose  blood  little  is  known,  but  that  he  was  a  pacer 
does  not  argue  thorough-bred  ancestry.  He  got  such  trotters  as 
John  Morgan,  2.24;  Pilot  Temple,  2.24*  ;  Tackey,  2.26;  Tat- 
tler, 2.26;  Queen  of  the  West,  2.26i  ;  General  Sherman,  2.281 ; 
and  Dixie,  2.30. 

But  Maud  S.  had  for  a  dam  a  mare  got  by  Pilot,  Jr.  The 
grand  dam,  Sally  Russell,  by  Boston,  is  the  animal  having 
thorough-bred  blood  in  her  veins.  It  is  hardly  good  reasoning 
to  give  all  credit  for  Maud  S.'s  good  traits  to  this  one  thorough- 
bred cross,  while  Harold,  an  in-bred  trotter,  got  Noontide, 
2.20i;  McCurdy's  Hambletonian,  2.26*;  Daciana,  2.27*  ;  Good 
Morning,  2.28i.  Surely  in  her  breeding  the  trotting  blood,  so 
far,  outweighs  the  remote  and  unimportant  sprinkle  of  running 
blood,  that  we  may  justly  infer  that  there  is  a  prepotency  and 
power  inherent  in  the  well-bred  trotter,  that  is  to  be  relied 


524  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

on  as   producing   trotters,  without    any    modern   admixture   of 
thorough-bred  blood. 

Maud  S. — Here  we  may  say  further  of  the  history  of 
Maud  S.  that  she  is  at  this  writing,  February,  1884,  still  the 
queen  of  the  turf,  though  there  is  a  prophecy  that  Jay-Eye-See 
will  soon  reduce  her  time.  She  was  bred  by  Mr.  Alexander, 
of  Woodburn  Farm,  Kentucky.  When  four  years  old  she 
showed  at  a  public  trial  on  the  track  at  Lexington,  Kentucky, 
October  26,  1878,  under  the  skillful  training  of  Mr.  William 
Baer.  It  was  after  this,  she  was  purchased  by  Mr.  Vanderbilt 
for  $21,000— that  is,  $20,000  for  the  mare,  and  $1,000  to  Mr. 
Baer,  who  was  to  accompany  her  to  her  new  home  in  New 
York.  Under  her  new  master  and  his  driver,  she  did  not  prove 
an  agreeable  driver.  She  is  remarkable  for  her  will  and  reso- 
luteness. She  is  kind  to  those  who  treat  her  kindly,  and,  in 
the  hands  of  Mr.  Baer,  she  is  ever  ready  to  do  her  work,  and 
was  so  gentle  that  even  his  wife  could  drive  her.  A  few  weeks' 
handling  in  her  New  York  home,  gave  her  the  name  of  being 
unmanageable  and  vicious.  Mr.  Vanderbilt  sent  word  to  Mr. 
Stone,  that  the  mare  was  not  meeting  his  expectations,  and  was 
not  reliable.  Mr.  Stone  and  Mr.  Baer  went  East  at  once,  to  see 
the  cause  of  the  new  role  Maud  S.  was  playing.  The  mare 
seemed  as  much  delighted  at  meeting  Mr.  Baer  and  Mrs.  Baer 
in  her  New  York  home,  as  a  dog  that  had  found  its  long  lost 
master.  The  mare  fondled  them  and  pranced  about  them  to 
express  her  delight.  She  was  hitched  to  her  wagon  by  Mr. 
Baer,  who  said  to  Mr.  Vanderbilt  he  would  like  Mrs.  Baer  to 
drive  her  around  the  track,  to  prove  that  the  mare  was  kind 
and  tractable.  But  so  little  faith  had  Mr.  Vanderbilt  in  the 
mare's  good  behavior,  that  he  declined,  until  Mr.  Baer  had 
driven  her  twice  around  the  track.  When  Mrs.  Baer  was 
allowed  the  proud  privilege  of  driving  her  favorite  around  in  a 
gait  that  satisfied  her  owner,  the  fault  was  not  so  much  in  the 
Queen  of  the  Turf  as  in  the  men  who  had  pitted  their  wills 
against  hers  and  been  beaten.  She  has  a  very  strong  will,  and 
needs  to  be  handled  with  great  kindness.  She  comes  naturally 
by  it  from  her  grand-dam  Enchantress,  as  well  as  from  her  sire, 


THE  HORSE— HISTOR  Y.  525 

Harold.  He  is  in  resoluteness  like  his  brother  Lakeland  Abdul- 
lah. They  all  have  the  courage  and  resoluteness  of  a  bull-dog. 
The  horses  were  not  so  fortunate  as  the  mare,  Maud  S.,  in  com- 
ing into  the  hands  of  such  a  skillful  handler  as  Mr.  Baer, 
who  believes  that  kindness  and  gentleness  will  succeed  with 
high-bred  horses  where  force  will  fail.  He  believes  that  Maud 
S.,  who  has  now  a  record  of  2.10i,  can  easily  lower  it  to  2.08. 

Horse-will  Near  to  Stubborness. — But  this  perverse- 
ness  of  some  high-bred  animals  is  only  the  element  which, 
wisely  manipulated,  makes  them  the  leaders  of  their  race.  It 
is  will-power  as  well  as  muscle  that  sends  the  winner  to  the 
front.  The  wise  horseman  is  like  the  wise  engineer,  who  knows 
the  nature  of  the  engine  and  the  steam  that  gives  it  power. 
Wisely  manipulated,  it  works  kindly  and  with  unfailing  power. 
Unwisely  handled  it  becomes  a  reckless  tyrant. 

GOLDSMITH  MAID  is  another  of  the  trotting  celebrities  who 
was  unfortunate  in  her  first  drivers  and  owners.  Her  sire  was 
a  son  of  Hambletonian.  One  writer  says  she  was  sometimes 
"  entirely  unmanageable.  When  hitched  to  a  wagon  she  would 
kick  herself  loose  and  run  away."  She  was  regarded  as  so 
very  ungovernable  as  to  be  practically  useless,  and  her 
owner,  Mr.  J.  B.  Decker,  of  Sussex  County,  New  York,  ac- 
cordingly sold  her  for  the  sum  of  three  hundred  and  fifty 
dollars.  In  taking  the  animal  home  the  purchaser  was  offered 
four  hundred  dollars  for  her,  which  he  accepted.  She  was 
soon  again  sold  for  six  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  and  a 
buggy,  to  Mr.  Alden  Goldsmith,  one  of  the  most  sagacious, 
kind,  and  patient  of  horsemen.  By  his  patient  kindness,  he 
was  rewarded  in  producing  a  trotter  that  won  her  first  race 
in  three  heats  in  2.26,  in  1865.  The  next  year  she  won  nine 
races,  when  Dexter  took  the  tenth.  In  1868  she  won  eight 
times,  lowering  the  record  to  2.21  i.  The  next  year  she  beat 
American  Girl  at  Philadelphia,  in  three  heats,  each  one 
better  than  2.20,  which  was  the  first  record  of  three  suc- 
cessive heats,  each  less  than  2.20.  Mr.  Goldsmith  saw  that 
check-reins  and  martingale,  and  blinders  all  annoyed  her,  and 
he  removed  them.  She  is  described  as  "small  of  stature,  long 


526  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

and  low,  deep  through  the  heart,  of  wiry,  whalebone  texture 
all  over,  and  with  a  back  of  amazing  strength  for  a  horse  of 
her  size.  She  made  a  record  of  2.14  at  Boston,  in  Sep- 
tember, 1874. 

Power  of  Kindness. — She,  like  Maud  S.,  appreciated  a 
kind  friend.  The  following  incident  will  show  how  highly  an 
intelligent  animal  appreciates  a  kind  master  or  keeper.  When 
she  had  her  foal  she  was  so  watchful  over  it  that  she  would 
not  allow  any  one  to  come  near  it.  Her  old  trainer,  Charley 
Cochrane,  had  not  seen  her  for  two  years,  and  when  he  went 
to  see  her  and  her  colt,  it  was  arranged  that  she  should  hear 
Charley's  voice  before  seeing  him.  A  loud,  cheerful  whinny 
told  all  present  that  she  recognized  the  voice  of  her  old  friend. 
As  soon  as  he  appeared,  a  touching  scene  occurred.  The  Maid, 
who  before  had  made  use  of  both  heels  and  teeth  to  drive  out 
every  one  who  dared  to  approach  her  colt,  left  the  colt  in  her 
eagerness  to  meet  her  old  friend,  and  placed  her  head  on  his 
shoulders  and  her  nose  in  his  face  and  played  with  his  whiskers, 
and  manifested  great  delight  in  the  unmistakable  ways  that  in- 
telligent animals  can  express.  Her  colt  came  up  to  be  caressed 
by  her  mother's  friend,  and  the  mare  seemed  delighted  to  have 
Charley  Cochrane  lay  his  hand  on  her  offspring.  When  he  left 
she  followed  him  to  the  gate,  and  then  looked  kindly  after  him, 
and  called  to  him  after  he  had  passed  out  of  sight.  I  have 
taken  the  space  and  time  to  narrate  these  incidents  to  illustrate 
how  much  greater  power  the  kind  and  patient  man  has  over  the 
high-tempered  and  strong-willed  horses. 

DEXTER  was  another  valuable  horse  that  showed  the  need  of 
kind  and  wise  handling.  He  was  a  son  of  Hambletonian,  but 
his  white  feet  and  blazed  face  made  him  less  esteemed.  At 
four  years  old  he  was  sold  to  Mr.  Alley,  unbroken.  In  his 
hands  the  horse  ran  away  with  a  sleigh  and  then  with  a  wagon, 
but  was  fortunate  in  his  next  year  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  that 
kind,  level-headed  trainer,  Hiram  Woodruff,  with  whom  he  soon 
became  famous,  and  in  four  seasons  won  forty-nine  races.  He 
made  the  best  mile  to  the  wagon,  best  mile  in  harness,  and  best 
mile  to  the  saddle  that  had  yet  been  made. 


THE  HORSE— HISTORY.  527 

There  are  many  grand  horses  worthy  of  notice  herein,  but 
space  forbids.  As  an  illustration  of  what  a  horse  of  rare  excel- 
lence may  do  for  those  who  may  be  so  fortunate  as  to  own  him 
or  his  descendants,  we  will  close  this  paper  with  one  from  the 
TnrJ\  Field  and  Farm. 

The  Hambletonians. — The  money  value  of  the  sons  and 
daughters  of  Rysdyk's  Hambletonian  that  have  beaten  2.30  can 
not  be  computed.  "The  stallion  himself  was  purchased  with 
his  dam  for  $125,  and  earned  in  the  stud  $205,750.  Thirty-six 
of  his  get  have  trotted  in  2.30  or  better,  and  the  prices  for 
which  they  could  have  been  sold,  in  their  best  days,  are  as 
follows : 

Dexter  $35,000,  Jay  Gould  $30,000,  Nettie  $25,000,  George 
Wilkes  $25,000,  Gazelle  $20,000,  Bella  $15,000,  Mattic  $15,000, 
Bruno  $15,000,  Deucalion  $10,000,  Enfield  $10,000,  Orange 
Girl  $10,000,  Sentinel  $10,000,  James  Howell,  Jr.,  $10,000,  Har- 
vest Queen  $8,000,  Lottery  $8,000,  Small  Hopes  $S?000,  Young 
Bruno  $8,000,  Kisber  $7,000,  Madeline  $6,000,  Breeze  $6,000, 
Administrator  $5,000,  Drift  $5,000,  Effie  Deans  $4,000.  Ella 
Madden  $4,000,  Lottery  $4,000,  Lottie  $4,000,  Scotland  Maid 
$4,000,  Chester  $3,500,  Ilamperion  $3,500,  Factory  Girl  $3,000, 
Jerome  $3,000,  Maud  $3,000,  Alma  $2,500,  Astoria  $2,500, 
Lady  Augusta  $2,500,  Marguerite  $2,500.  This  is  a  total  of 
$325,000,  as  a  fair  estimate  of  the  actual  cash  value. 

The  stallions  in  the  list,  which  have  won  renown  in  the  stud, 
are  Sentinel,  George  Wilkes,  Jay  Gould,  and  Administrator. 
Their  united  progeny  is  worth  a  great  many  thousand  dollars. 
George  Wilkes,  for  instance,  is  the  sire  of  twenty-six  2.30 
trotters,  including  Wilson,  2.16i;  Rosa  Wilkes,  2.18i;  Joe 
Bunker,  2.191 ;  So-so,  2.17i  ;  and  May  Bird,  2.21.  Sentinel  has 
eight  2.30  performers  to  his  credit,  among  them  Von  Arnim, 
2.19*.  The  fastest  of  Jay  Gould's  get  is  Adde  Gould,  2.19, 
and  the  best  one  from  the  loins  of  Administrator  is  Catchfly, 
2.19.  The  entire  sons  of  Hambletonian  which  have  no  place  in 
the  2:30  circle,  but  which  have  been  successful  in  the  stud,  are 
very  numerous.  Alexander's  Abdullah  was  sold  for  about 
$3.500,  but  he  got  Goldsmith  Maid,  who  made  a  record  of  2.14, 


528  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

and  whose  turf  winnings  foot  up  close  to  $250,000 ;  Thorndale, 
who  gained  a  record  of  2.221,  and  from  whose  loins  came  Edwin 
Thorne,  2.16i,  and  Daisydale,  2.193  ;  Almont,  the  sire  of  twenty- 
two  2.30  trotters,  including  Fannie  Witherspoon,  2.17;  Pied- 
mont, 2.17i;  and  Aldine,  2.19i ;  and  Belmont,  with  nine  sons 
and  daughters  with  records  of  better  than  2.30,  among  them 
Nutwood,  2.181,  and  Wedgewood,  2.19.  The  descendants  of 
Alexander's  Abdallah  are  worth  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dol- 
lars. Volunteer  stands  in  the  very  front  rank  of  the  producing 
sons  of  Hambletonian.  He  has  to  his  credit  twenty-three  2.30 
performers,  one  of  which  is  St.  Julien,  2. Hi,  who  at  one  time 
could  have  been  sold  for  $40,000.  Before  age  had  diminished  the 
lustre  of  Volunteer's  eyes,  Mr.  Goldsmith  would  not  have  parted 
with  him  for  $30,000.  When  Messenger  Duroc's  stud  fee  was 
$300,  Mr.  Backman  refused  a  very  large  sum  for  the  stallion, 
and  he  would  not  sell  Leland  for  $20,000.  The  price  paid  for 
Happy  Medium,  when  he  was  sold  to  Mr.  Steele,  was  $25,000; 
and  Mr.  Bonner  paid  $20,000  for  Startle,  sire  of  Majolica,  2.17. 
Electioneer  proved  a  very  cheap  horse  to  Governor  Stanford, 
who  gave  Mr.  Backman  $12,500  for  him.  He  is  the  sire  of  the 
fastest  yearling,  2.36  J ;  the  fastest  two-year-old,  2.21 ;  the  fastest 
three-year-old,  2.19i,  and  the  fastest  four-year-old,  2.183;  and 
$30,000  would  not  buy  him  now.  Dictator  is  the  sire  of  the 
three  sensational  performers  of  1883  —  Jay-Eye-See,  2.103; 
Phallas,  2.15i,  and  Director,  2.17 — and  when  twenty  years  old 
he  was  sold  for  $25,000.  An  offer  of  $30,000  for  him  would 
not  be  accepted  at  Ashland  to-day.  Harold,  sire  of  Maud  S., 
2.10i,  is  valued  'way  up  in  the  thousands  at  Woodburn,  and 
so  is  Cuyler,  at  Glenview.  General  Withers  paid  $5,000  for 
Aberdeen  when  he  toolc  him  to  Fairlawn,  but  this  was  nothing 
like  his  value.  Prominent  among  his  ten  2.30  performers  are 
Hattie  Woodward,  2.15£,  and  Modoc,  2.19  i.  The  progeny  of 
Edward  Everett,  Middletown,  Walkill  Chief,  Dean  Sage,  Knicker- 
bocker, Seneca  Chief,  Strathmore,  and  Rysdyk  (sire  of  Cling- 
stone, 2.14)  are  worth  a  stack  of  money."  In  view  of  such  a 
showing,  is  it  wonderful  that  American  breeders  of  trotters  are 
enthusiasts  in  their  business  ? 


THE  HORSE— HISTORY.  529 

Table  of  Best  Records. — Professor  Brewer,  of  Yale 
College,  has  kindly  furnished  the  following  table,  which  shows 
how  time  has  been  lowered  : 

1806.  Yankee, 2.59      1865.  Dexter, 2.181 

1810.  A  horse  from  Boston,    .    .    .    2.58 J     1866.  Dexter,   •    •    • 2.18 

1824.  Topgallant, 2.40    I  1867.  Dexter, 2.17 J 

1824.  The  Treadwell  Mare,.  .   .   .    2.34      1871.  Goldsmith  Maid 2.17 

1830.  Burster, 2.32    '  1872.  Same, 2.16.| 

1834.  Edwin   Forrest, 2.31  J     1874.  Same, 2.14 

1843.  Lady  Suffolk, 2.28       1878.  Rarus, 2.13} 

1844.  Same, 2.26$  \  1879.  St.  Julien, 2.12: 

1852.  Tacony, 2.26       1880.  Maud  S., 2.10: 


1853.  Same, 2.25J 

1856.  Flora  Temple, 2.24 J 

1859.  Same, 2.19| 


1881.  Maud  S 2.10J 

1884.  Jay-Eye-See, 2.10 

1884.  Maud  S., 2.09$ 


The  Russian  Trotter. — The  Orloff  trotters  of  Russia  have 
gained  such  notoriety  for  speed,  endurance,  and  style  that  they 
deserve  a  brief  notice  here.  The  name  is  from  that  of  Count 
Alexis  Orloff.  Tschesmensky  was  an  enthusiastic  horseman 
of  Russia,  who,  as  the  Live  Stock  Journal  says,  as  early  as  1775 
imported  from  Arabia  a  gray  stallion  named  Smetanxa,  said  to 
be  of  unusual  size  and  strength.  A  Danish  mare  was  bred  to 
this  stallion,  and  the  produce  was  Polkan  1st.  This  half-blood 
was  bred  to  a  Dutch  mare,  begetting  Bars  1st,  generally  known 
as  the  progenitor  of  the  Orloff  race  of  trotters.  The  fame  of 
Bars  1st  was  perpetuated  through  his  sons  Lubeznay  1st,  Lebed 
1st,  and  Dobroy  1st.  Count  Orloff  and  his  successor,  V.  T. 
Shiskin,  by  selection  from  the  get  of  these  stallions  and  crossing; 
with  choice  English  and  Dutch  mares,  founded  a  race  of  mixed 
origin.  Count  Orloff  was  an  intelligent  enthusiast  as  a  breeder. 
He  had  ample  means  to  gratify  his  taste  and  keep  together  his 
entire  horses,  and  dictate  crosses  to  meet  his  approval.  Death 
cut  short  his  work,  and  his  stud  was  scattered.  Several  private 
studs  were  established,  and  a  considerable  portion  of  it  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  czar. 

Although  the  question  of  what  constitutes  the  best  trotting 
pedigree  has  not  been  decided,  a  stud  book  has  been  instituted 
to  keep  the  breed  pure.  For  fifty-three  years  the  crown  has  fos- 
tered the  breeding  of  OrlofT  trotters,  and  has  furnished  more  than 
half  the  prize  money  of  the  race-course  as  a  means  of  develop- 
ing and  testing  the  powers  of  these  horses.  Russian  trials  of 


530  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

speed  are  regulated  by  law,  and  a  violation  of  the  rules  will  land 
the  culprit  in  Siberia  without  much  delay.  The  time  made  by 
the  Orloff  trotters  does  not  equal  that  of  the  American  trotters. 

BEST   RUSSIAN   TIME    UP   TO    1874. 

One  mile, 2.31 

Two  miles,         .  5.01f 

Three  miles, 7.52£ 

Five  Miles, 13.56f 

Twenty  miles, 68.53£ 

BEST    AMERICAN    TIME   PRIOR   TO    1874. 

One   mile,  .         .           2.14  Difference,  .         .         00.17    sec. 

Two  miles,      .         .         .       4.50^  Difference,  .         .     OO.ll^sec. 

Three  miles,  .         .           7.21J  Difference,  .         .         00.31}  sec. 

Five  miles,     .         .         .     13.00  Difference,  .  .         .     00.56f  sec. 

Twenty  miles,  .         .         58.25  Difference  .         .         10.28£  sec. 

The  Orloff  trotters  lack  in  campaigning  power,  or  the  Rus- 
sian does  not  know  how  to  groom  and  handle  them. 

The  oldest  Orloff  winner  is  twelve  years,  while  Goldsmith 
Maid  was  in  her  prime  at  twenty,  and  most  of  our  great  trot- 
ters steadily  improve  until  twelve  to  sixteen  years  old. 

The  Russian  trotters  seem  to  have  attained  the  maximum 
of  their  powers  several  years  since,  while  the  American  is  still 
lowering  his  record,  and  since  the  days  of  Boston  Blue,  the 
first  trotter  making  a  mile  in  three  minutes,  the  time  has  been 
gradually  lowered,  until  Maud  S.  and  Jay-Eye-See  have  nearly 
reached  2.10,  and  their  owners  confidently  expect  the  record 
of  1884  to  go  down  to  2.08.  The  Russians  claim  that  the  Or- 
loff trotter  has  more  style  and  finish  than  the  American  trotter. 
But  this  is  not  granted  by  Americans  who  have  seen  both.  In 
colors  they  surely  do  not  excel  our  trotters,  and  in  speed  they 
can  not  compare,  nor  in  lasting  energy  and  long  usefulness. 
Some  one  has  classified  their  winners  by  color,  which  shows 
fifty-five  per  cent  of  grays,  twenty-four  per  cent  blacks,  four- 
teen per  cent  bays  or  browns,  and  six  per  cent  light  bays. 

The  elements  of  blood  and  power  are  found  in  the  American 
trotter  in  such  high  excellence  as  to  place  them  at  the  head  of 


THE  HORSE— HISTORY.  531 

all  trotters.  From  a  study  of  the  horses  named  and  their  char- 
acteristics, one  may  readily  see  that  the  best  horses  are  not  ob- 
tained by  accidental  breeding,  and  the  best  performers  in  harness 
and  on  the  track  have  the  double  benefit  of  choice  breeding  and 
skillful  training.  Such  phenomenal  trotters  as  Goldsmith  Maid 
and  Maud  S.  illustrate  the  value  of  good  breeding  and  skillful, 
kind  handling. 

Ponies. — The  origin  of  ponies  is  unknown.  The  Hebrews, 
Greeks,  and  Romans  have  no  name  for  them,  if  they  had  any 
knowledge  of  them.  The  ass  among  the  ancients  filled  the 
place  which  the  better  class  of  ponies  were  suited  for.  The 
pony  can  not  be  regarded  as  the  dwarf  of  any  breed  of  horses, 
for  the  species  seems  wholly  unable  to  produce  horses,  as  horses 
are  to  produce  ponies.  They  appear  to  have  originated  in  ex- 
treme latitudes  either  of  heat  or  cold,  such  latitudes  as  the 
horse  does  not  seem  indigenous  to,  and  where,  if  imported,  he 
would  degenerate  in  size. 

Shetland  Ponies. — This  is  one  of  most  distinct  types  of 
European  ponies.  Ponies  are  found  on  Shetland  Isles,  in  North- 
ern Iceland,  in  Sweden,  Scotland,  and  Wales,  which  seem  to  be 
of  same  origin,  and  stunted  and  dwarfed  by  the  cold  and  scanty 
fare  of  their  habitat.  The  Cossack  horse  found  in  Russia  seems 
to  be  a  dwarf  horse  of  good  Turkish  blood,  reduced  in  size  by 
hardship  and  severity  of  climate,  yet  like  all  the  others,  has 
lost  none  of  his  spirit  nor  ability  to  endure  toil,  hardship,  and 
•spare  diet.  The  Cossack  and  Shetland  can  endure  labor  on 
comparatively  less  feed  than  any  animal  known. 

The  Mustang  and  Indian  Pony. — Herbert  believes  the 
mustang  of  Mexico  and  the  Indian  pony  of  North  America  to 
have  originally  descended  from  European  breeds.  They  are 
now  distinct  breeds.  Though  they  are  tough  and  fiery  and 
often  vicious,  yet  they  are  in  every  respect  inferior  to  the 
American  horse,  and  can  be  ridden  down  by  a  troop  of  good 
horsemen.  They  have  no  uniformity  of  color  or  form.  They 
are  useful  on  the  cattle  ranches  and  plains  under  the  sad- 
dle, but  they  are  not  to  be  desired  either  for  driving  or  farm 
work.  Unless  taken  young,  the  mustangs  are  intractable  and 


532 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


often  vicious.  And 
this  is  just  what 
should  be  expected 
from  their  origin 
and  use.  They 
doubtless  descend 
from  the  horses  left 
by  the  early  Span- 
ish  adventurers. 
Here  the  mustang 
started  in  hardship, 
and  has  ever  been 
used  to  scanty  fare, 
hard  usage,  and  bad 
handling.  They 
have  none  of  the 

^ 

5  marks  of  civilized 

<, 

ai  usage.      To    know 

w 

2  just  where  to  draw 

^  the    line    between 

w 

g  the  mustang  and  In- 
dian pony  is  diffi- 
cult. The  pony  of 
Canada  and  the 
mustang  of  Mexico 
seem  to  be  animals 
of  more  merit  than 
the  Indian  pony, 
and  have  shown 
more  power  to  en- 
dure and  perpetuate 
than  do  the  Indian 
ponies.  The  latter, 
like  their  masters, 
seem  to  be  declin- 
ing before  the  touch 
of  civilization. 


THE  HOUSE— BREEDING.  533 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  HORSE— BREEDING. 

REEDING  of  live-stock  has  for  centuries  been  a  subject 
of  vast  interest  to  men  engaged  in  raising  horses,  cat- 
tle, sheep,  or  swine.  For  the  most  part,  its  success  has 
come  to  but  a  few  gifted  men.  These  few  have  had  intuitions 
and  not  scientific  laws  to  guide  them.  The  great  law  of  every 
animal  bringing  "forth  after  his  kind"  was  proclaimed  with  its 
creation.  Man  at  an  early  day  modified  it  by  saying  "like  pro- 
duces like."  As  man  advanced  in  knowledge,  gained  mostly  by 
experience,  and  the  observations  of  some  individual  careful  ob- 
server, he  gave  as  a  corollary  of  the  old  law, "  breed  from 
the  best." 

These  aphorisms  represent  the  fundamental  principles  of  the 
best  modern  practice.  The  trouble  all  along  the  line  of  history 
is  to  find  a  general  agreement  among  the  men  who  own  animals 
as  to  what  is  the  "best."  Men's  ideals  are  subject  to  the  uses 
to  which  they  put  their  animals.  The  men  of  early  ages  used 
horses  for  purposes  of  war  and  ceremony.  They  used  them 
wholly  for  the  saddle,  and  the  animals  were  selected  for  centu- 
ries which  best  met  the  ideals  of  the  warriors  for  purposes  of 
battle  and  parade.  The  nomadic  tribes  have  a  kindred  use  for 
horses,  and  add  that  of  the  chase.  For  all  these  uses  we  find 
men  in  earliest  periods  of  the  history  of  the  horse  selecting 
them  for  speed  and  endurance. 

Jacob  a  Color-specialist. —  Father  Jacob  is  the  first 
breeder  on  record  who  bred  for  color  as  well  as  vigor.  He  showed 
great  shrewdness  in  his  attempts  to  control  the  color  of  the  calves 
in  Laban's  herd.  He  is  the  first  color-specialist  on  record.  How 
well  he  fixed  a  type  of  color,  history  does  not  inform  us,  yet  so 


534  THE  PEOPLED  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

long  as  he  made  that  a  specialty  he  had  success,  and  thus  beat 
Laban  out  of  the  majority  of  his  flock. 

Jacob  understood  a  basis  fact  in  the  art  of  breeding.  "  When- 
soever the  stronger  cattle  did  conceive,"  he  sought  by  his  arts 
to  have  their  offspring  of  his  favorite  colors.  Thus  we  are  told 
"  the  feebler  were  Laban's,  and  the  stronger  Jacob's."  He  in- 
creased his  flock  from  the  strong  and  his  father-in-law's  from 
the  weak,  and  soon  Laban's  sons  saw  the  man  Jacob  "  increased 
exceedingly,"  and  they  said,  "Jacob  hath  taken  away  all  that 
was  our  father's."  He  illustrated  the  value  of  the  law,  "  breed 
only  from  the  best,"  and  he  meant  by  that  the  "strongest."  He 
also  illustrated  the  law  announced  by  Darwin,  viz.,  that  of  selection. 
Darwin  has  shown,  too,  that  the  great  improvements  made  in 
domestic  animals  have  been  made  by  selection  of  one  point,  and 
breeding  to  fix  that.  Jacob  bred  for  color,  and  to  aid  in  fixing 
that  he  sought  first  the  strongest  animals,  and  fixed  the  color 
trait  in  them,  and  it  naturally  followed  that  their  get  would  be 
of  the  desired  color. 

Bakewell  Bred  for  Quality. — Bakewell,  of  England,  in 
the  last  century  went  farther  in  the  application  of  the  law  that 
"like  begets  like,"  and  did  not  limit  his  selection  to  a  general 
likeness  between  parent  and  offspring,  but  extending  the  law  to 
the  minutest  details,  he  set  up  a  clear  ideal  or  definite  standard 
of  excellence  for  Leicester  sheep,  Long-horn  cattle,  and  Black 
cart-horses,  and  his  system  of  selection  proved  him  to  have 
wonderful  ability  as  a  breeder.  He  regarded  these  animals  as 
machines  for  converting  the  grass  and  grain  of  his  estate  into  flesh, 
wool,  milk,  and  force  of  greater  value.  He  esteemed  as  "  best "  the 
animal  that  furnished  the  largest  amount  and  best  quality  of 
animal  product  from  a  given  amount  of  food  consumed. 

Some  men  have  varied  this  law  erroneously  to  mean  the 
best  horse  or  cow  is  the  one  that  consumes  the  least.  The  ani- 
mated machine  which  will  convert  the  largest  amount  of  raw 
material  into  the  desired  paying  product  with  least  possible 
wear  and  expenditure  of  fuel  or  feed,  is  the  most  profitable. 
The  amount  of  feed  consumed  must  be  measured  by  the  amount 
of  force  or  animal  product  produced.  The  raw-boned  work- 


THE  HORSE-BREEDINQ.  535 

horse,  may  consume  more  feed  than  his  mate,  and  yet  if  labor 
is  the  test  of  value,  he  may  do  enough  more  work  to  pay  the 
better  price  for  his  feed,  and  vice-versa.  The  question  is  not 
so  much  as  to  amount  consumed,  but  as  to  what  use  it  makes 
of  it  in  producing  flesh  or  force.  The  art  of  breeding  we  may 
say  has  for  its  ultimate  end,  the  development  of  animals  in  the 
lines  that  will  yield  best  returns  for  feed  and  care  given. 

Heredity  a  Fundamental  Principle. — The  foundation 
of  successful  breeding  rests  on  the  law  of  heredity.  That  such 
a  law  exists  in  the  order  of  nature  is  to  be  concluded  from  the 
regularity  with  which  animals  in  a  state  of  nature  produce  their 
kind.  The  wolf  produces  only  a  wolf,  with  none  of  the  quiet, 
gentle  traits  of  a  lamb  or  a  pet  dog.  The  wolf  of  to-day  is  es- 
sentially like  that  of  fifty  or  a  hundred  years  ago.  The  animals 
on  the  monuments  of  Egypt  are  essentially  the  same  as  those 
now  found  along  the  Nile. 

When,  however,  man  comes  into  the  business  of  breeding,  or 
controlling  connections  of  animals,  we  find  the  types  of  suc- 
cession begin  to  vary.  The  wolf  bred  to  the  dog  produces  an 
animal  in  some  degree  like  a  wolf,  but  modified  by  the  character- 
istics of  the  dog.  We  call  the  produce  a  mongrel.  If  we  cross 
this  mongrel  again  with  a  wolf,  the  produce  is  more  wolfish  than 
the  mongrel,  and  if  crossed  with  the  dog  many  times  in  succes- 
sion, we  may,  in  the  course  of  years,  circumvent  the  law  of 
nature  that  would  produce  a  wolf  from  a  wolf.  Every  time  the 
cross  is  made  with  the  dog,  the  wolfish  tendency  is  weakened, 
and  the  probability  of  the  offspring  taking  the  fixed  type  of  the 
dog  is  increased.  But  so  strong  is  the  law  of  heredity,  and  so 
firmly  has  the  wolf's  nature  been  fixed  by  centuries  of  wolf-breed- 
ing, that  with  all  man's  efforts  to  destroy  that  tendency  to  pro- 
duce an  animal  of  the  wolf-kind,  the  wolfish  traits  are  ever 
cropping  out. 

Atavism  Beneficial. — This  reversion  to  a  type  of  a  former 
ancestor  is  called  atavism.  It  is  at  once  a  difficult  thing  to  con- 
trol, and  at  the  same  time  a  beneficial  thing,  when  we  have  so 
long  a  line  of  desirable  ancestry  established  by  long-continued 
good  selection  as  that  the  chances  of  breeding  like  some  former 


536  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

ancestor  will  usually  hit  the  likeness  of  a  good,  rather  than  an 
inferior  ancestor.  When  the  long  line  of  ancestors  is  unknown, 
and  no  history  of  them  is  recorded,  we  can  have  no  idea  what 
the  offspring  will  be  like.  The  chances  are  that  inferior  ances- 
tors predominate  in  common  or  scrub  stock,  and  if  the  laws 
of  heredity  and  reversion  mean  any  thing,  we  may  expect  little 
or  no  improvement  of  stock  by  using  for  sires  and  dams  animals 
of  such  mixed  and  unknown  breeding.  If  it  be  true  that  the 
character  of  the  offspring  is  affected  by  that  of  the  ancestry, 
then  it  follows  beyond  question  that  we  may  not  hope  for  desir- 
able types  of  progeny  from  undesirable  lines  of  ancestry.  We 
do  not  expect  figs  from  thistles,  or  lambs  from  wolves,  or  pure 
waters  from  impure  fountains. 

The  Value  of  Pedigree. — If  the  principles  set  forth  are 
true,  then  the  breeder  of  fine  animals  must  know  the  character 
of  the  animals  and  families  represented  in  the  ancestral  lines  of 
his  breeding-stock,  if  he  would  breed  with  any  intelligence.  The 
value  of  such  knowledge  is  recognized  by  all  intelligent  and  ex- 
perienced breeders.  But  they  all  realize  that  the  knowledge  yet 
obtainable  from  stud-books,  records,  and  registers  of  breeding  is 
very  imperfect.  First,  because  few  records  or  registers  have 
been  kept  long  enough  to  afford  a  line  of  descent  to  the  several 
families  that  has  been  fixed  and  intensified  by  repeated  use  of 
good  ideals  or  representatives  of  the  breed.  The  Stud-book  of 
English  Thorough-breds  is  the  oldest  record,  and  it  abundantly 
illustrates  the  principle  of  accumulating  power  of  repeated  good 
crosses.  Second,  the  imperfect  and  incorrect  statements  placed 
on  record  lead  to  errors ;  some  the  result  of  ignorance  of  the 
facts,  others  the  result  of  willful  misrepresentation.  But  knowl- 
edge is  cumulative  and  deception  is  not  tolerated  among  the  true 
students  of  any  science.  Errors  in  fact  are  ruinous  to  correct 
conclusions,  and  the  student  of  lines  of  ancestors  wants  to  know 
the  true  nature  and  ability  of  ancestors  before  he  can  calculate 
what  he  may  expect  from  a  given  cross. 

The  trotting-records  are,  year  by  year,  becoming  more  valu- 
able. Like  wine,  the  older,  the  better.  Each  fermentation  or 
working  throws  off  some  impurity,  and  the  residue  is  more  pure 


THE  HORSE— BREEDING.  537 

and  reliable,  yet  the  taint  of  impurity  is  never  wholly  eliminated. 
The  value  of  records  is  recognized  by  all  men  engaged  in  breed- 
ing and  improving  any  of  our  domestic  animals.  .  The  fact  that 
the  compilation  of  stud-books  is  subject  to  the  influence  of 
human  ignorance  and  dishonesty  does  not  prevail  more  against 
them  than  against  any  other  class  of  writing  made  by  man. 
They  are  all  imperfect,  yet  we  can  not  do  without  records  of 
knowledge,  though  they  are  mingled  with  error. 

The  Earliest  Records. — The  breeder  of  thorough-bred 
horses  has  an  unbroken  record  back  to  the  time  of  James  I. 
The  Arabs  took  great  pains  to  preserve  their  breed  of  horses 
pure,  and  have  the  credit  of  first  establishing  pedigrees ;  but  as 
these  were  traditional,  they  are  not  so  reliable  as  those  of  the 
English  race-horse,  nor  to  be  compared  with  the  faithful  records 
now  made  of  the  American  trotter,  the  Percheron,  Clydesdale, 
and  others.  Breeders  of  all  pure-bred  animals  are  beginning  to 
appreciate  the  value  of  well-kept  records,  and  have  generally 
formed  associations  for  that  purpose.  Secretaries  and  commit- 
tees are  employed  to  inspect  all  pedigrees  offered  for  record. 
Their  accumulated  and  fast  increasing  knowledge  is  leading  to 
wonderful  skill  and  accuracy  in  the  work.  Well-kept  records 
of  every  noted  breed  of  horses,  cattle,  and  swine  are  so  well 
established,  that  there  is  no  longer  any  excuse  for  negligence  or 
ignorance  in  the  matter  of  breeding  of  any  family  used  in  the 
herd. 

The  value  of  pedigree,  or  knowledge  of  ancestral  lines,  was 
recognized  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Augustus,  when  Virgil 
wrote  : 

' '  The  brave  begotten  are  by  the  brave  and  good ; 
There  is  in  steers',  there  is  in  horses'  blood 
The  virtue  of  their  sires.     No  timid  dove 
Springs  from  the  coupled  eagles'  furious  blood." 

High  Breeding  more  than  Appearance. — "  On  the  turf," 
says  Stonehenge, "  high  breeding  is  of  more  consequence  than  ex- 
ternal shape,  and  that  of  two  horses,  one  perfect  in  shape,  but 
of  an  inferior  strain  of  blood,  and  the  other  of  the  most  winning 
blood,  but  not  so  well-formed  in  shape,  the  latter  will  be  the 


538  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

most  likely  to  perform  to  the  satisfaction  of  his  owner  on  the 
race-course.  On  this  principle  the  proverb  has  been  framed  and 
handed  down  to  us,  that  *  an  ounce  of  blood  is  worth  a  pound  of 
bone.'  The  same  able  author,  however,  would  not  allow  this  re- 
mark to  go  without  the  limitation :  '  but  there  must  also  be  a 
fnnne  of  the  most  useful  character,  if  not  always  of  the  most 
elegant  form.' " 

Breeding  Back  or  Atavism. — The  persistency  of  the 
law  of  heredity  is  seen  in  the  constant  tendency  of  animals  to 
breed  back  to  some  remote  ancestor.  Here  is  the  discouraging 
feature  to  every  man  who  would  found  or  improve  a  newly 
founded  breed  of  horses,  cattle,  or  swine.  The  race-horse  has 
been  prized  as  a  foundation  for  trotting-blood.  It  gave  life, 
pluck,  and  staying  qualities  to  the  produce,  qualities  so  essential 
in  the  generation  of  trotters.  But  with  these  came  the  tendency 
to  break  into  a  run,  when  the  contest  is  hardest. 

Breeding  for  Color  of  Short-horn  Cattle.  —  The 
breeders  of  the  fashionable  red  short-horn  cattle  have  found  a 
constant  liability  of  even  their  most  fashionably  bred  cattle  to 
drop  roan,  or  red  and  white,  or  even  white  calves,  although  dam 
and  sire  might  both  be  of  solid  red  color.  The  early  breeders 
of  short-horn  cattle  on  the  Valley  of  the  Tees  were  intent  first 
on  developing  form  and  quality,  and  the  color  was  a  minor  point. 
After  generations  of  careful  breeding  for  quality  and  form,  they 
began  to  attempt  fixing  the  color.  Here  was  a  new  factor,  and 
the  breeder  seeking  to  fix  it  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  royal 
ancestral  lines  which  gave  the  superior  qualities  to  the  short- 
horn breed.  To  secure  the  greatest  number  of  good  calves  they 
soon  learned  that  the  ancestor  having  the  greatest  number  of 
best  crosses  gave  the  largest  per  cent  of  desirable  calves;  and 
yet,  there  was  in  all  the  working  for  the  red  color  an  ever  re- 
curring tendency  to  breed  back  to  the  now  unfashionable  colors 
of  some  grand  old  ancestors. 

Breeding  for  Color  of  Berkshire  Swine. — The  swine 
breeders  find  the  same  law  at  work  among  their  breeds.  The 
Berkshire  men  find  occasionally  some  pigs  with  a  rusty  or  sandy 
spot  appearing  among  the  litters,  which  so  generally  are  marked 


THE  HORSE— BREEDING.  539 

with  such  amazing  uniformity.  The  unskillful  breeder  suspects 
the  spot  as  telling  of  impure  blood.  This  may  be  true  or  not. 
The  reputation  of  the  breeder  and  a  study  of  his  pedigrees  will 
settle  that,  and  show  that  the  spot  is  but  a  case  of  atavism. 
The  Berkshires  of  forty  years  ago  had  these  rusty  or  sandy 
spots,  and  the  expert  to-day  knows  that  he  may  occasionally 
have  a  pig  with  a  rusty  spot  or  even  a  lop-ear,  as  had  the 
ancient  Berkshire.  But  skillful  breeding  reduces  the  power 
or  tendency  to  atavism,  to  such  a  degree  that  in  the  best 
families  of  this  breed  we  expect  confidently  pigs  of  a  stand- 
ard color. 

The  Law  Essential  to  Improvement. — This  law  of 
breeding  back  has  its  advantages.  In  fact,  it  is  essential  to  all 
improvement.  If  there  were  no  tendency  to  breed  back  to  the 
form,  color,  or  qualities  of  ancestors,  where  could  we  have  found 
the  thousands  of  horses  marked  with  Messenger  traits.  Where 
and  how  could  we  have  collected  and  concentrated  the  Mam- 
bririo  blood,  and  the  Hambletonian  among  trotters,  until  to-day 
we  have  families  whose  prominent  characteristics  are  those  of 
their  great  ancestors.  They  all  excel  as  trotters. 

Breed  for  a  Special  Purpose. — In  1818  there  was  only 
one  horse  known  that  could  trot  a  mile  in  three  minutes,  and 
that  was  Boston  Blue.  In  the  run  of  fifty  years  we  have  pro- 
duced thousands  of  horses  that  could  trot  as  fast  as  Boston 
Blue,  and  two  hundred  and  forty-five  that  could  trot  better  than 
2.30.  In  ten  years  more,  by  1878,  we  had  one  thousand  and 
twenty-five  that  could  trot  better  than  2.30,  and  over  five  hun- 
dred horses  that  trotted  below  2.25,  and  some  as  low  as  2.15. 
By  1888  we  may  confidently  expect  to  see  two  thousand  beat 
2.25,  and  some  go  as  low  as  2.05.  Notwithstanding  at  this 
writing  in  1884,  Maud  S.  has  come  down  to  2.101.  and  Jay-Eye- 
See  close  after  her.  And  all  this  has  been  done  by  breeding 
for  a  special  purpose.  The  best  bred  trotters  have  produced 
the  greatest  number  of  winning  horses,  just  as  is  true  of  the 
English  race-horses  cited  by  Stonehenge. 

American  Farmers  Not  Careful  Enough. —  Farmers 
generally  ignore  the  question  of  breeding  and  blood  of  their 


540  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

horses.  If  the  mare  is  too  mean  to  work  or  broken  down  in 
constitution,  she  will  yet  produce  a  colt,  perhaps,  and  is  bred  to 
the  nearest  and  cheapest  horse,  regardless  of  qualities  or  breed- 
ing. The  result  is,  we  farmers  have  done  very  little  for  the 
improvement  of  our  horses.  Horsemen  must  have  the  credit  of 
bringing  to  us  good  horses  and  pressing  us  to  use  them.  Even 
in  this  accidental  way  we  find  in  some  districts  that  occasion- 
ally a  horse  of  rare  excellence  as  a  foal-getter  has  caused  a 
marked  improvement  in  the  common  stock  of  a  neighborhood. 
Iron's  Cadmus  is  one  of  this  kind,  that  made  so  much  improve- 
ment in  the  horses  of  Warren  and  Butler  Counties  that  the 
value  of  his  service  to  these  counties  can  not  be  estimated. 
But  he  was  not  only  an  exceptionally  good  horse,  but  one  of 
high  breeding.  On  the  common  farm  mares  he  produced  an  ex- 
cellent class  of  general-purpose  horses. 

But  that  is  not  enough.  To  insure  highest  results  we  must 
continue  from  year  to  year  and  generation  to  generation,  breed- 
ing from  and  to  the  best  specimens  of  the  class  that  we  are 
breeding  for.  If  we  wish  trotters  we  must  not  use  the  draft- 
stallions.  If  we  want  coach-horses  we  must  not  breed  to  mus- 
tangs. If  there  be  any  force  in  the  law  "like  produces  like" 
we  must  not  hope  for  an  accidental  setting  aside  of  its  power  in 
our  favor  when  we  breed  a  mongrel  to  a  scrub,  and  hope  for  a 
winner  on  the  turf.  The  farmers  need  speedily  to  correct  their 
views  on  this  matter  of  breeding,  if  they  would  improve  their 
stock  of  horses. 

English  Farmers  More  Successful. — The  English 
breeders  and  farmers  have  made  greater  progress  in  the  art  of 
breeding  domestic  animals  than  have  we  in  America,  as  is  shown 
by  their  numerous  and  well-defined  breeds  of  animals.  For  ex- 
ample, among  their  horses  we  note  the  thorough-bred;  then  by 
use  of  heavy,  large,  bony  thorough-breds  on  good,  strong,  fairly 
well-bred  mares,  we  see  them  producing  their  hunters,  and 
coachers  and  cobs  and  nags.  Then  in  some  districts  we  find 
them  fixing  and  developing  such  well-defined  types  of  animals 
as  the  Shire  draft,  the  Black  cart,  and  Cleveland  bay.  Among 
cattle  they  have  the  short-horn,  the  Devon,  the  Hereford. 


THE  HORSE— BREEDING.  541 

Among  sheep,  the  Shropshire,  the  Oxford  and  South-downs,  and 
Hampshire-downs ;  then  come  the  long-wools,  the  Cotswold, 
Lincolns  and  Leicester,  etc.  In  every  class  of  domestic  ani- 
mals they  seem  to  recognize  the  value  of  breeding  for  a 
special  purpose,  and  breeding  in  line,  until  the  type  wanted  is 
obtained. 

Breeding  for  Increased  Size. — As  a  rule  the  farmer's 
horses  in  America  are  too  small.  This  arises  from  two  great 
and  leading  causes.  First  is  the  habit  of  allowing  the  young 
things  to  shift  for  themselves ;  second,  the  want  of  any  uniform 
effort  to  wands  increase  of  size  by  judicious  crosses.  When 
an  occasional  farmer  attempts  to  breed  for  increased  size,  we 
find  him  taking  his  little,  light-boned  mares,  to  some  ponderous 
beast,  noted  for  his  size  and  avoirdupois  only.  His  owner's 
chief  card  is  the  horse  weighs  so  many  hundreds  more  than  a 
ton.  On  this  point  of  increasing  size,  consider  of  what  possible 
use  can  be  a  vast  carcass  on  a  weak  set  of  limbs,  deficient  in 
quality  and  shape  of  bone. 

Increase  Size  Gradually. — There  is  no  safety  in  such 
violent  crosses.  Nature  works  gradually  in  her  developments. 
If  we  would  increase  the  size  of  our  farm-horses,  and  we  have 
on  hand  mares  that  weigh  from  one  thousand  to  eleven  hundrod, 
we  should '  select  not  the  largest  specimens  of  some  of  the 
heavier  draft  breeds,  but  rather  well  formed,  powerfully  and 
uniformly  made  horses,  with  strong  bone,  well-knit  joints,  and 
the  best  of  feet.  On  such  legs  we  may  lay  an  increased  carcass 
without  fear  of  spavin  and  corbs,  and  puffed  joints.  The  next 
cross  may  be  to  a  larger  horse  with  like  characteristics  of  form, 
bone,  and  joints.  The  crossing  of  lightly  built  mares  on  these 
enormously  large,  clumsy  horses  has  been  prolific  of  a  large  per 
cent  of  ill-shaped  and  blemished  colts  and  horses,  abounding 
in  bog-spavin,  thorough-pin,  crooked  or  clubbed  feet.  The  in- 
creased carcass  must  be  well  supported  by  a  like  increase  of 
strength  in  limb,  or  we  shall  have  an  ungainly,  spongy,  and 
clumsy  lot  of  colts. 

The  increase  of  size  may  be  reached  first  by  breeding  blocky, 
squarely  built,  strong  mares  that  are  good  sucklers,  to  the  larger 


542  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOCPED1A. 

breeds  of  horses,  and  then  by  a  reform  in  the  method  of  raising 
colts.  From  the  starving  plan  we  must  advance  to  that  of  lib- 
eral feeding  of  the  young.  Of  this  we  shall  have  more  to  say 
under  the  care  of  colts. 

Breeding  for  Docility. — The  farmer's  horse  should  above 
all  be  of  a  docile  temperament.  He  must  be  patient  under  a 
load,  plucky  enough  to  keep  courage  under  hardships,  and  spir- 
ited enough  to  save  the  need  of  constant  urging,  and  intelligent; 
to  adapt  himself  readily  to  the  great  variety  of  uses  to  which 
he  must  be  put,  in  the  furrow,  at  the  wagon,  and  on  the  road. 
It  is  evident,  then,  the  farm-horse  must  be  docile,  .with  all  his 
other  qualities.  All  of  these  will  be  the  more  valuable  as  he 
may  have  a  higher  degree  of  docility.  Even  the  roadster,  the 
gentleman's,  or  family  driving  horse,  or  the  trotter  on  the  track, 
has  greatly  increased  value  by  reason  of  a  level  head  or  a 
docile  disposition. 

There  has  been  too  little  attention  paid  to  this  trait  in  our 
breeding  American  trotters  and  English  race-horse  and  farm- 
horses.  In  this  respect  these  breeds  are  far  behind  the  true 
Arab,  or  the  grand  Percheron.  While  we  have  outstripped  them 
in  the  race,  we  have  neglected  caring  for  the  temper.  We  need 
a  reform  in  this. 

Some  of  the  most  noted  trotters  have  been  vicious  and  obsti- 
nate. A  firm  will  and  resolute  heart  are  essential  for  the  horse 
that  must  meet  and  overcome  his  antagonist,  and  there  is  but  a 
step  between  resoluteness  and  obstinacy.  The  colt  may  be 
heady  and  self-willed,  yet  by  kind  handling  in  youth  he  may  be 
led  to  have  no  higher  motive  than  the  will  of  his  master.  This 
can  be  attained  only  by  kind  handling.  The  temperament  and 
condition  of  the  ancestry  is  an  important  factor,  which  the  wise 
breeder  will  not  lose  sight  of. 

Vice  Follows  Vice. — There  is  a  custom  of  putting  a  fiery, 
vicious  filly  to  the  horse  to  soften  her  down  before  attempting 
to  work  her.  There  is  also  a  custom  of  breeding  from  mares 
that  have  never  looked  through  a  collar,  or  been  broken  to  stand 
hitched  by  a  halter.  The  condition  of  these  mares  at  the  time 
of  service,  when  brought  to  the  horse  is  that  of  excitement  and 


THE  HORSE—  BREEDING.  543 

irritation,  and  not  of  obedience  and  yielding  to  the  rule  of  man. 
In  the  field  or  pasture  they  have  fought  their  way  with  their 
teeth  or  heels,  and  have  taken  to  flight  at  the  sight  of  man  or 
the  sound  of  his  voice.  Now,  if  there  be  force  in  the  law  of 
inheritance  of  natural  and  acquired  traits,  what  can  we  expect 
but  perversity  and  nervousness  in  the  offspring  of  such  mares? 

Work  the  Breeders. — The  Arabs  handled  their  colts  from 
the  moment  they  came  into  the  world.  Their  children  played 
with  the  colt  and  dam  as  with  the  pet  dogs.  The  mares  were 
handled  by  the  Arab  with  greatest  kindness,  and  the  mare,  like 
the  stallion,  was  always  brought  under  such  complete  control  of 
the  master  that  they  had  no  will  but  his. 

The  French  draft-mares  and  stallions  are  all  worked.  They 
begin  to  earn  their  feed  at  two  years  old,  and  the  stallions  are 
under  such  control,  by  daily  handling  and  work,  that  they  are 
as  quiet  and  kind  to  handle  as  our  geldings.  The  stallion  of 
America,  on  the  other  hand,  is  kept  in  a  close  stall,  highly 
fed,  seldom  exercised,  and  that  without  regularity.  The  more 
spirited  the  horse  the  more  impatient  he  is  for  that  exercise  his 
nature  demands.  He  is  nervous  and  often  unmanageable,  merely 
from  want  of  the  exercise  the  animals  of  activity  and  power 
must  have  to  preserve  their  highest  vigor,  and  an  equilibrium 
of  their  vital  and  nervous  forces.  Is  it  strange  that  animals  in 
their  condition,  and  that  of  the  untamed  and  untrained  mares, 
should  beget  nervous,  restless,  and  even  vicious  offspring? 

Evils  of  Confinement. — There  is  another  evil  attending 
this  confinement  and  effeminate  handling  of  sires  and  dams,  from 
which  we  look  to  get  hardy  and  vigorous  colts.  The  colts  are 
lacking  in  vigor  and  stamina.  They  are  too  often  feeble  in  in- 
fancy, and  need  extra  care  to  raise  them. 

The  remedy  for  each  of  these  evils  is  found  in  a  rational 
and  regular  handling  and  daily  working  of  sires  out  of  the 
breeding  season,  and  of  the  mares  at  least  eight  months  of  the 
year.  Our  methods  of  handling  stallions  are  not  in  harmony 
with  physiological  laws.  The  effeminate  women  of  wealthy  and 
luxurious  homes,  who  know  nothing  of  the  value  of  muscles 
strengthened  and  appetite  whetted  by  honest  and  regular  toil 


544  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

in-doors  or  out,  bear  a  puny  and  feeble  offspring  compared  with 
the  young  of  the  women  who  are  accustomed  to  regular  work, 
or  to  the  women  in  the  Indian  tribes,  who  know'  nothing  of  the 
pains  of  civilized  and  effeminate  matrons.  We  can  economize 
in  the  keep  of  our  stallions  and  mares,  and  increase  the  value 
of  their  offspring  by  regular  work. 

Endurance  may  be  Increased. — For  the  farmer  or  the 
professional  man,  for  the  turfman  or  business  man,  the  great 
powers  of  endurance  enhance  the  value  of  his  horse.  This  power 
will  not  be  lessened,  but  rather  increased,  by  habitual  and  reg- 
ular labor  of  dam  and  sire.  A  few  generations  of  breeding  from 
such  animals  will  prove  the  value  of  it.  A  colt  born  in  feeble- 
ness, of  feeble  ancestry,  and  with  light  heart  and  thin  chest, 
may  never  reach  a  period  of  usefulness  or  value. 

Family  Trait  Important. —  The  Strain  of  the  Family 
has  more  in  it  to  tell  of  enduring  powers  than  form  or  tempera- 
ment, or  handling  or  keep.  To  insure  great  endurance  we  must 
select  mares  of  power  and  staying  qualities,  and  sires  of  rare 
ability  here.  Messenger's  unequaled  vitality  enabled  him  to 
impress  this  valuable  trait  on  his  long  line  of  offspring.  The 
get  of  Eclipse  were  also  noted  for  this  quality,  like  the  noble 
sire. 

The  Effect  of  Short  Races. — Instead  of  reducing  the 
distances  of  races,  to  suit  the  enfeebled  blood  of  track-horses, 
let  us  ask  that  the  distances  be  kept  long,  and  even  increased, 
until  the  weaklings  that  are  winners,  perhaps,  on  a  quarter, 
shall  be  driven  into  exile  or  to  the  tan-yard,  by  an  increased 
length  of  the  race-course.  The  long  races  will  weed  out  the 
families  that  lack  staying  powers. 

Since  the  getters  of  prize-winners  have  so  great  influence 
through  their  get  on  the  horses  used  in  business  and  on  the 
farm,  we  look  on  this  tendency  to  reduce  the  length  of  races  as 
a  public  calamity.  It  increases  the  number  of  second  to  fifth- 
rate  horses  and  jockeys,  that  can  multiply  indefinitely  as  the 
course  is  shortened  to  meet  the  enfeebled  condition  of  their 
horses.  Just  that  class  of  horses  and  the  class  of  men  that  use 
them  for  sporting  purposes,  degrade  the  business  of  handling  trot- 


THE  HORhE- BREEDING.  545 

ting  and  running-horses,  and  demoralize  the  race-tracks,  and  curse 
the  horse-business  generally.  They  wear  out  smart  mares  by 
hippodroming  the  circuits,  and  then  breed  their  remains  to  some 
cheap  stallion  of  like  qualities,  and  the  produce  is  usually  of  no 
more  value  than  the  ancestors  or  owners. 

In-and-in  Breeding. — This  term  is  generally  used  to  mean 
the  breeding  of  animals  that  are  nearly  related.  There  is  want- 
ing among  farmers  and  breeders  generally  a  clearly  defined  idea 
of  its  meaning  and  of  its  use.  The  results  of  close  marriages  in 
the  human  family,  persisted  in  from  generation  to  generation, 
have  been  so  disastrous  that  there  is  a  common  idea  that  ani- 
mals nearly  related  should  never  be  bred  together.  This  is  not 
founded  on  a  large  acquaintance  with  the  methods  of  the  most 
successful  breeders  of  all  kinds  of  domestic  animals. 

Improvement  of  animals  comes  by  increasing,  and  even  fixing, 
the  traits  of  excellence  sought.  If  speed  be  the  trait  sought, 
and  a  given  family  excels  all  others,  then  by  crossing  sire  on 
daughter,  or  son  on  dam,  we  double  the  chances  of  the  offspring 
having  that  trait  of  excellence  which  marks  the  family.  On  this 
principle,  horses  that  have  the  greatest  number  of  Messenger 
crosses  have  excelled  as  trotters.  They  have  not  only  had 
speed,  but  much  of  that  nerve  and  resoluteness  which  carries 
them  to  the  front. 

Defects  Inheritable. — If  the  family  excelling  in  speed 
has  marked  defects  or  objectionable  traits,  as  corby  legs,  thick- 
ness of  wind,  or  weakness  of  eye  or  loin,  then  an  attempt  to  re- 
peat crosses  of  this  family  is  attended  with  too  great  risk,  for 
the  law  of  inherited  traits  is  as  strong,  or  stronger,  in  regard  to 
defects  as  excellences.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  rule,  that  in- 
and-in  breeding  must  not  be  practiced  in  families  possessing 
prominent  objectionable  traits.  Animals  of  ideal  types  are  few. 
Hence,  when  found,  how  can  their  like  be  produced  again,  but 
by  breeding  to  those  of  like  blood,  so  near  as  may  be  found. 

Close  Breeding. — It  is  on  this  principle  that  Bakewell 
established  the  Bakewell  Sheep  and  Longhorn  Cattle,  and  Col- 
lings  their  improved  and  world-renowned  Shorthorns.  The 
Booths  practised  close  breeding  of  their  cattle  to  a  great  extent, 

35 


546  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA, 

as  the  pedigrees  of  their  most  noted  animals  show.  Miles  tells 
of  the  calculations  of  Rev.  J.  Stone,  which  show  "  Crown  Prince 
is  1055  times  descended  from  Favorite,  and  Red  Rose,  by  Har- 
binger, is  descended  1344  times.  So  the  produce  of  the  two  are 
descended  from  him  2399  times/'  The  Hereford  Cattle  are  now 
coming  into  notice  as  a  most  hardy  breed,  yet  Mr.  Tompkins 
asserts  that  he  has  bred  his  herd  "in-and-in  for  upwards  of 
eighty  years."  We  quote  the  above  as  an  extreme  case,  and 
yet  the  cattle  of  the  breed  whose  type  has  been  so  fixed  are 
noted  for  strength  and  vigor  of  constitution. 

In-and-in  Breeding  a  Necessity  —  We  might  also 
show  from  the  breeding  of  many  of  our  most  noted  horses  that 
are  rich  in  the  blood  of  some  noted  ancestor.  The  sire  and 
dam  of  Abdallah  were  both  by  Messenger;  so  the  sire  and  dam 
of  Hambletonian.  "  The  effect  of  breeding  blood-relations  to- 
gether has  been  much  discussed.  Physiologists  condemn  the 
practice  among  human  beings,  while  breeders  of  live-stock  have 
approved  it  among  all  domestic  animals  so  far  as  is  necessary  to 
fix  a  type." 

Stonehenge  says :  "  When  any  new  breed  of  animals  is  first 
introduced,  in-and-in  breeding  can  scarcely  be  avoided."  In  his 
British  Rural  Sports  he  gives  a  series  of  examples  of  breeding, 
and  then  concludes,  "that  in-and-in  breeding  carried  out  once  or 
twice,  is  not  only  not  a  bad  practice,  but  is  likely  to  be  attended 
with  good  results.  Let  one  ask  what  horses  have  been  the 
most  remarkable  of  late  years  as  stallions,  and  with  very  few 
exceptions  he  will  find  they  were  considerably  in-bred." 

In-and-in  breeding,  however,  is  not  to  be  encouraged  among 
men  not  thoroughly  versed  in  the  lines  of  breeding  and  the  art 
of  selecting  and  mating. 

General  Principles  of  Breeding. — As  this  work  is  to 
go  into  the  hands  of  farmers  who  breed  all  kinds  of  domestic 
animals,  it  may  be  well  here  to  insert  the  "  general  principles  of 
breeding,"  as  presented  by  Stonehenge. 

1.  "The  union  of  the  sexes  is,  in  all  the  higher  animals, 
necessary  for  reproduction;  the  male  and  female  each  taking 
their  respective  share." 


THE  HORSE— BREEDING.  547 

2.  "  The  office  of  the  male  is  to  secrete  the  semen  in  the 
testes  and  emit  it  into  the  uterus  of  the  female,  in  or  near  which 
organ  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  ovum  of  the  female,  which  re- 
mains sterile  without  it." 

3.  "  The  female  forms  the  ovum  in  the  ovary,  and  at  regular 
times,  varying  in  different  animals,  this  descends  into  the  uterus 
for  the  purpose  of  fructification,  and  receiving  the  stimulus  and 
addition  of  the  sperm-cell  of  the  semen." 

4.  "The  semen  consists   of  two  portions,  the  spermatozoa, 
which  have  an  automatic  power  of  moving  from  place  to  place, 
by   which   quality   it    is   believed    that   the    semen   is   carried 
to  the  ovum,  and  the  sperm-cells,  which  are  intended  to  co-oper- 
ate with  the  germ-cell  of  the  ovum  in  forming  the  embryo." 

5.  "  The  ovum  consists  of  the  germ-cell  intended  to  form  part 
of  the  embryo,  and  of  the  yolk,  which  nourishes  both,  until  the 
vessels  of  the   mother  take   upon  themselves   the  task,  or   in 
oviparous  animals,  till  hatching  takes  place,  and  external  food  is 
to  be  obtained.      The  ovum  is  carried  down  by  the  contractile 
power  of  the  fallopian  tubes  from  the  ovary  to  the  uterus,  and 
hence  it  does  not  require  automatic  particles,  like  semen." 

6.  "  The  embryo,  or  young  animal,  is  the  result  of  the  semen 
with  the  ovum,  immediately  after  which   the  sperm-cell  of  the 
former  is  absorbed  into  the  germ-cell  of  the  latter.     Upon  this  a 
tendency  to  increase  or   'grow'   is  established,  and  supported  at 
first  by  the  nutriment  contained  in  the  yolk  of  the  ovum,  until 
the  embryo  has  attached  itself  to  the  walls  of  the  uterus,  from 
which  it  afterwards  absorbs  its  nourishment  by  the  intervention 
of  the  placenta" 

7.  As  the  male  and  female  each  furnish  their  quota  to  the 
formation  of  the   embryo,  it  is   reasonable  to   expect  that  each 
shall   be   represented  in  it,  which  is  found  to    be  the  case  in 
nature;  but   as  the   food  of  the  embryo  entirely  depends  upon 
the  mother,  the  health  of  the  offspring  and   its  constitutional 
powers  will  be  more  in  accordance  with  her  state  than  with  that 
of  the  father ;  yet  since  the  sire  furnishes  one-half  of  the  orig- 
inal germ,  it  is  not  surprising  that  in  external  and  general  char- 
acter there  is  retained  a  facsimile,  to  a  certain  extent,  of  him. 


548  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

8.  The  ovum   of  the  mammalia  differs  from  that   of  birds 
chiefly  in  the  greater  size  of  the  yolk  of  the  latter,  because  in 
them   this    body   is   intended   to   support   the    growth    of    the 
embryo  from  the  time  of  the  full  formation  of  the  egg  until  the 
period   of  hatching.     On  the  other  hand,  in  mammalia  the  pla- 
centa conveys  the  nourishment  from  the  internal  surface  of  the 
uterus  to  the  embryo  during  the  whole  time  which  elapses  be- 
tween the  entrance  of  the    ovum   into  the  uterus  and  its  birth. 
This  period  embraces  nearly  the  whole  of  the  interval  between 
conception  and  birth,  and  is  called  utero-gestation. 

9.  In  all  the  mammalia  there  is  a  periodical  "heat,"  marked 
by   certain   discharges   in   the   female,  and   sometimes  by  other 
remarkable   symptoms    in   the   male  (as   in  the  rutting  of  the 
deer).     In  the  former  it  is  accompanied  in  all  healthy  subjects 
by  the  descent  of  an  ovum  or  ova,  into  the  uterus,  and  in  both 
there  is   a   strong   desire   for   sexual  intercourse,  which  never 
takes  place  at  other  times  in  them  (with  the  single  exception 
of  the  genus  dimana). 

10.  The  semen  retains  its  fructifying  power  for  some  days, 
if  it  is  contained  within  the  walls  of  the  uterus  or  vagina,  but 
soon  ceases   to  be  fruitful  if  kept  in  any  other  vessel.     Hence, 
although  the  latter  part  of  the  time  of  heat  is  the  best  for  the 
union  of  the  sexes,  because  then  the  ovum  is  ready  for  the  con- 
tact with  the  semen,  yet  if  the  semen  reaches  the  uterus  first, 
it  will  still  cause  a  fruitful  impregnation   because   it  remains 
there  (or   in  fallopian  tubes)   uninjured   until   the   descent  of 
the  ovum. 

11.  The  influence  of  the  male  upon  the   embryo  is  partly 
dependent  upon  the  fact  that  he  furnishes  a  portion  of  its  sub- 
stance in  the  shape  of  the  sperm-cell,  but  also  in  great  measure 
upon  the  effect  exerted  upon  the  nervous  system  of  the  mother 
by  him.     Hence  the  preponderence  of  one  or  other  of  the  par- 
ents  will,  in   great  measure,  depend   upon   the  greater  or  less 
strength  of  nervous  system  in  each.     No  general  law  is  known 
by  which  this  can  be  measured,  nor  is  any  thing  known  of  the 
laws  which  regulate  the  temperament,  bodily  or  mental  power, 
color  or  conformation,  of  the  resulting  offspring. 


THE  HORSE— BREEDING.  549 

12.  Acquired  qualities  are  transmitted,  whether  they  belong 
to  the  sire  or  dam,  and   also  both  bodily  and  mental.     As  bad 
qualities   are   quite  as   easily    transmitted   as  good  ones,  if  not 
more  so,  it  is  necessary  to  take  care  that  in  selecting  a  male  to 
improve   the  stock  he  is  free  from   bad   points,  as   well  as  fur- 
nished with   good   ones.     It  is   known   by  experience  that  the 
good  or  bad    points   of  the   progenitors  of  the  sire  or  dam  are 
almost  as   likely  to  appear  again  in  the  offspring  as  those  of 
the  immediate  parents  in  whom  they  are  dormant.     Hence,  in 
breeding,  the  rule  is,  that  like  produces  like,  or  likeness  of  some 
ancestor. 

13.  The  purer  or  less  mixed  the  breed,  the  more  likely  it  is 
to  be  transmitted  unaltered  to  the  offspring.     Hence,  whichever 
parent   is  of  the   purest  blood   will  be  generally  more   repre- 
sented in  the   offspring ;  but  as  the  male  is  usually  more  care- 
fully   selected   and  of  purer   blood   than  the  female,  it  gener- 
ally   follows    that   he    exerts   more   influence    than    she    does ; 
the  reverse  being  the  case  when  she  is  of  more  unmixed  blood 
than  the  sire. 

14.  Breeding    in-and-in   is    injurious   to   mankind,  and    has 
always   been  forbidden   by   the   divine  law,  as  well  as  by  most 
human   law-givers.     On  the  other  hand,  it  prevails  extensively 
in  a  state  of  nature   with  all  gregarious   animals  (such  as  the 
horse),  among  whom   the    strongest    male   retains    his    daugh- 
ters  and    grand-daughters    until    deprived    of    his    harem    by 
younger    and    stronger    rivals.      Hence,    in   those  of    our    do- 
mestic  animals    which   are   naturally    gregarious    it    is    reason- 
able   to   conclude    that    breeding  "  in-and-in "  is  not   prejudical, 
because   it   is   in   conformity    with    their    natural    instincts,    if 
not   carried    farther  by    art    than    nature    teaches   by    her  ex- 
ample.    Now,  in  nature  we  find  about   two  consecutive  crosses 
of   the   same  blood  is   the  usual    extent    to    which   it   is    car- 
ried, as   the   life  of  the  animal   is   the  limit;  and   it  is  a  re- 
markable   fact,  that  in  practice  a  conclusion  has    been   arrived 
at  which   exactly   coincides  with    these   natural  laws.     "  Once 
in   and   once   out "   is  the   rule    given    by    Mr.   Smith    in   his 
work  on   the  breeding  for  the  turf;  but  twice  in  will  be  found 


550  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

to  be  more  in  accordance  with  the  practice   of  our  most  suc- 
cessful (early)  breeders. 

15.  The  influence  of  the  first  impregnation  seems  to  extend 
to  the   subsequent  ones ;  this   has   been  proved  by  several  ex- 
periments, and   is   especially   marked   in  the  equine  genus.     In 
the  series  of  examples  preserved  in  the  museums  of  the  College 
of  Surgeons,  the  markings  of  the  quagga,  when  united  with  the 
ordinary  mare,  are  continued  clearly   for  three  generations  be- 
yond the  one  in  which  the  quagga  was  the  actual  sire,  and  they 
are  so  clear  as  to  leave  the  question  settled  without  a  doubt. 

16.  When  some  of  the  elements  of  which  an  individual  sire 
is  composed  are  in  accordance  with  others  making  up  those  of 
the  dam,  they  coalesce  in  such  a  kindred  way  as  to  make  what 
is  called  "a  hit."     On  the  other  hand,  when  they  are  too  incon- 
gruous, the  result  is  an  animal  wholly  unfitted  for  the  task  he 
is  intended  to  perform. 

Cross-breeding. — Cross-breeding  is  in  a  limited  sense  the 
opposite  of  in-and-in  breeding.  It  is  the  pairing  of  animals  of 
different  breeds. 

Now,  as  we  are  importing  largely  the  Percherons,  Clydes, 
Shire,  and  Cleveland  bay  horses  to  cross  on  the  mares  of  un- 
known breeding,  and  as  farmers  generally  are  crossing  on  the 
native  cattle,  sheep  and  swine,  some  of  the  many  breeds  of 
cattle,  sheep  and  swine  that  have  been  imported  or  bred  up  to 
a  high  standard  of  excellence  in  this  country,  we  can  not  pass 
this  subject  without  discussion.  And  as  it  is  for  farmers  who 
are  interested  in  breeding  of  all  domestic  animals  our  illustra- 
tions and  principles  announced  will  be  such  as  are  applicable 
and  helpful  in  breeding  of  all  kinds  of  farm  stock. 

The  terms,  "  crossing,"  "  making  a  cross,"  "  out-breeding," 
"cross-breeding,"  "grades,"  "breeding-in-line,"  are  so  loosely 
used  and  often  erroneously,  that  it  may  be  well  here  to  define 
them.  The  terms  crossing,  making  a  cross,  cross-breeding, 
strictly  speaking,  should  mean  pairing  two  of  opposite  breeds, 
such  as  Percheron  on  Clydesdale,  or  short-horn  on  Hereford. 
Their  produce  would  be  cross-bred  animals.  "Cross-bred"  ani- 
mals are  confounded  with  "grades." 


THE  HORSE— BREEDING.  551 

A  GRADE  is  the  produce  of  a  pure-bred  animal  of  a  recognized 
type,  and  a  "  native,"  or  mongrel  or  scrub,  or  animal  of  unknown 
breeding,  or  of  no  established  breed.  A  colt  from  a  common 
mongrel  mare  by  a  Percheron  horse  is  a  grade  Percheron  or 
half-blood.  This  half-blood  bred  again  to  a  pure  Percheron 
would  give  a  grade  Percheron  or  a  three,-quarter-blood.  A  calf 
got  by  a  shorthorn  bull  on  a  native  cow  is  a  grade  shorthorn. 
A  calf  got  by  a  shorthorn  bull  on  a  Hereford  cow  is  a  cross- 
bred calf. 

"Breeding-in-line"  is  pairing  animals  of  fixed  family-traits 
of  same  breed.  A  Bates  bull  bred  to  a  Bates  cow  of  same  line 
of  blood  is  breeding-in-line.  But  breeding  a  Bates  bull  to  a 
cow  of  the  seventeen  importation  would  be  out  of  line,  though 
bull  and  cow  are  both  shorthorns.  Pairing  a  trotting-bred  mare 
of  the  Mambrino  family  with  a  Canuck  trotting-stallion  would 
not  be  considered  breeding-in-line,  though  both  animals  trot. 
That  might  better  be  termed  "crossing"  or  "making  a  cross." 

Doubtful  Advantages. — THE  ADVANTAGES  of  cross-breed- 
ing have  been  largely  written  up,  and  many  things  claimed  for 
it  are  purely  imaginary.  Crossing  a  high-bred  Mambrino  or  Ham- 
bletonian  rnare  with  a  Canuck  or  Morgan  stallion  might  give  a 
more  docile  colt  and  firmness  to  hoof  and  leg,  and  give  an  element 
of  constitution  that  would  counteract  the  effeminacy  that  may 
come  from  too  long  and  intimate  in-and-in  breeding;  but  the  breed- 
ing of  the  stallion  would  be  so  much  inferior  to  that  of  the  mare 
that  improvement  in  the  lines  named  would  hardly  be  expected. 

The  law  generally  accepted  is,  the  sire  should  be  better  bred 
than  the  dam,  or  expressed  in  a  general  term,  "bred  up  and 
never  down."  In  cross-breeding  the  common  and  accepted  prac- 
tice is  to  use  the  type  of  male  we  aim  for  in  the  offspring.  If 
size  and  bone  are  to  be  increased,  we  choose  the  blocky,  com- 
pact, short-jointed  draft-stallions  to  cross  on  the  common  mares. 
This  method  prevents  the  error  common,  of  making  extreme  or 
violent  crosses.  It  is  unreasonable  and  contrary  to  the  experience 
of  centuries  to  expect  a  symmetrically  developed  animal  from  an 
overgrown,  coarse  brute  on  a  light-boned,  narrow-chested  mare, 
that  lacks  vigor  and  substance  as  well  as  breeding. 


552  THE  PEOPLE 'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

A  shorthorn  bull  of  a  strain  long  bred  for  beef  and  not  for 
milk,  can  not  be  expected  to  cross  on  the  native  cows  and 
greatly  improve  both  beef  and  milking  qualities.  It  may  do  so 
if  the  bull  is  descended  from  a  line  that  not  many  generations 
back  excelled  as  milkers,  as  many  of  the  shorthorn  family  once 
did.  But  such  a  cross  will  insure  improved  beef  points,  without  a 
shadow  of  doubt.  That  is  breeding  up  and  not  down.  But 
even  that  kind  of  breeding  calls  for  a  knowledge  of  the  ances- 
tral lines  of  the  bull  to  enable  the  farmer  to  dictate  a  cross  that 
will  lead  him  to  the  end  he  works  for.  A  distinguished  author- 
ity has  said :  "  We  are  fully  convinced  that  even  for  cross-breed- 
ing, the  purer  the  blood  on  the  paternal  side,  the  more  clearly 
will  excellence  be  stamped  on  the  progeny." 

Difficulties  attending  Cross-breeding. — The  men  who 
resort  to  cross-breeding  are  not  usually  breeders  of  any  well- 
established  breed.  There  is  a  great  and  powerful  tendency  of 
any  well-bred  type  to  reassert  itself,  though  temporarily  ob- 
structed. The  great  director  of  the  Agricultural  School  of  La 
Chamoise,  speaks  forcibly  of  the  difficulties  met  in  his  attempt 
to  establish  a  Chamois  breed  of  sheep  by  using  the  English  ram 
on  a  French  ewe.  Most  of  the  lambs  resembled  mother  more 
than  father.  A  few  resembled  both.  After  many  years  attempt- 
ting  to  establish  a  breed  of  sheep  from  English  and  French  pure- 
bloods,  he  cut  the  Gordian  knot  by  seeking  the  rams  of  great 
purity  and  antiquity  of  pure  blood,  and  crossed  them  on  "  French 
ewes  of  mixed  blood,  or  of  no  breed  at  all." 

Mania  for  Out-crossing. — There  is  a  mania  for  out- 
crosses  among  farmers  that  is  not  founded  on  large  experience 
or  science,  but  arises  rather  from  the  commonly  accepted  opinion 
that  close  breeding  is  dangerous.  They  do  not  recognize  that 
indiscriminate  breeding  is  disastrous.  Out-crossing  is  resorted  to 
by  the  inexperienced  for  the  same  reasons  that  lead  to  in-and-in 
breeding  is  practiced  by  breeders  and  improvers  of  pure-bred 
animals.  George  Cully  lays  down  the  following  rule:  "And 
where  you  can  no  longer,  at  home  or  abroad,  find  better  males 
than  your  own,  then  by  all  means  breed  from  them,  whether 
horses,  neat  cattle,  sheep,  etc.,  for  the  same  rule  holds  good 


THE  HORSE— BREEDING.  553 

through  every  species  of  domestic  animals ;  but  upon  no  account 
attempt  to  breed  or  cross  from  worse  than  your  own,  for  that 
would  be  acting  in  contradiction  to  common  sense,  experience, 
and  that  well-established  rule,  that  "  best  can  only  get  best." 

Grades  better  than  Crosses.  —  Miles  says,  "As  well- 
bred  males  can  readily  be  procured,  the  greatest  improvement  in 
the  mass  of  our  farm-stock  must  be  made  by  a  system  of  judi- 
cious crossing."  The  miserable  failures  that  come  from  attempt- 
ing to  cross  two  well-established  breeds,  which  produce  a  mon- 
grel, and  the  general  and  marked  improvements  which  invariably 
follow  from  breeding  natives  to  thorough-bred  horses  and  pure- 
bred bulls,  boars,  and  rams,  lead  us  to  say:  A  "grade"  is  an  im- 
provement on  the  dam,  and  a  "  cross "  is  a  disappointment. 
Earl  Spencer  says :  "  The  worse  bred  the  female  is,"  the  greater 
the  influence  of  a  well-bred  male  on  the  offspring.  As  a  gen- 
eral rule,  the  crossing  of  two  animals  of  distinct  and  well-estab- 
lished breeds  is  unproductive  of  a  better  animal  than  either. 
Mr.  Spooner  says :  "  To  cross  for  cross  sake  is  decidedly  wrong ; 
that  unless  some  specific  purpose  is  sought  for  by  crossing,  it  is 
far  better  to  cultivate  a  pure  breed." 

Grade  or  Cross-bred  Sires  to  be  Avoided. — The  value 
of  cross-bred  or  grade  animals  for  breeding  purposes  is  dimin- 
ished by  the  tendency  to  reversion ;  a  law  that  is  ever  present. 
The  chief  improvement  in  mixed  breeding  comes  with  the  first 
cross  of  a  pure  blood  on  a  female  of  mixed  or  unknown  breeding, 
hence  it  is  not  most  profitable  to  use  cross-bred  or  grade  ani- 
mals for  sires;  but  they  being  better  than  the  mongrels  or  natives, 
are  better  than  the  latter  for  dams.  An  able  writer  on  sheep, 
says :  "  Changes,  in  fact,  by  crossing,  are  not  to  be  effected  in  a 
short  space  of  time;  you  must  look  forward  to  several  years  of 
constant  exertion  before  you  can  hope  in  this  manner"  to  so  alter 
your  stock  as  to  form  a  new  breed.  Cross-breeding  of  cattle, 
sheep,  and  swine,  as  a  means  of  increasing  size,  and  tendency 
to  lay  on  fat,  has  been  most  successful  when  accompanied  by 
liberal  feeding. 

The  Cross  of  a  Large  Male  on  a  small  female  has  been 
a  much  discussed  question.  As  now  the  use  of  the  large  draft 


554  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

breeds  is  on  the  increase,  it  may  be  well  to  note  some  of  the  re- 
sults. Mr.  Dunham,  the  great  importer  of  Percherons,  reports 
that  he  has  seen  Percherons  of  two  thousand  pounds  weight 
successfully  bred  to  mares  of  nine  hundred  and  one  thousand 
pounds  weight,  and  the  produce  was  neat,  large,  and  finer  than 
the  horse.  We  have  noted  the  dangers  of  such  violent  crosses, 
and  will  not  repeat  here.  The  safer  way  is  to  cross,  for  the  first 
time,  the  smaller,  more  compact,  and  more  uniformly  well  made 
draft-stallions  on  the  smaller  native  mares,  and  then  use  the 
produce  for  mating  to  the  larger  type  of  horses.  We  may  thus 
reach  the  size,  and  avoid  the  ungainly  developments  that  are  so 
often  met  with  in  violent  crosses. 

Difficulties  in  Parturition. — As  to  difficulties  in  parturi- 
tion, they  seem  to  be  more  imaginary  than  real.  The  ponderous 
Percherons  and  Clydes  have  been  bred  to  the  little  broncho 
mares  of  the  plains,  without  harm  to  the  mares.  If  the  presenta- 
tion is  correct  there  is  no  difficulty.  False  presentations  are  al- 
ways dangerous,  and  in  all  animals.  The  Cots  wold  and  Lincoln 
sheep  have  been  bred  on  common  and  grade  merino  ewes,  and 
Prof.  Miles  says  he  has  "failed  to  meet  with  a  single  instance 
of  difficult  labor  arising  from  such  influence."  He  says : 
"  The  size  of  the  young  animal  at  time  of  birth  is  evidently  de- 
termined by  the  dam,  while  its  development  after  birth  may  be 
influenced  by  the  inherited  qualities  of  either  parent." 

Uses  of  Cross-breeding. — The  uses  of  cross-breeding  are : 
First,  to  counteract  the  enfeebling  tendencies  of  too  frequent  in- 
and-in  breeding.  Second,  to  bring  together  like  powers  or  ten- 
dencies which  have  become  noted  in  widely  different  strains  of 
blood.  Breeding  trotting-stallions  to  pacing-mares  has  produced 
some  of  the  fastest  horses.  Third,  to  improve  inferior  or  scrub 
stock  by  use  of  pure-bred  males.  The  use  of  thorough-bred 
stallions  on  common  mares,  or  shorthorn  bulls  on  common  cows, 
or  pure-bred  bucks  on  the  Mexican  sheep  of  the  plains,  has  been 
most  useful.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  greatest  improve- 
ment comes  with  the  first  cross  of  the  pure-bred  sire. 

Agassiz  has  told  us  that  "  no  offspring  is  simply  the  off- 
spring of  its  father  and  mother.  It  is  at  the  same  time  the 


THE  HORSE— BREEDING.  555 

offspring  of  the  grandfather  and  grandmother  on  both  sides ;  in 
fact,  this  dependence  of  offspring,  or  liability  to  reproduce  family 
characteristics,  extends  much  further  up  the  ancestral  line." 
Hence,  there  can  be  no  progress  in  the  science  of  breeding  until 
we  have  means  of  knowing  the  characteristics  of  families  we  in- 
tend to  cross  or  to  use  in  the  breeding  lots.  This  principle  calls 
for  herd-books  and  stock  records,  thoroughly  and  honestly  edited. 
The  value  of  pedigreed  animals  from  families  of  long  lines  of 
ancestry  distinguished  for  excellence  must  be  enhanced  as  years 
of  testimony  accumulate. 

The  Influence  of  Previous  Impregnation. — Professor 
Miles  says:  "The  influence  of  the  male  in  the  process  of  pro- 
creation is  not  limited  to  his  immediate  offspring,  but  extends 
also  through  the  female  that  he  has  impregnated  to  her  offspring 
by  another  male."  The  writer  has  examined  the  views  of  Ag- 
gasiz,  Darwin,  Carpenter,  Law,  and  others,  and  he  finds  difficul- 
ties in  accepting  in  full  the  principle  announced  and  sustained 
by  a  long  line  of  very  pertinent  examples.  The  belief  is  com- 
mon among  old  and  observing  breeders  of  cattle,  swine,  and 
chickens.  If  further  discussion  of  the  principle  or  theory  is 
desired,  it  can  be  found  in  the  writings  of  any  of  the  authori- 
ties named. 

There  is  enough  known  of  the  theory  to  make  the  careful 
breeder  exceedingly  cautious  as  to  the  kind  of  a  sire  he  allows 
to  cross  for  the  first  time  one  of  his  pure  bred  females.  In  the 
chicken  yards  there  are  many  examples  showing  the  influence 
of  first  impregnation.  Mr.  Wright,  after  a  large  experience  and 
extended  investigation,  says :  "  At  all  events,  *  *  *  we 
would  never  on  any  account  allow  any  valued  hens  to  mate 
with  another  breed."  Agassiz  says :  "  I  have  satisfied  myself 
by  numerous  experiments  that  the  act  of  fecundation  is  not  an 
act  limited  in  its  effect,  but  is  an  act  which  affects  the  whole 
system,  the  sexual  system  especially,  and  in  the  sexual  system 
the  ovary  to  be  impregnated  hereafter  is  so  modified  by  the 
first  act  that  later  impregnations  do  not  efface  that  impression." 

When  such  high  authorities  express  so  positively  the  power 
of  first  impregnation,  it  becomes  the  true  student  of  the  science 


556  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

of  breeding  to  hold  his  views  in  abeyance  until  he  has  more 
fully  examined  the  subject.  At  a  time  like  this,  when  the  sev- 
eral breeds  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  poultry  are  each 
gradually  assuming  a  recognized  and  accepted  color  type,  we 
can  not  afford  to  disregard  any  influences  that  may  tend  to  mar 
the  color  or  form,  or  quality  of  our  favorite  breed. 

The  breeder  of  pure  bred  Percherons  or  Cleveland  bays  can 
not  afford  to  cross  his  pure  bred  mare  with  a  horse  of  another 
breed  of  a  different  color.  The  breeder  of  Berkshires  can  not 
risk  his  best  sows  to  be  served  by  any  but  Berkshires  of  good 
color,  form,  and  breeding.  The  breeder  of  chickens  can  not 
hope  to  keep  a  good  name  if  he  allows  his  light  Brahmas  or 
Plymouth  Rocks  to  mate  with  cocks  of  unknown  and  impure  blood. 

The  influence  of  first  impregnation  is  far  reaching,  and  the 
filly  chosen  for  a  brood-mare  should  be  crossed  only  by  the  pure 
blood  and  best  type  of  the  breed  and  purpose  for  which  she  is 
to  be  used. 

Soundness  of  Parents. — Of  all  principles  that  should  be 
kept  in  mind  by  the  breeder  of  horses,  the  first  is,  the  sire  and 
dam  should  be  free  from  disease.  That  constitution  and  endu- 
rance, like  weakness  and  disease,  are  inherited,  no  intelligent  ob- 
server or  student  denies.  Because  there  are  exceptions  to  this 
rule  does  not  make  it  safe  to  deviate  from  it.  A  sound  horse 
is  far  more  likely  to  get  sound  colts  than  an  unsound  one. 
Among  the  Arabs  and  the  English,  special  stress  was  laid  on 
the  soundness  of  the  mare. 

Government  inspection  and  license  of  stallions  has  been  rec- 
ommended as  a  means  of  improving  the  quality  of  horses.  If 
government  inspectors  were  all  sound  in  judgment  and  morals, 
we  might  expect  great  good  from  the  government  inspection 
of  horses  intended  to  be  let  for  service. 

The  method  of  stabling  in  damp,  dark  stables,  in  a  vitiated 
atmosphere,  together  with  excessive  strains  on  constitution  arid 
powers  of  horses  by  exposure  to  storms  and  extremes  of 
heat  and  cold,  and  sudden  stopping  in  cold  winds  after  vio- 
lent and  Wearing  work,  all  tend  to  weaken  the  race  of  horses. 
All  artificial  methods  of  keep  and  feed  and  work  are  abnormal 


THE  HORSE-^B REELING.  557 

and  against  nature,  and  tend  to  undermine  the  stamina  and  har- 
diness of  the  horse.  The  science  of  breeding,  together  with 
better  knowledge  of  sanitary  laws,  must  help  to  prevent  the  ills 
incident  to  these  dangers  attending  the  horse  in  civilization. 
Of  sanitary  conditions  we  will  speak  further  under  hygiene  and 
sanitary  conditions. 

Best  Age  to  Breed. — The  mare  is  capable  of  breeding  at 
two  years  old,  but  as  the  size,  good  form,  and  sound  health  are 
essential  to  the  value  of  the  horse,  it  is  unwise  to  risk  these  by 
so  early  taxing  nature  heavily.  The  old  English  view  is  a  safe 
one,  that  one  or  the  other  of  the  parents  should  be  mature. 
If  a  young  mare  is  to  be  bred,  the  horse  should  riot  be  less  than 
eight  or  ten  years  old,  and  it  is  generally  accepted  that  an  aged 
mare,  if  bred  at  all,  will  do  better  bred  to  a  young  horse.  If 
both  horse  and  mare  are  very  young  or  very  old,  the  colt  is 
generally  weak  and  small.  Many  of  the  best  horses  have  been 
gotten  by  old  stallions.  Old  or  worn-out  mares  are  not  suc- 
cessful. The  history  of  trotters  does  not  show  a  remarkably 
good  colt  from  any  of  the  noted  old  mares  that  have  been  re- 
tired to  the  harem  from  the  track.  Old  mares  that  have  been 
kept  breeding,  and  not  worn  out  by  hard  labor,  have  produced 
some  noted  horses.  A  good  rule  is  to  wait  until  the  mare  is 
past  three,  and  then  breed  to  a  horse  of  full  maturity. 

The  Farmer  as  a  Breeder. — While  we  have  a  great 
number,  and  that  number  rapidly  increasing,  who  devote  their 
farms  to  the  breeding  of  horses,  still  they  produce  but  a  small 
per  cent  of  the  horses  annually  reared  in  the  United  States. 
The  farmers  who  keep  from  one  to  three  mares  produce  the 
great  bulk  of  the  horses.  Hence,  the  importance  in  this  work 
intended  for  farmers  of  giving  direct  attention  to  the  horse  on 
the  farm,  and  giving  such  principles  and  suggestions  to  farmers 
as  will  help  them  to  not  only  breed  horses  of  better  blood,  but 
to  so  handle,  feed,  and  manage  them  as  to  produce  the  most 
valuable  horse. 

It  is  not  possible  that  farmers  as  a  class  should  be  as  well 
versed  in  the  art  of  breeding  and  rearing  horses  as  are  those  who 
have  made  it  a  specialty,  but  there  are  some  bottom  principles 


558  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AXD  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

given  before,  and  some  general  instruction  to  be  given  hereafter, 
that  may  be  valuable  to  all  who  raise  colts.  No  one,  be  he  breeder 
or  farmer,  can  expect  to  produce  valuable  horses  from  inferior  and 
unhealthy  and  unsound  animals.  The  farmer  who  would  raise 
a  colt  or  two  each  year  can  not  aiford  to  breed  from  a  broken- 
down  weed  or  cast-off  brute  that  is  unfit  for  any  useful  work. 

The  Kind  of  Mares  for  the  Farmer.— Let  the  farmer 
who  would  make  colt-raising  profitable  see,  first,  that  he  is  the 
owner  of  mares  that  are  sound,  and  have  no  hereditary  taint. 
A  mare  with  defective  wind,  ring-bone,  spavin,  bad  feet,  poor 
eyes,  and  the  like,  will  be  the  dam  of  colts  with  like  defect. 
Men  are  deceived  often  because  such  ailments  do  not  appear  on 
the  colts  while  young.  But  the  careful  observer  will  find  that 
a  colt  from  a  mare  with  ring-bone,  or  corbs,  or  spavin,  or  defec- 
tive eyes,  will  develop  these  disorders  in  the  majority  of  cases 
before  they  are  mature,  even  though  the  defects  do  not  appear 
when  young.  Like  consumption  in  the  human  family,  it  may  not 
appear  until  the  children  arrive  at  maturity,  and  they  are  ex- 
posed to  severe  labor  or  the  system  is  taxed  by  a  cold  and  ex- 
haustion from  toil. 

Inherited  Defect. — When  a  disease  is  inherited  it  is  ever 
ready  to  break  forth  at  favorable  opportunity,  which  comes  with 
a  cold,  or  depletion  of  the  system  by  disease  or  a  long-contin- 
ued labor.  Of  one  thousand  cases  of  insanity  noted  in  France, 
fifty-three  per  cent  were  hereditary.  In  the  family  of  Le 
Compt  it  is  said  thirty-seven  of  his  children  and  grand- 
children became  blind  like  himself,  and  the  blindness  came 
on  at  about  the  age  of  seventeen  or  eighteen  years.  Blind- 
ness is  well  known  to  be  hereditary.  Lexington  was  largely 
used  as  a  getter  of  thorough-breds,  notwithstanding  he  was 
blind.  The  breeder  assumed  that  his  colts  would  riot  go 
blind  before  they  were  five  years  old,  and  by  that  time  the 
usefulness  of  the  race-horse  has  been  completed,  if  put  to 
running  at  two.  Strains  of  back  tendons  argues  a  weak- 
ness that  ought  not  to  be  propagated.  So  with  swelling  legs, 
grease,  chronic  cough,  thick  wind,  and  so-on. 

We  see  here  the  importance  of  knowing  well  not  only  the 


THE  HORSE— BREED1KQ.  559 

mare  we  breed,  but  also  the  ancestral  lines,  that  unite  in  her 
blood.  She  should  corne  of  a  sound  and  honorable  ancestry. 
Disabilities  may  lie  dormant  for  years,  or  even  generations,  arid 
then  appear.  Hereditary  weakness  of  bone,  hoof,  sinew,  and 
sight  should  not  be  propagated  by  breeding  mares  so  affected. 
Weakness  of  the  eye  is  a  more  serious  malady  than  is  generally 
thought.  It  leads  to  shying,  flight,  and  often  unmanagebleness 
of  horses,  that  make  them  not  only  unpleasant  but  dangerous 
animals. 

The  Color  of  the  Mare  is  of  more  importance  than  is 
usually  considered.  While  it  is  true,  "  a  good  horse  can  not  be 
of  a  bad  color,"  it  is  equally  true  that  a  good  horse  is  the  bet- 
ter for  having  a  good  color.  As  the  mare  and  stallion  are  to 
duplicate  their  qualities  and  markings,  it  becomes  a  matter  of 
values,  of  dollars  and  cents,  that  the  farmer  exercise  reasonable 
care  in  breeding  such  mares  as  will  produce  the  most  attractive 
animals.  We  can  not  in  breeding  racers  and  trotters  expect 
one  in  ten  to 'be  distinguished  for  speed.  While  they  may  all 
move  well,  their  values  will  be  greatly  enhanced  by  good  size 
and  fashionable  colors.  They  may  then  find  a  ready  sale  for 
coach  or  driving-horses.  The  mare,  then,  should  not  only  be 
sound,  of  good  family,  but  of  good  color.  We  may  also  add 

The  Size  of  the  Brood-Mare  is  most  important.  The 
importance  of  a  "  roomy  "  mare  is  recognized  by  all,  but  that 
we  consider  a  small  thing  compared  with  the  other  qualities 
named  above,  combined  with  strength  of  back  and  limb,  depth 
of  chest,  and  breadth  of  loin  and  hips,  and  quality  of  bone  and 
joints.  The  dam  that  is  small  is  not  necessarily  a  breeder  of 
small  colts,  because  we  note  that  size  runs  more  in  families.  If 
the  mare  or  horse  be  of  a  family  that  makes  large  horses,  we 
may  more  confidently  hope  for  colts  of  good  size  from  mares 
of  medium  size  of  such  family  than  from  large  mares  that  are 
exceptional  in  their  family. 

The  usefulness  of  the  mare  is  greatly  enhanced  by  her  size 
and  strength,  and  they  are  inheritable  traits  that  will  add  much 
to  the  value  of  her  offspring.  The  farmer  who  will  become  the 
owner  of  large,  handsome  mares,  of  good  style  and  action,  of 


560  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

rich  bay  color,  with  clean,  black  legs,  and  flowing  tail  and  inane, 
and  quality  and  disposition  good,  and  will  breed  them  to  horses 
of  equal  or  higher  merit,  will  find  he  owns  valuable  property, 
and  will  do  much  to  improve  the  stock  of  his  neighborhood. 

A  Profitable  Mare. — A  gentleman  in  Butler  County, 
Ohio,  paid  three  hundred  dollars  for  a  well-bred  filly  at  three 
years  old.  She  was  kind  in  disposition,  sixteen  hands  high, 
well  and  strongly  built,  and  had  good  trotting  action.  He  has 
used  her  on  his  farm,  to  his  carriage,  and  bred  her  to  first-class 
stallions,  paying  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  dollars  for  service, 
and  has  in  six  years  produced  five  colts,  and  has  never  sold  one 
for  less  than  four  hundred  and  up  to  one  thousand  and  five 
hundred  dollars.  He  considers  her  the  best  of  property. 

The  kind  of  brood  mares  kept  on  the  farm  decide  the  kind 
of  colts  the  farmer  will  raise.  The  farmers  are  the  producers 
of  the  great  mass  of  horses  raised,  and  we  can  add  to  their 
value  in  no  easier  and  quicker  way  than  to  entirely  cease  breeding 
the  inferior  mares,  and  seek  to  stock  up  the  farm*  with  only  the 
best.  The  best  is  the  cheapest  in  all  kinds  of  breeding  stock. 

Relation  of  Size  in  Sire  and  Dam. — We  have  said 
the  size  of  the  dam  is  important,  and  would  impress  this  fact, 
as  there  has  been  a  neglect  of  the  size  in  the  mania  for  speed. 

While  the  trotting-horse  has  come  to  the  front,  and  done  so 
much  to  improve  the  action  and  pluck  of  the  produce  from 
cold-blood  mares,  there  has  been  too  little  attention  paid  to  the 
size  of  the  stallions  and  mares.  Men  have  bred  any  thing  that 
had  speed,  or  loved  to  go,  until  we  have  now  an  over-stock  of 
undersized  horses.  They  have  good  action,  are  hardy,  but  too 
small  for  all  farm  work,  or  even  to  draw  a  buggy  with  two 
persons. 

Farmers  and  horsemen  are  recognizing  the  mistake,  and  pub- 
lic sentiment  is  reacting  and  going  to  the  other  extreme. 
Farmers  are  breeding  their  small  mares  to  the  largest  horses 
they  can  find,  regardless  of  action  or  quality.  Size,  and  size 
only,  rules  with  the  extremists.  They  are  attempting  to  breed- 
up  the  size  by  using  over-grown  stallions.  The  experiment 
will  surely  end  in  disaster.  The  farmers  of  Yorkshire,  England, 


THE  HORSE— BREEDING.  661 

attempted  years  since  to  meet  the  demand  for  large  horses  by 
breeding  their  small  mares  to  the  great  Flanders  and  cart- 
horses, and  others  of  ponderous  size.  We  are  told  their  result 
was  a  dismal  failure. 

The  Morgan  horses  were  hardy,  active,  kind,  and  a  most  use- 
ful strain  of  horses,  but  after  they  became  noted,  farmers  bred 
all  sizes  of  mares  to  the  nearest  little  Morgan,  and  to  the  most 
ill-proportioned,  ill-dispositioned,  and  ill-bred  little  horses  that 
happened  to  be  faster  than  the  average  farm-horse.  One  ex- 
treme follows  the  other.  And  now  we  are  on  the  eve  of  a  rush 
for  big  horses.  We  here  remind  the  farmer  of  the  principles 
laid  down  in  this  work,  and  ask  them  to  select  only  well-formed 
mares,  of  good  size,  and  cross  them  with  none  but  horses  of 
excellence  in  more  than  one  thing.  Bigness  and  fat  cover  a 
multitude  of  worthless  qualities.  We  need  more  size  and  bone, 
and  action  and  pluck,  with  docility  in  the  stallions.  See  that 
they  possess  these  in  a  high  degree  or  do  not  use  them. 

The  value  of  the  stallion  is  not  in  the  answer  to  the  ques- 
tion, "  How  much  does  he  weigh  ?  "  but  rather  "  What  can  he 
do  ?  "  "  How  is  he  bred  ?  " 

Choosing  the  Stallion. — Many  think  the  influence  of  the 
stallion  more  important  than  that  of  the  mare  on  the  foal. 
Be  that  as  it  may,  it  has  been  much  theorized  upon ;  yet  so 
long  as  individual  excellence  is  not  confined  to  either  sex  and 
may  predominate  in  either  one,  we  may  soon  be  able  to  deter- 
mine which  of  the  two  has  the  most  influence  in  defining  the 
characteristics  of  the  foal.  But  as  the  horse  in  one  year  may 
beget  scores  of  colts  and  the  mare  drop  but  one  foal,  the 
horse  will  impress  his  qualities,  good  and  bad,  on  the  greater 
number.  Hence  the  importance  of  having  the  horse  one  of 
marked  excellence. 

As  long  as  "  every  crow  thinks  her  own  young  one  the 
whitest,"  we  may  expect  farmers  and  breeders  who  have  a 
chance-good  colt  to  think  he  possesses  the  qualities  that  should 
make  a  stallion.  And  as  long  as  the  average  farmer  continues 
to  breed  the  cheapest  foal-getter,  so  long  we  may  not  hope  for 
any  marked  improvement  in  the  class  of  stallions  kept  before 

36 


562  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

the  public.  They  will  continue  to  be  a  weedy,  over-fed,  lub- 
berly set  of  brutes,  whose  plumpness  and  sleek  coats  will  cap- 
tivate the  inexperienced,  and  the  low  cost  of  service  will  enable 
this  class  of  stallions  to  beget  the  majority  of  the  foals 
dropped.  This  kind  of  breeding,  or  want  of  breeding,  degen- 
erates the  horses  of  the  country,  rather  than  improves  them. 

The  wild  horses  of  the  plains  in  the  natural  selection  do  bet- 
ter than  that,  for  the  strongest  and  most  powerful  and  active  and 
plucky  stallions  serve  the  most  mares.  With  our  advantages  of 
better  feed,  combined  with  the  use  of  only  the  best  stallions,  we 
should  see  our  stock  of  horses  rapidly  improving. 

Pedigree,  then  Quality. — Stonehenge  says:  "In  choos- 
ing a  stallion  to  breed  from  for  speed,  the  first  thing  to  be  con- 
sidered is  his  pedigree."  "Next  to  pedigree  should  be  consid- 
ered speed,  bottom,  health,  size,  style,  color,"  and  the  writer 
adds,  disposition.  "  In  breeding  for  speed,  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  size  is  important,  if  the  colt  turns  out  fast,  and  still 
more,  if  he  does  not."  If  he  is  large  enough  for  taking  a  car- 
riage, with  two  persons,  over  the  road  at  a  lively  gait,  the 
breeding  was  not  a  failure. 

Some  Defects  may  be  Corrected. — "If  the  mare  has 
any  particular  defect,  a  horse  should  be  chosen  that  will  correct 
it  in  the  progeny ;"  but  the  writer  would  warn  the  reader  against 
attempts  to  correct  such  defects  as  thick  wind,  weak  tendons, 
spavin,  ring-bone,  and  the  like.  Mares  that  have  rather  light 
bone,  or  do  not  fill  the  eye  as  to  form  of  neck  or  outline,  or 
have  a  want  of  muscle,  or  the  leg  is  a  little  lacking  in  strength 
or  straightness — such  defects  we  may  in  a  measure  correct  by  a 
judicious  selection  of  the  stallion. 

It  is  said,  "Every  chain  has  a  weak  link,"  and  every  horse 
has  a  defect  that  the  careful  observer  may  detect.  The  defect 
may  be  one  that  offends  the  eye  only,  and  not  impair  the  use- 
fulness of  the  animal.  Such  defects  we  may  aim  to  correct, 
but  let  us  not  aim  to  correct  constitutional  and  hereditary  taints. 
We  will  the  more  likely  entail  such  if  we  breed  animals  pos- 
sessing them. 

"Every  part  of  every  offspring  partakes   of  the   quality  of 


THE  HORSE— BREEDING.  563 

both  parents  in  some  degree,  and  in  the  present  state  of  our 
knowledge  we  can  neither  control  nor  foresee  the  amount  of 
any  particular  quality  that  the  offspring  will  inherit  from  either 
parent."  "  If  parents  are  alike  in  any  particular,  though  diifer- 
ent  in  all  other  respects,  their  offspring  will  all  inherit  that 
quality  strongly  which  comes  from  both  parents,  and  will  trans- 
mit it  to  the  next  generation  with  greater  certainty  than  if  they 
had  inherited  it  from  only  one  parent." 

If  the  trait  or  quality  is  strengthened  by  a  line  of  ancestors 
011  each  side,  the  chances  that  the  offspring  will  inherit  that 
trait  in  a  marked  degree  are  increased.  From  this  we  see  how 
little  hope  we  may  have  of  getting  good  and  serviceable  horses 
from  the  random  crossing  of  ill-bred  and  defective  animals. 
Let  the  farmers  exercise  greater  care  in  the  selection  of  the 
stallion  for  the  class  of  mares  we  have  commended,  and  the 
breeding  of  horses  will  advance. 

The  Ideal  Farm  Horse. — As  a  help  in  the  selection  of 
a  horse  for  purchase  or  breeding,  we  will  copy  what  has  been 
written  by  Commissioner  Loring.  He  says :  "When  I  com- 
menced farming  I  made  up  my  mind  that  my  horses  should  be 
as  good  as  my  sheep  and  cattle;  that  none  of  them  should  be 
surpassed,  and  that  I  should  find  out  a  way  to  breed  and  rear 
my  own,  instead  of  going  into  the  market  to  purchase  the  fruits 
of  other  people's  industry.  I  knew  very  well  what  I  wanted. 
I  did  not  want  a  running-horse,  nor  a  saddle-horse,  or  a  cart- 
horse; I  wanted  a  horse  of  all  work — a  horse  weighing  a  little 
more  than  a  thousand  pounds,  in  good  road  condition;  fifteen 
hands  and  one  inch  high  (for  I  had  found  that  this  height  and 
weight  usually  go  together);  with  a  head  not  too  fine,  wide  be- 
tween the  eyes,  and  high  above  them,  with  a  good-sized,  steady, 
erect,  and  lively  ear;  with  every  bony  process  sharp  and  prom- 
inent, even  the  processes  of  the  first  cervical  vertebra  behind 
the  ears;  with  a  calm  and  well-set  eye,  and  lips  which  indicate 
determination  rather  than  delicacy;  a  Websterian  head,  with  a 
neck  well  muscled,  well  arched,  strong  and  elastic,  with  active 
motion,  and  a  throttle  loose  and  open ;  with  withers  sharp  and 
thin,  but  solid  and  strong;  with  a  shoulder  set  loosely  on,  broad 


564  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

and  deep  at  the  base ;  with  a  strong  arm,  sinewy  leg,  short  can- 
non bone;  firm  and  not  too  long  or  elastic  pastern,  and  a  firm 
foot;  with  a  deep  chest,  without  a  prominent  and  bulging  breast- 
bone; with  a  round  barrel,  ribbed  well  back  to  the  hips,  but  not 
so  far  back  as  to  interfere  with  the  action  of  the  hind-quarters; 
with  a  short  back,  and  a  slight  elevation  of  the  rump  just  be- 
hind the  coupling ;  with  a  long  and  strong  quarter,  well  muscled 
inside  and  outside;  with  a  hind-leg  so  set  on  that  the  action 
shall  be  free  and  open,  and  with  the  fore-leg  so  set  on  that  the 
toes  shall  not  turn  out,  for  fear  of  brushing  the  knees  at  speed, 
and  that  they  shall  not  turn  in  too  much,  for  fear  of  paddling. 
I  wanted  a  good,  strong  bay  color,  with  black  points,  and  a  tem- 
perament calm,  collected,  fearless,  defiant,  and  brain  quick  to 
learn  and  strong  to  remember.  This  was  the  horse  I  wanted, 
and  I  felt  sure  I  could  breed  him." 

Mr.  Fitch  says,  "  Dr.  Loring  did  breed  him  successfully,  and 
so  may  any  farmer  who  understands  the  true  principles  of  breed- 
ing, and  conforms  to  them." 

Dr.  Loring's  style  of  a  horse  is  a  good  one,  but  a  larger 
horse  will  suit  the  Western  farmer  better,  whether  he  wishes  to 
use  him  at  farm  work  or  to  sell  him.  A  horse  sixteen  hands 
high,  or  sixteen  hands  one  inch,  weighing  from  twelve  hundred 
to  thirteen  hundred  pounds,  is  none  too  large  for  the  plow  or  the 
wagon  or  carriage,  and  will  bring  one  half  more  money  than  one 
fifteen  hands  high. 

A  Farmer's  Team  of  Mares. — The  farmer  who  se- 
cures such  a  team  of  mares  as  we  have  described  by  A.  L. 
Sardy,  in  the  Rural  New  Yorker,  will  have  what  few  possess — 
a  model  farm  team. 

"  The  best  team  for  the  farmer  is  the  one  which  will  best 
answer  all  the  purposes  of  the  farm :  plowing,  hauling,  taking 
the  farmer  and  his  family  to  town,  or  his  boys  and  their  sweet- 
hearts for  a  lively  sleigh  ride  ;  and,  in  addition  to  all  this,  will  give 
him  a  pair  of  colts  every  year,  which  will  earn  their  keep  from 
the  time  they  are  two  years  old  until  they  are  sold  for  eight 
hundred  or  one  thousand  dollars  at  five  or  six.  The  team  to  do 
this  is  a  pair  of  handsome  bay  mares  sixteen  hands  high, 


THE  HORSE— BREEDING.  565 

weighing  one  thousand  and  two  hundred  to  one  thousand,  two 
hundred  and  fifty  pounds  each,  with  small,  bony  heads ;  large 
nostrils ;  broad  foreheads ;  large,  bright  eyes ;  small,  tapering 
ears ;  long  necks,  nicely  arched,  deep  as  they  spring  from  the 
shoulders  and  small  at  the  throat-latch;  long,  oblique  shoulder- 
blades  ;  moderately  high  withers ;  short  backs,  and  deep  but 
not  over-broad  chests,  because  a  horse  with  a  very  wide  breast, 
although  usually  of  good  constitution  and  great  strength,  is  sel- 
dom a  graceful  or  rapid  trotter ;  is  apt  to  have  a  "  paddling " 
gait,  and  if  used  for  road  work  will  generally  give  out  in  the 
fore-legs  from  the  extra  strain  put  upon  them  by  the  weight  of 
the  broad  chest.  Our  team  must  also  have  long,  muscular 
thighs ;  large  knees  and  other  joints ;  short  cannon  (shin) 
bones ;  legs  broad  below  the  knees,  and  hocks  with  the  sinews 
clearly  defined ;  fetlocks  free  from  long  hair ;  long,  moderately 
oblique  pasterns ;  rather  small,  though  not  contracted  feet; 
broad  loins ;  wide,  smooth  hips,  and  long,  full  tails.  They  must 
have  plenty  of  nervous  energy,  and  good  knee  action ;  must  be 
prompt,,  free  drivers,  capable  of  trotting  a  mile  in  four  minutes ; 
be  fast  walkers,  and  good,  hearty  eaters ;  must  not  "  interfere," 
and  must  carry  their  heads  well  up  without  checks  when  on 
the  road. 

"  It  will  readily  be  seen  that  these  mares  are  neither  Clydes- 
dales, Normans,  Canadians,  Arabians,  thorough-breds,  nor  trot- 
ters; but  they  are  a  team  which  will  pull  the  plow  through  two 
acres  of  land  in  a  day ;  will  pull  a  ton,  yes,  two,  if  the  roads  are 
good,  of  produce  to  the  village  four  miles  off  in  less  than  an 
hour,  and  trot  back  with  the  empty  wagon  in  half  that  time 
without  distressing  themselves  or  their  driver.  Should  the 
farmer  have  a  trip  of  twenty  miles  to  make  on  business  or 
pleasure,  he  can  hitch  them  to  his  spring  wagon,  take  his  wife 
and  children  with  him,  and  they  need  not  be  away  from  home 
more  than  three  hours ;  or  should  he  choose  to  go  on  horseback, 
he  can  mount  one  of  the  mares  and  onjoy  a  ride  on  a  very  fair 
saddle-horse.  A  team  of  Clydesdales  may  pull  a  heavier  load 
at  a  dead  drag;  Canadians  will  stand  more  exposure  and  poorer 
fare;  Arabians  are  better  saddle-horses;  thorotijjh-breds  can  out- 


566  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

run  them;  trotters,  when  hitched  to  a  light  buggy,  can  pass 
them  on  the  road ;  but  neither  of  these  breeds  combines  anything 
like  the  desirable  qualities  for  a  farmer  that  the  team  which 
I  described  possesses ;  and  when  it  becomes  desirable  to  dispose 
of  their  produce,  the  colts  of  such  mares  will  find  a  readier 
sale  than  those  of  any  of  the  others,  being  exactly  suited  to 
the  wants  of  the  rich  city  gentleman  for  his  family  carriage; 
for  which  he  must  have  a  strong,  handsome,  showy  team,  and 
as  such  teams  are  always  scarce,  he  must  pay  a  good  price 
for  them. 

"Large  dray-horses  usually  bring  remunerative  prices;  but 
few  men  will  pay  as  much  for  a  team  to  haul  their  bales  of 
cotton,  or  barrels  of  flour,  as  they  will  for  a  team  to  draw  their 
families  in  Central  or  Lincoln  Park,  in  winter,  and  at  New- 
port, or  Long  Branch,  in  the  summer,  where  each  millionaire 
strives  to  outdo  the  others  in  the  beauty  and  style  of  his 
carriage-horses. 

"  It  will  be  useless  for  the  farmer  to  try  to  get  such  horses 
as  these  for  a  very  low  price ;  but  when  he  has  found  them, 
never  mind  the  price ;  an  extra  hundred  dollars  or  so  invested 
in  such  a  span  will  pay  better  interest  than  in  the  savings  bank. 
When  the  farmer  has  obtained  his  team  of  mares,  let  him  look 
for  a  stallion  of  as  nearly  the  same  type  as  he  can  find.  He 
must  be  fully  sixteen  hands  high,  of  good  disposition,  and  have 
the  bold  high  knee  action  which  characterizes  a  fine  carriage- 
horse,  for  which  rich  buyers  are  willing  to  pay  liberally.  If 
this  horse  can  trot  in  three  minutes  instead  of  four,  so  much 
the  better." 

How  Size  may  be  Increased. — The  use  of  the  enor- 
mously large  sized  stallions  is  the  common  way  to  increase  size. 
This  method  is  the  short  cut,  and  will  do  for  increasing  the  size 
of  the  ox  or  hog,  where  bulk  and  weight  are  the  prime  objects. 
But  as  the  horse's  value  is  not  as  a  meat  producer,  but  as  a 
working  animal,  we  must  care  first  for  building  up  the  frame 
and  muscles  harmoniously  and  symmetrically,  so  that  every  part 
is  strong.  The  stallion  of  good  proportions,  bred  to  strong, 
healthy  mares  of  like  good  form,  each  of  medium  size,  will  give 


THE  HORSE— BREEDING.  567 

produce  of  greater  strength,  and  vigor,  and  endurance,  than 
that  from  longer-jointed,  longer-backed  animals  of  quicker  matu- 
rity and  growth. 

The  Stallion. — From  what  has  been  said  of  the  mare  and 
stallion  we  see  that  there  is  far  more  to  consider  than  mere  size 
and  plumpness  in  the  sire.  All  men,  even  the  best  judges,  are 
likely  to  be  deceived  by  the  liberal  feeding  and  careful  groom- 
ing which  the  stallions  of  the  country  receive.  They  are  kept 
in  so  much  better  condition  than  the  working  animals  of  the 
farm,  that  the  contrast  between  them  and  the  laboring  horse  is 
like  that  shown  between  the  city  society-man  and  the  fanner 
enured  to  daily  toil.  The  former  is  fitted  out  for  display,  and 
the  latter  for  business.  The  vigor  of  the  latter  excels  that  of 
the  former  as  much  as  does  the  style  and  dress  of  the  exquisite 
excel  the  plain,  much-worn  garb  of  the  toiler.  Let  us  not 
be  deceived  by  what  good  grooming  can  do  for  the  man  or  the 
horse.  A  few  months  of  hard  work  will  take  the  shine  all  off, 
and  leave  only  the  frame-work  and  the  hardened  muscle.  If 
these  are  uniformly  strong  and  in  good  proportion,  and  the  ani- 
mal comes  of  a  family  of  good  breeding,  whose  ancestors  had 
merit,  and  a  noble  spirit  and  good  disposition,  the  chances 
are  strongly  in  favor  that  the  produce  of  such  an  animal  will  in- 
herit so  much  of  the  virtue  of  the  sire  and  his  family,  as  that 
the  foal  will  be  of  value. 

Feminine  looking  Male. — There  is  no  surer  mark  of 
effeminacy  in  man  or  horse  than  to  see  one  with  the  delicate  bone 
and  head,  and  light,  neat  muscle  of  the  female.  In  selecting 
the  male  we  are  not  looking  for  one  with  female  characteristics. 
The  stallion,  the  bull,  and  the  boar  should  be  masculine  in  every 
marking  and  fiber.  His  distinguishing  beauty  should  be  the 
proud  spirit  and  fire,  and  courage  and  force  of  the  male.  Power 
and  resoluteness  should  mark  him  at  every  point.  The  sires 
that  have  made  their  impress  on  their  posterity  have  not  been 
those  of  the  smallest  head  and  muzzle,  the  delicate  and  graceful 
neck,  and  the  best  rounded  form.  Their  form  and  nature  were 
too  strong  and  marked  with  power  to  be  always  smooth  and 
neat  at  all  points. 


668  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

The  best  judges  know  how  to  weigh  the  value  of  strength 
against  the  delicately  rounded  outline.  The  mare  may  not  be 
coarse  at  any  point,  but  the  strongly  marked  powers  of  the  male 
may  manifest  themselves  in  the  large,  bony,  clean,  brainy  head. 
The  muscle  and  flesh  of  the  mare  will  be  more  rounded  and 
graceful  in  the  outlines,  and  the  head,  neck,  and  limbs  be  more 
neat  and  more  gracefully  moulded.  Her  form  will  tell  more  of 
quickness  and  fleetness,  while  her  male-mate  will  manifest 
more  courageous  strength  and  force  in  his  step  and  action. 
Neither  will  lack  the  ambition  to  use  the  hidden  power. 

The  Influence  of  Sire  and  Dam. — Abdel  Kader  in  a 
letter  to  General  Daumas  discusses  this  subject.  He  does  not 
endorse  the  commonly  accepted  view,  that  the  Arab  prizes  the 
mare  more  than  the  horse,  because  she  gave  character  and  qual- 
ity to  the  foal.  He  attributes  great  influence  to  each,  if  well 
bred.  He  says  it  is  true  the  foal  proceeds  from  the  sire  and 
the  dam,  but  the  experience  of  ages  has  proved  that  the  essential 
parts  of  the  body,  such  as  the  bones,  the  tendons,  the  nerves, 
and  the  veins,  proceed  always  from  the  sire.  This  is  beyond  all 
doubt.  The  meanest  Arab  knows  that  any  malady,  especially 
belonging  to  the  bones,  under  which  the  sire  may  be  suffering 
at  the  time  of  covering,  will  be  perpetuated  in  his  produce,  such 
as  splints,  bone  and  blood  spavins,  the  shape  of  the  bones,  and 
all  diseases  of  the  vertebral  column. 

The  dam  may  give  to  her  produce  color  and  a  certain  amount 
of  resemblance  in  form,  the  foal  naturally  partaking  of  some  of 
the  qualities  of  the  animal  which  had  so  long  borne  it ;  but  it  is 
an  incontestable  fact  that  it  is  the  sire  who  gives  strength  to 
the  bones,  substance  to  the  tendons,  vigor  to  the  nerves,  rapid- 
ity of  pace ;  in  short,  all  the  principal  qualities.  He  also  com- 
municates what  may  be  considered  moral  qualities,  and  if  he  be 
unquestionably  of  high  blood,  the  foal  is  preserved  from  vice. 
"A  horse  of  noble  race  has  no  vices." 

"The  foal  follows  the  sire,"  is  an  old  Arab  maxim  which 
Abdel  Kader  fully  endorses.  Because  of  this  universal  belief 
the  Arab  is  difficult  to  please  in  the  selection  of  a  stud-horse, 
and  if  he  can  not  find  one  to  please  him  of  pure  blood,  he  will 


THE  HORSE— BREEDING.  569 

leave  his  mares  unproductive.  To  procure  the  service  of  a  good 
sire  they  do  not  hesitate  to  travel  any  distance.  "  An  Arab  will 
lend  his  stud-horse  gratuitously;  he  never  accepts  payment  for 
his  services.  It  is  considered  an  unworthy  action,  but  it  is  an 
act  of  generosity  he  will  not  readily  bestow  on  any  one,  nor  for 
any  mare." 

W.  C.  Spooner,  a  high  English  authority  on  such  matters, 
says :  "  The  influence  of  the  male  and  female  is  not  capricious, 
but  yet  not  always  alike;  in  the  majority  of  instances  the  male 
gives  the  size  and  external  shape  of  the  offspring,  particularly 
the  back  and  hind-quarters,  while  the  female  influences  the  con- 
stitutional, the  nervous  system,  and  often  the  head  and  fore- 
quarters.  *  *  *  It  is  such  a  fusion  of  two  bodies  into  one 
that  both  defects  and  high  qualifications  are  passed  from  parent 
to  offspring  with  a  sort  of  irregularity  resembling  the  waves  of 
the  sea,  each  parent  having  the  remarkable  power  of  propa- 
gating ancestral  peculiarities,  though  latent  in  itself." 

Another  English  writer  says :  "  Instances  have  come  under 
the  notice  of  the  writer  where  a  tribe  of  horses  have  bred  in  one 
family  for  many  generations,  the  males  of  which  inherited  the 
bad  habit  of  kicking  in  the  yoke;  and  although  crossed  with 
very  docile  sires,  the  same  propensity  and  nervous  temperament 
was  transmitted  from  one  generation  to  another.  Others,  again, 
preserve  the  unwelcome  and  annoying  habit  of  being  shy  pullers; 
and  others,  again,  when  mares  are  hot  tempered,  tearing 
workers,  but  deficient  in  stamina  or  staying  power.  Owners 
sometimes  breed  from  a  mare  that  is  hot  tempered,  or  a  kicker, 
to  sober  her  down  a  bit.  They  invariably  succeed  in  perpetu- 
ating a  breed  which  should  be  allowed  to  become  extinct." 

Importance  of  a  Quiet,  Sound  Mare. --The  same 
writer  says  :  "  The  importance,  therefore,  of  selecting  a  quiet  dis- 
positioned  mare  of  sound  constitution,  for  breeding  purposes,  is 
apparent.  By  sober-tempered  is  not  meant  a  sluggish  animal ; 
activity  being  very  essential  in  a  brood-mare,  especially  in  her 
walk,  as  this  is  the  most  important  pace  for  farm-work.  It  is 
also  necessary  that  a  farm-horse  should  be  able  to  acquit  itself 
well  in  a  trot,  and  the  words  of  an  enthusiastic  Scotchman, 


570  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOCPED2A. 

when  once  describing  a  brood-mare,  can  be  repeated,  when  he 
said  :  ( Her  very  step  had  music  in  it.' " 

Rev.  "  Adirondack"  Murray,  who  has  attained  some  notoriety 
as  preacher  and  writer  and  breeder  of  horses,  concludes  that 
there  is  not  enough  of  truth  in  the  Arab  maxim  to  make  it  a 
law.  Even  a  casual  inspection  of  his  own  stables  does  not 
strengthen  the  belief  in  the  saying,  "  The  foal  follows  the  sire." 
He  has  "  dams  whose  foals  invariably  resemble  the  sire  in  shape, 
size,  color,  style  of  going,  and  even  in  temperament,  and  these 
mares  are  prized  by  me  as  almost  beyond  price,  because  of  this 
peculiarity.  I  know  beforehand  what  I  shall  get.  On  the  other 
hand,  I  have  two  other  mares  whose  colts  invariably  resemble 
themselves,  or  some  one  of  their  paternal  ancestors." 

Temperament  Important. — Mr.  Murray  infers  from  his 
observations  that  "  The  animal  with  the  strongest  vitality  marks 
the  foal."  "  If  the  dam  be  most  highly  organized,  then  the  foal 
will  resemble  the  dam ;  if  the  sire,  then  the  foal  will  resemble 
the  sire.  This  is  the  law  in  the  human  family  :  If  the  mother 
be  of  nervous,  sanguine  temperament,  and  the  father  lymphatic 
and  sluggish,  the  child  will  take  after  the  mother,"  and  vice 
versa.  On  this  theory  the  cold-blood  mare  bred  to  the  thorough- 
bred horse  should  drop  a  foal  resembling  the  horse,  but  the  foals 
are  so  unlike  the  sires  in  many  cases  that  we  can  not  proclaim 
a  law.  Yet,  in  all  the  varying  products  of  such  breeding  we 
find  the  old  rule  of  having  the  male  better  bred  than  the  female 
is  true,  and  worthy  of  close  following.  It  is  by  this  law  we 
have  been  able  to  improve  all  kinds  of  domestic  animals.  The 
sires,  as  a  rule,  have  been  better  bred  than  the  rnares,  which 
have  come  to  them,  and  the  improvement  of  the  progeny  as  a 
class  has  been  marked  in  the  same  degree  as  the  breeding  and 
quality  of  the  sire  has  exceeded  that  of  the  dams. 

Mr.  Murray  formulates  this  law,  "  That  the  best  horse  is  he 
who,  being  good  in  himself,  most  surely  and  closely  reproduces 
himself  in  the  offspring,  and  to  this  should  be  added  the  words, 
when  bred  to  the  mares  of  the  greatest  variety  of  form  and 
temperament." 

The  lessons  of  the  past  may  lead  us  to  say,  with  equal  cor- 


THE  HORSE— BREEDING.  571 

rectness,  in  a  general  way,  the  best  brood  mare  is  the  one  that, 
being  sound  and  of  good  disposition,  breeds  most  like  the  horse. 
The  writer  owns  a  mare  that  breeds  like  the  horse  in  form  and 
action,  except  that  she  usually  has  colts  with  backs  and  fore- 
quarters  like  herself.  Whether  the  farmer  knows  how  his  mare 
breeds  or  not,  there  exists  the  same  reason  for  selecting  a  thor- 
oughly sound  and  well  formed  horse  of  the  best  possible  breeding. 

Condition  at  Breeding  Time. — There  has  been  much 
disappointment  in  breeding  to  horses  that  have  been  campaigned 
from  year  to  year,  and  have  made  noted  records  for  speed  and 
staying  powers.  While  these  horses  have  proven  themselves  to 
possess  the  qualities  that  the  breeders  of  fast  and  good  horses 
would  reproduce,  it  is  an  unquestionable  fact  that  such  stallions 
rarely  have  produced  colts  which  have  equalled  the  sires.  Their 
frequent  failures  to  produce  valuable  foals  have  led  the  superfi- 
cial observers  to  assert  "  there  is  no  value  in  blood,"  and  that 
"hits  are  merest  chance." 

They  fail  to  consider  that  any  law  of  nature  may,  by  coun- 
ter influences,  be  diverted.  We  need  not  philosophize  long  on 
the  cause  of  this  disappointment.  The  fact  that  old  mares  arid 
noted  mares  which  have  been  hammered  on  the  track  campaign 
after  campaign,  have  uniformly  failed  to  breed  foals  equal  to 
themselves  or  the  sires  of  their  foals  may  give  a  clew.  It  is 
accepted  as  true  that  after  mares  have  passed  their  prime,  and 
have  lost  vigor  by  reason  of  age  and  hard  usage,  their  colts  are 
not  equal  to  those  brought  forth  when  the  mare  is  in  her  prime, 
or  when  young. 

A  writer  in  Wallaces  Monthly  elaborated  the  subject  of 
breeding  old  campaign  stallions,  and  showed  by  reference  to  the, 
records  of  the  long  line  of  winners  of  distinguished  breeding 
and  performance  on  the  track,  and  which  have  been  retired  to 
the  stud  that  not  one  of  them  has  met  the  expectations  of  the 
owners  or  patrons.  He  treats  the  subject  physiologically,  and 
shows  that  the  long  courses  of  feeding  and  training  of  campaign 
horses  hardens  the  tissues,  and  extraordinary  development  of 
one  faculty  or  power  tends  to  weaken  the  rest.  The  feed  and 
training  of  the  race-horse,  together  with  the  intense  and  long 


572  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

continued  tax  on  the  vitality  of  the  racer  and  trotter,  have  weak- 
ened the  generative  powers,  while  it  has  hardened  the  tissues 
and  developed  speed  and  lung-power. 

The  foals  of  such  noted  mares  as  Flora  Temple  and  Gold- 
smith Maid  and  Lady  Thome  have  not  shown  the  power  and 
speed  of  their  dams,  although  they  were  bred  to  stallions  noted 
for  their  family  power  of  producing  trotters  of  rare  ability. 
The  expenditure  of  nervous  power,  in  their  long  and  exhaustive 
campaigns,  has  used  up  that  vigor,  or  superabundant  nervous 
power  which,  had  it  been  reserved  for  their  foals,  would  have 
enabled  them  to  impress  their  excellence  on  their  offspring. 
The  large  majority  of  mares  and  stallions  which  have  long  been 
in  training  and  use  on  the  track  until  past  the  prime  of  life 
have  failed  of  usefulness  in  the  stud. 

The  list  of  noted  brood-mares  does  not  include  the  great 
campaigners.  The  long  list  of  successful  sires  does  not  include 
the  old  campaigners  of  greatest  note.  Rysdyk's  Hambletonian, 
Mambrino  Chief,  and  any  of  their  families,  who  have  excelled' 
in  the  stud,  had  short  work  on  the  race-track.  Their  nervous 
force  and  vigor  were  left  unimpaired  and  reserved  for  the  stud, 
where  they  were  enabled  to  impress  their  get  with  so  much  of 
their  trotting  instinct  and  power. 

These  facts  are  simply  in  harmony  with  the  general  law, 
"like  produces  like."  The  old  campaigners  had  reduced  their 
nervous  force  and  vigor  down  below  the  normal  level  of  their 
family,  and  their  get  had  not  that  vigor  and  power  that  lifted 
them  above  the  average.  The  facts  are  important  for  the  breeder 
to  keep  in  mind. 

Condition  of  Sire  and  Dam. — Another  inference  comes 
along  with  them,  and  that  is,  condition  of  the  dam  and  sire  at  the 
time  of  mating  is  important.  So  important  is  it,  we  see  that  it 
even  so  countervails  all  expectance  of  highest  good  from  a  royal 
record  and  royal  {incestors,  as  to  lead  to  disappointment.  This 
matter  of  condition  at  breeding  time,  then,  is  of  first  importance. 
The  sire  should  be  in  such  a  condition  as  to  be  able  to  impress 
his  qualities  on  his  get.  The  dam  should  be  in  such  a  perfectly 
healthy  condition  and  free  from  nervous  derangement  or  exhaus- 


THE  HORSE— BREEDING.  573 

tion,  and  have  her  system  toned  up  to  the  best  condition  of 
health  and  vigor,  that  her  foal  may  be  like  her  in  these  qualities. 

At  Conception. — The  records  of  physiology  show  that  the 
mental  and  physical  condition  of  the  father  or  mother  at  time 
of  conception  have  fixed  the  character  of  children.  The  mother 
worn  out  by  care  and  want,  worry  and  work,  has  not  as  a  rule 
borne  the  vigorous,  healthy,  and  happy  offspring.  The  stallion 
and  the  mare  should  be  conditioned  by  moderate  exercise  and 
appropriate  feed,  so  that  at  the  time  of  mating  each  shall  be 
in  the  best  condition  of  health  and  vigor,  and  the  nervous  pow- 
ers in  a  normal,  healthy  state. 

After  Conception. — After  the  conception,  the  use  of  the 
mare  should  be  such  as  to  keep  her  in  perfect  health,  and  her 
food  should  be  of  such  quality  and  quantity  as  to  best  nourish 
her  and  the  growing  foetus.  Of  course,  this  would  preclude  any 
harsh  treatment,  any  severe  labor  and  conditions  that  would 
suddenly  tax  her  strength.  It  does  not,  however,  argue  that 
the  mare  should  be  kept  in  idleness,  and  tenderly  coddled  in  a 
box  stall  or  small  lot,  where  she  can  only  sleep  and  eat  and 
drink.  This  mode  of  life  does  not  keep  the  highest  degree  of 
vigor  and  strength.  "  Use  strengthens  and  disuse  weakens,"  is 
the  old  physiological  law.  But  it  has  its  limitations.  Excessive 
and  long  continued  exertion  may  over-tax  and  weaken  the  mus- 
cular and  nervous  system.  Hence  moderate  and  regular  work 
strengthens  man  or  beast,  and  they  alike  are  the  stronger, 
healthier,  and  less  nervous  for  regular  moderate  labor. 

The  Mare  and  Stallion  Should  Be  Worked.— Within 
the  limits  of  the  rules  given  above,  we  claim  that  the  dam 
and  sire  are  better  for  moderate  regular  work,  and  the  foal  will 
be  more  healthy  and  uniformly  developed  because  of  the 
superior  condition  of  the  parents.  The  successful  breeders  of 
swine  and  sheep  recognize  the  importance  of  keeping  up  the 
vigor  of  the  females  of  their  flock,  if  they  would  have  strong, 
healthy  pigs  or  lambs.  The  neglect  of  this  practice  of  securing 
highest  vigor  and  health  by  exercise  of  the  dams  while  carry- 
ing their  young,  has  caused  a  vast  amount  of  loss,  which  is 
wholly  unnecessary.  As  the  value  of  the  horse  depends  so 


574  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

largely  on  his  vigor  and  temperament,  this  question  of  working 
the  sire  and  dam  is  of  great  importance. 

A  Matter  of  Economy. — On  a  preceding  page,  we  have 
shown  that  it  is  more  healthful  to  have  the  stallions  labor 
enough  to  pay  for  their  keep  during  the  larger  part  of  the  year. 
It  is  clearly  more  economical.  While  the  stallion  is  not  in  the 
season  of  service,  he  will  be  able  to  do  much  labor,  and  by  it  his 
muscles  and  tissues  and  nervous  system  be  toned  up  to  healthful 
action.  Inaction  is  not  according  to  nature  of  the  horse.  His 
nature  demands  activity  and  freedom  to  exert  his  mighty  pow- 
ers. Though  while  in  a  civilized  condition  it  is  necessary  to 
keep  him  under  restraint,  it  does  not  in  any  way  argue  idle- 
ness and  luxury  that  beget  effeminacy.  The  horse  needs  the 
exercise  out  of  doors,  to  give  tone  to  his  system,  quicken  his 
action,  strengthen  his  muscles  and  frame,  and  calm  his  tempera- 
ment, by  relieving  it  from  the  strain  on  his  nervous  system 
which  comes  from  long  confinement  of  any  animal  that  has  abil- 
ity to  move  freely  in  a  state  of  nature.  If  our  reasoning  is 
correct,  that  the  condition  of  the  parents  at  time  of  coupling 
has  an  influence  on  the  offspring,  it  follows  that  the  good  of  the 
foal  also  demands  that  the  sire  and  dam  shall  be  made  strong  to 
labor,  and  show  by  habitual  obedience  to  the  word  of  the  mas- 
ter that  there  is  worth  and  virtue  in  a  gentle  nature. 

Mischief  Comes  With  Idleness. — The  disposition  of 
stallions  and  mares  that  are  well  broken  to  regular  work  is  notori- 
ously far  better  than  that  of  those  kept  in  confinement  and  idle- 
ness. Watts  said,"  Satan  finds  mischief  for  idle  hands  to  do."  I 
am  sure  his  Satanic  majesty  or  some  other  influence  finds  mischief 
for  idle  studs  to  do.  The  stalls  and  halters  that  confine  the  un- 
used stallions  have  to  be  of  triple  strength  and  often  renewed. 
The  pent-up  energy  of  the  high-bred  horse,  highly  fed  on  oats,  is 
something  near  as  difficult  to  restrain  as  the  steam  from  the  boiler, 
under  which  there  is  a  strong  fire  of  good,  sound  fuel.  It  must 
be  utilized,  or  there  is  danger  in  its  expenditure  of  force. 

Care  of  Stallions. — J.  E.  Russell,  secretary  of  the  Mas- 
sachusetts Board  of  Agriculture,  is  excellent  authority  on  all 
that  pertains  to  the  care  and  management  of  horses.  He  says  : 


THE  HORSE— BREEDING.  575 

"  When  a  horse  begins  a  stud  career,  his  owner  should  abso- 
lutely withdraw  him  from  the  worry  and  excitement  of  train- 
ing. Horses  kept  for  service  and  trained  at  the  same  time  will 
get  nervous  and  excitable  stock.  But  a  worse  error  still  is  to 
put  a  horse  into  a  condition  of  flesh,  like  a  prize  pig,  in  order  to 
brag  of  how  much  he  weighs  and  to  keep  him,  without  exercise, 
in  the  close  confinement  of  a  box-stall,  until  he  becomes  moody, 
morose,  and  often  a  savage  brute.  Many  stallions  become  par- 
tially insane  under  the  common  treatment,  and  are  a  pest  to 
their  owners,  dangerous  to  their  grooms,  and  beget  vicious 
stock.  A  stallion  should  be  kept  in  good  health  and  moderate 
flesh.  His  box  should  be  where  he  can  have  the  company  of 
other  horses  or  in  sight  of  his  mares.  He  should  have  a  pad- 
dock to  run  in,  or  have  plenty  of  cut  grass  during  his  season. 
He  should  be  exercised  in  double  harness  or  under  the  saddle, 
accompanied  by  other  horses,  as  often  as  convenient.  His  exer- 
cise should  be  brisk  and  blood-stirring,  with  occasional  sharp 
work,  so  as  to  get  a  good  sweat.  Under  such  treatment,  a  stall- 
lion,  unless  he  is  naturally  a  vicious  brute,  will  be  as  cheerful 
and  pleasant  to  keep  as  any  mare  is." 

The  same  principles  of  handling  will  demand  that  draft- 
stallions  be  put  to  gentle  work  with  other  horses,  when  not  in 
the  service  of  the  stud. 

The  Two  Methods. — The  contrast  between  the  French 
and  American  systems  of  handling  stallions  is  great.  The 
French  stallion  is  taught  to  labor  at  two  years  old.  From  that 
on,  his  labor  is  sufficient  to  pay  for  his  keep.  lie  becomes  gen- 
tle, kind  and  as  safe  to  work  as  a  gelding.  He  does  not  become 
frantic  at  the  sight  of  a  gelding  or  mare,  or  vicious  and  furious 
in  the  presence  of  another  stallion,  as  do  our  unworked  and 
over-fed  stallions. 

Before  old  Louis  Napoleon  left  France,  when  a  three-year- 
old,  he  was  driven  by  a  lady  in  her  carriage.  His  gentleness 
and  docility  combined  in  such  wonderful  harmony  with  his  pow- 
erful action  and  proud  spirit  captivated  Mr.  Charles  Fellington, 
as  he  rode  behind  him  in  a  heavy  French  vehicle  at  a  slashing 
gait.  The  colts,  stallions,  and  mares,  are  handled  "  by  women 


576  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

and  children,  while  the  men  are  in  the  fields,"  says  a  French 
writer.  In  the  kind  handling  of  colts  and  stallions,  the  same 
writer  adds,  "  lies  the  secret  of  good  training  and  the  art  of 
uniting  in  the  horse  a  cool  and  calm  temper  with  a  decided 
character.  He  (the  farmer)  is  laborious,  and  loves  to  stir  the 
soil;  hence  his  practice  of  early-working  the  colts,  which  renders 
them  laborious  and  honest.  He  only  requires  of  them  work  in 
proportion  to  their  strength,  and  gives  them  good  nourishment." 

Care  of  Breeding  Mares. — Among  farmers  there  are  two 
extremes.  One  class  work  their  brood-mares  as  they  do  their 
mules  or  geldings,  and  expect  them  to  fill  the  place  in  the  team 
until  nature  calls  a  halt,  and  the  foal  must  be  cared  for;  and  in 
a  week's  time  after  the  foal  has  been  dropped  the  mare  is 
put  into  the  team  on  the  road,  or  in  the  furrow,  and  must  do 
the  work  of  her  mate  and  the  additional  duty  of  furnishing 
milk  for  the  colt  that  follows  her.  This  double  tax  on  the 
mare,  at  a  time  when  she  is  reduced  from  the  supreme  labor  of 
maternity,  must  work  ill  to  dam  and  colt,  thus  entailing  double 
loss  for  the  cruel  and  heartless  attempt  to  make  double  gains 
by  overtaxing  the  powers  of  the  mare. 

Effeminacy  comes  with  Idleness. — The  other  extreme 
is  that  of  keeping  mares  in  idleness,  confinement  in  heated  sta- 
bles, and  feeding  with  grain,  and  withholding  exercise,  sunlight, 
fresh  air,  and  the  grass  which  nature  has  provided  as  the  great 
corrective  of  the  system  of  animals  that  are  to  produce  young 
and  give  milk.  In  this  case  we  have  effeminacy  and  want  of 
vigor  in  dam  and  foal.  It  is 'important  that  the  mare  be  kept 
up  to  the  highest  condition  of  vigor  and  strength  by  judicious 
exercise  and  feeding.  These  must  be  given  regularly.  Ex- 
treme of  all  kinds  must  be  avoided.  Rapid  work  and  sudden 
shocks,  by  pulling  heavy  loads  over  rough  roads,  are  haz- 
ardous. 

Feed  and  Care  Important. — The  feed  should  be  liberal 
and  of  good  quality.  The  mare  in  foal  or  suckling  a  colt  is 
eating  to  support  two  lives,  not  one,  and  she  can  not  supply  food 
convenient  and  sufficient  for  her  growing  colt  unless  she  is  fed 
liberally  of  milk  and  force-producing  grains  and  grasses.  Heat- 


THE  HORSE— BREEDING.  577 

ing  food  in  great  quantities  does  not  furnish  strength  or  milk. 
In  the  winter  she  should  have  warm,  well  ventilated  quarters, 
free  from  the  vitiated  atmosphere  that  poisons  life  spent  in 
damp,  badly  kept  stables. 

From  forty-four  to  fifty-six  weeks  the  mare  may  carry  her 
foal,  and  in  all  this  time  the  system  is  gradually  preparing  for 
the  supreme  effort  of  her  life,  in  producing  another  of  her  kind. 
The  intelligent  man  should  see  that  her  condition  is  made  com- 
fortable and  her  food  wholesome  and  abundant.  The  mare  in 
foal  loves  quiet  and  freedom  from  the  annoyance  of  other 
horses.  When  her  time  is  near — say  two  to  four  weeks  before 
foaling — she  should  be  placed  in  a  box-stall,  or,  if  the  weather 
be  pleasant,  in  a  paddock  with  grass,  where  she  can  have  quiet 
and  move  about  at  will. 

How  to  Know  a  Mare  is  in  Foal. — If  the  mare  re- 
fuse to  t-ake  the  horse  a  second  or  third  time,  we  usually 
conclude  she  is  in  foal.  If  she  be  tried  on  the  eighth  or  ninth 
day  after  dropping  her  foal,  she  will  usually  take  the  horse, 
and  not  need  another  service.  If  on  the  twenty-first  day  she 
decline  to  take  the  horse,  the  conclusion  is,  generally,  that  she 
is  in  foal. 

But  we  may  notice  her  appearance,  and  know  from  this :  If 
she  be  "not  in  foal,  the  lips  of  the  vagina  will  be  moist,  bright, 
and  of  a  florid  appearance,"  says  the  Complete  Stock  Doctor, "  and 
with  a  fresh  drop  of  fluid  at  the  lower  part,  which,  being 
touched,  will  incline  to  extend.  If  she  be  gravid  (in  foal),  the 
surface  of  the  vagina  will  be  dry  and  of  a  dirty  brown  or  rusty 
color,  while  the  drop  that  was  before  clear  fluid  will  now  be 
dark  and  brown.  After  the  third  month,  the  belly  will  begin 
to  swell,  and  at  the  end  of  the  fifth  or  sixth  month  the  move- 
ments of  the  foetus  may  be  seen  by  watching;  or  by  standing 
the  mare  at  rest  and  pressing  up  sharply  in  the  flank,  with  the 
thumb  and  fore-finger  closed,  the  fretus  may  be  distinctly  felt 
by  the  rebound." 

The  Period  of  Gestation. — The  average  period  for  the 
mare  to  carry  her  foal  is  forty-four  weeks,  or  eleven  months. 
We  have  known  this  period  to  extend  frequently  to  fifty  weeks. 

37 


578  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Youatt  states  that  it  may  extend  from  thirty-nine  weeks  to  fifty 
weeks.  Thus  we  have  as  many  weeks  variation  in  time  as 
there  are  months  in  the  average  period,  or  about  eleven  weeks. 
A  French  observer  in  the  royal  stables  of  France  observed  five 
hundred  and  eighty-two  mares,  and  records  the  longest  period 
four  hundred  and  nineteen  days,  and  the  shortest  two  hundred 
and  eighty-seven  days,  with  an  average  of  three  hundred  and 
thirty  days.  M.  Gayot  observed  twenty-five  mares,  and  found 
the  average  three  hundred  and  forty- three  days.  The  longest 
period  was  three  hundred  and  sixty-seven  days,  and  the  short- 
est three  hundred  and  twenty-four  days.  As  a  rule,  small 
mares  carry  a  shorter  time  than  large  ones.  There  is  a  com- 
mon belief,  but  not  confirmed  by  scientific  observation,  that  the 
mare  carries  a  horse  colt  longer  than  one  of  the  female  sex. 

How  to  Know  Foaling  Time. — Many  trust  to  the  in- 
creasing size  of  the  udder,  but  as  this  begins  to  fill  and  enlarge 
from  one  to  three  months  before  the  colt  is  born,  it  is  not  defi- 
nite enough.  There  will  be  no  foal  dropped,  however,  if  the 
mare  be  in  a  normal  healthy  condition,  until  the  enlargement  of 
the  pelvis  begins,  which  is  shown  by  the  sinking  on  each  side  of 
the  spinal  column,  near  the  tail.  This  occurs  within  three  weeks 
of  foaling  time.  Nature  seems  to  be  absorbing  unnecessary  fat 
or  tissue  from  this  region,  and  relaxing  the  structure  and  en- 
larging the  region  of  the  pelvis,  preparatory  to  the  exit  of  the 
foal.  The  sinking  on  each  side  of  the  spinal  extension  contin- 
ues from  day  to  day,  as  the  time  approaches.  But  this  is  not 
sufficiently  definite.  It  is,  however,  a  sure  sign  that  the  time  is 
not  far  off,  and  the  careful  husbandman  will  not  now  tax  the 
strength  of  the  mare  by  heavy  or  rapid  work,  nor  take  her  far 
her  from  box-stall  or  paddock.  Her  nights  should  now  be  spent 
in  a  box-stall,  with  a  good  bedding  of  short  straw  a  foot  deep,  and 
with  no  cracks  or  openings  where  the  mare  or  the  colt  could 
become  entangled  or  caught.  The  sinking  of  the  haunches  is 
the  timely  warning.  Now  let  the  farmer  notice  closely  the 
udder,  and  when  it  fills,  and  there  appears  on  the  points  of  the 
teats  a  little  gummy  substance,  the  colt  will  follow  in  one,  or  at 
farthest,  two  days. 


•  THE  HORSE— BREEDING.  579 

Treatment  at  Foaling  Time. — The  mare,  left  to  herself 
in  a  roomy,  well-littered  box-stall,  will  do  better  than  to  have 
attendance  in  sight,  except  in  rare  cases  of  false  presentation, 
when  assistance  may  be  necessary  to  change  the  position  of  foal, 
or  even  to  use  mechanical  assistance.  But  these  cases  need  ex- 
perienced attention,  and  details  for  such  exceptional  cases  must 
be  sought  in  veterinary  works. 

The  stall  of  the  mare  and  foal  should  be  free  from  chilling 
winds  or  drafts,  as  nature  has  been  heavily  taxed,  and  the  ex- 
hausted system  of  the  mare  is  not  in  condition  to  resist  cold 
and  chills,  as  when  in  full  vigor.  The  Arab's  care  of  the 
newly-born  colt  is  suggestive.  So  attentive  are  tfyey  that 
they  do  not  allow  the  colt  to  touch  the  ground  before  they  be- 
gin to  rub  dry,  and  follow  with  rubbing  joints  and  muscles,  until 
they  have  moved  every  joint  and  produced  a  free  and  active 
circulation  in  every  part  of  the  form  and  muscle.  The  colt  is 
then  held  up  to  the  dam  to  suck,  and  from  that  time  onward  is 
the  pet  of  the  family  and  the  playmate  of  the  children,  as  is 
the  dog  on  the  farms  of  America.  The  mare  is  put  to  no  hard 
work  until  the  foal  is  able  to  do  without  her  milk. 

Oftentimes  the  foal  is  too  weak  to  stand  up.  In  such  case 
the  foal  should  be  wiped  dry  and  well  rubbed,  and  kept  out  of 
drafts  or  chilling  winds.  Warmth  is  essential  now.  As  soon  as 
it  is  rubbed  dry,  and  the  limbs  have  been  rubbed  well,  to  induce 
active  circulation,  hold  it  up  to  the  udder,  and  let  it  be  strength- 
ened by  nature's  supply  of  milk.  If  left  to  get  chilled  and 
nature  taxed,  and  left  unattended  or  unfed,  it  is  as  likely  to  die 
as  live.  In  order  to  have  the  colt  become  strong  and  vigorous 
and  well  developed,  it  must  be  well  fed  from  the  start,  and  it 
should  never  go  back  for  want  of  food  suited  to  its  condition. 

After  Foaling. — As  a  rule,  the  mare  should  do  no  work 
for  a  month  after  foaling,  but  the  farmer's  necessities  in  the 
spring-time  for  every  plow-animal  lead  him  to  put  the  mare  at 
work  sooner.  This  is  attended  with  great  risk.  There  is  special 
danger  of  fever  if  the  system  is  taxed  and  heated  and  chilled, 
as  too  often  follow  when  the  mare  is  put  to  plowing  in  the  chill- 
ing winds  of  springtime.  It  is  not  only  a  severe  and  cruel  tax 


580  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

on  a  noble  animal,  but  reduces  her  power  to  furnish  milk  to  het 
foal,  and  the  milk  is  neither  so  healthful  nor  abundant  as  it 
would  have  been  if  the  mare  had  rested  one  month.  The  full 
flow  of  milk  does  not  come  until  the  dam  has  wholly  recovered 
from  the  labor  of  giving  birth  to  her  young. 

Too  many  of  our  colts  raised  on  the  farm  are  stunted  at  the 
start  by  too  early  working  the  mare.  The  strength  of  mare  and 
foal  are  over-taxed,  and  the  supply  of  milk  reduced  and  injured 
in  quality,  while  the  labor  of  following  the  dam,  day  in  and  day 
out,  in  the  field  or  after  the  wagon,  makes  a  demand  for  more 
and  better  milk.  The  practice  of  working  mares  up  to  and  soon 
after  foaling-time  has  reduced  many  a  fine  colt  to  the  rank  and 
form  of  a  scrub  at  one  year  old.  A  colt  stunted  before  that  age 
never  recovers  from  it.  The  farmer  who  has  a  good  mare  and 
breeds  her  to  a  good  horse,  and  pays  from  twenty  to  fifty  or  one 
hundred  dollars  service  money,  can  not  afford  to  sink  the  chance 
of  his  colt's  growth  and  development  for  a  few  days'  work  of  the 
mare  when  she  is  weak. 

The  object  of  breeding  the  mare  is  a  good  colt.  The  time 
and  money  spent  to  secure  it  must  not  now  be  sacrificed  by  un- 
wise use  of  the  dam.  A  reasonable  care  now  that  the  dam  and 
foal  are  properly  fed  and  nourished,  will  save  loss  and  insure 
gain.  The  colt  must  be  fed  at  the  udder  of  the  dam,  and  she 
must  be  fed  generously  at  the  hand  of  the  owner,  to  keep  up 
her  strength  and  a  full  supply  of  wholesome  milk  for  the  colt. 
Once  overheating  of  the  mare  deranges  milk  secretions,  and  we 
soon  see  the  colt  showing  the  effects  in  his  dullness  or  staring 
coat,  or  diarrhoea. 

Care  and  Feeding  of  Colts. — Farmers  busy  with  their 
growing  and  ripened  crops,  from  May  to  December,  are  apt  to 
turn  the  mares  and  colts  off  to  shift  for  themselves.  Many 
mares  fail  to  give  enough  milk  to  properly  nourish  the  foal,  and 
it  becomes  stunted  and  makes  an  inferior  animal,  undersized  for 
any  useful  purpose,  and  it  is  a  scrub  of  little  value.  This  may 
be  avoided  generally  by  liberal  feed  of  the  dam  and  early  teach- 
ing the  foal  to  eat  with  the  dam.  If  the  box  or  trough  in  which 
the  mare  is  fed  be  on  the  ground,  or  set  so  low  as  that  the  colt 


THE  HORSE— BREEDING.  581 

can  eat  with  her,  it  will  soon  learn  to  share  the  oats  and  bran 
with  its  dam,  and  there  is  no  better  feed  for  each.  It  furnishes, 
with  grass,  the  elements  for  milk,  for  bones  and  fibre,  far  better 
than  corn  or  food  richer  in  starch. 

If  the  dam  is  a  very  poor  suckler,  as  many  mares  are,  the 
colt  will  soon  learn  to  drink  cow's  milk,  which  will  be  the  best 
feed  for  it.  Skim-milk  may  be  given,  but  it  should  be  supple- 
mented with  flax-seed  jelly  or  scalded  oil-cake  meal.  A  table- 
spoonful  night  and  morning  of  the  meal  will  be  enough  to  be- 
gin with.  It  may  be  increased  gradually,  until  by  the  time  a 
colt  is  six  months  old  it  will  be  the  better  for  a  pint  of  meal 
with  its  milk  and  grass.  The  large  breeds  of  colts  will  need 
more,  and  will  bear  two  pints  a  day.  A  better  plan,  however, 
is  to  teach  them  to  eat  with  the  dam  also,  and  furnish  the  colts 
bruised  oats  and  bran  in  addition.  Oats  and  wheat-bran  supply 
the  elements  for  forming  bone  and  fibre,  and  keep  the  bowels  in 
good  condition.  At  this  age  the  colt  will,  on  such  feed,  make 
strong  growth  of  bone  and  muscle  rather  than  fat. 

The  true  idea  of  raising  colts  is  not  to  see  how  little  they 
can  live  on,  but  how  much  healthful  growth  they  can  be  made 
to  make  for  the  food  consumed.  All  young  animals  will  pay 
more  for  the  food  consumed  than  the  older  ones,  if  growth  and 
uniform  development  and  not  fattening  is  the  object. 

Abortion. — After  three  months  and  up  to  the  fifth  month, 
abortion,  if  it  occur,  is  more  likely  than  at  any  other  time  dur- 
ing gestation.  As  a  prevention  the  mare  should  not  be  excited 
by  foul  smells,  nor  the  sight  of  blood  or  dying  animals,  nor 
frightened  so  as  to  greatly  excite  the  nervous  system. 

During  this  period  her  feed  should  be  increased  to  meet  the 
increased  demands  made  by  the  growing  fcetus,  and  its 
growth  is  now  rapid.  This  precaution  of  increased  feed  not 
only  prevents  a  weakening  of  the  mare,  which  of  itself  is  a  pro- 
voking cause,  but  it  keeps  up  her  vigor  and  strengthens  the 
coming  foal.  "  Good  feeding  and  moderate  exercise  at  this 
time  will  be  the  best  preventive  of  mishaps,"  says  Youatt.  He 
also  says  :  "  Mares  that  have  once  aborted  should  never  be  al- 
lowed with  other  mares,  between  the  fourth  and  fifth  months." 


582  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

He  asserts  that  "  such  is  the  power  of  imagination  and  sym- 
pathy" with  mares,  that  if  one  aborts  others  in  same  pasture 
are  likely  to  follow.  Fresh  air,  moderate  exercise,  and  freedom 
from  excessive  work  or  strains  are  among  the  preventives. 

The  mare  which  once  aborts  is  likely  to  do  so  again  about 
the  same  time  in  her  gestation,  unless  it  has  been  brought  on  by 
acute  disease,  or  she  has  been  cast  in  stall  or  strained.  A  pre- 
disposition once  established,  the  usefulness  of  the  mare  for  a 
breeder  is  about  ended. 

Age  to  Breed. —  THE  HEIFER. —  The  female,  as  a  general 
rule  may  be  bred  at  an  earlier  age  than  the  male.  Heifers  are 
kept  for  milk,  and  the  earlier  the  milking  habit  is  developed  the 
more  marked  it  will  become.  If  the  udder  be  distended  before 
the  full  development  of  the  animal,  the  organs  of  secretion  of 
milk  are  more  pliable  and  distend  more  readily.  As  the  milk- 
ing trait  gives  chief  value  to  the  family  cow,  she  should  not 
only  be  bred  early,  but  at  such  a  time  that  when  the  calf  comes 
the  weather  and  feed  available  will  be  favorable  to  the  largest  de- 
velopment of  milk.  Hence,  heifers  bred  from  July  to  Septem- 
ber come  fresh  when  they  may  have  the  benefit  of  a  long  sea- 
son at  grass  when  the  grasses  are  tender,  rich,  and  abundant. 
The  mild  weather,  too,  does  not  call  for  so  large  an  appropria- 
tion of  food  consumed  to  keep  up  heat  in  the  system. 

The  favoring  conditions  of  feed  and  weather  lead  to  the 
largest  possible  secretion  of  milk,  and  the  pliant,  elastic  condi- 
tion of  the  milk  glands  favor  the  highest  development  of  the 
powers  of  secretion.  But  the  tax  on  the  system,  it  is  urged  by 
some,  tends  to  check  growth,  and  the  animal  will  never  attain 
to  as  great  size.  If  beef  be  the  first  consideration,  then  the 
time  of  first  service  may  well  be  deferred  until  the  frame  and 
form  are  farther  developed.  Yet  it  is  at  the  expense  of  Hie  de- 
velopment of  udder,  and  milk  glands,  and  habit  of  full  and  large 
secretion  of  milk. 

If  the  young  heifer  be  liberally  fed,  the  size  will  not  be  so 
much  less,  as  the  yield  of  milk  is  the  greater.  The  care  and 
feed  go  farther  towards  giving  good  size  and  early  and  best  de- 
velopment, than  the  time  of  first  service.  The  heifer  that  lias 


THE  HORSE— BREEDING.  583 

been  well  kept  from  calf  to  heifer  is  large  enough  and  old 
enough  to  be  served  at  eighteen  months.  Some  of  the  best 
cows  we  have  ever  known  were  bred  at  fifteen  months  of  age. 
But  the  danger  of  check  in  growth  is  largely  obviated  by  the 
generous  and  rich  feed  always  at  hand,  when  the  greatest  strain 
is  made  on  the  system. 

As  the  male  is  to  be  valued  for  quality,  size  and  vigor,  these 
must  be  conserved  and  fostered  until  the  size  and  strength  and 
highest  vigor  are  attained.  Hence,  the  male  can  not  be  put  to 
service  so  young  as  the  female.  This  general  principle  applies 
to  all  males. 

The  Sow. — The  sow  intended  for  a  breeder  will  for  the 
same  reasons  given  above  prove  a  better  suckler  and  a  surer 
breeder  than  if  not  bred  until  her  size  and  form  have  matured. 
But,  in  breeding  swine,  we  have  first  of  all  things,  in  the  West 
especially,  to  look  to  the  vigor  and  health  of  progeny.  When 
the  animal  is  a  glutton,  and  the  supply  of  food  abundant,  and 
too  rich  in  starch  and  oil,  as  is  our  chief  feed,  corn,  we  may  well 
have  a  great  care  that  we  do  not  put  sows  to  breeding  until  their 
systems  are  well  developed.  Sows  farrowed  in  March  or  April 
may  safely  be  bred  to  farrow  their  first  litter  the  next  April  or 
May.  Sows  farrowed  in  the  fall  should  not  farrow  until  the  sec- 
ond spring.  By  this  arrangement  they  have  the  necessary  ma- 
turity and  strength,  and  the  pigs  come  at  a  season  when  the 
weather  is  mild,  and  grass  is  of  best  quality  and  abundant. 
The  pigs  attain  good  size  and  strength  before  the  flies  and  heat 
will  begin  to  annoy  and  tax  their  strength. 

The  Mare. — The  time  to  breed  the  mare  is  somewhat  gov- 
erned by  the  same  principles  above  enumerated.  The  horse  is 
bred  for  force  rather  than  fash,  or  milk  ;  hence,  the  first  thought 
should  be  to  ensure  the  highest  possible  conservation  of  vigor 
and  health  consistent  with  economy. 

The  mare  at  three  years  old,  if  properly  fed,  is  large  enough 
and  strong  enough  to  endure  the  tax  of  maternity.  Yet  her 
muscles,  tendons,  and  bones  are  not  so  firmly  fixed  as  to  endure 
hard  labor  without  injury.  She  can  be  handled  and  gentled  by 
moderate  use  only,  at  this  age.  Enough  of  such  use  may  be 


584  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

given  for  needed  exercise,  and  yet  not  to  tax,  but  rather 
strengthen  and  develop  her  powers. 

Like  the  heifer,  her  ability  to  give  milk  to  her  young,  and 
to  give  birth  to  it  with  least  tax,  are  important  factors  in  mak- 
ing up  her  value.  The  three-year-old  mare  can  safely  be  bred 
to  foal  in  the  spring  of  her  fourth  year.  Her  form  and  size 
and  strength  will  not  be  injured  thereby,  but  her  usefulness  as 
a  brood-mare  will  be  greatly  enhanced.  She  can  produce  a  colt 
of  high  vigor  and  power,  and  at  a  period  of  life  when  she  could 
not  properly  be  taxed  to  do  full  labor.  Economy,  then,  shows 
that  the  mare  can  well  be  put  to  breeding  at  three  years.  Her 
strength  is  not  over-taxed,  her  usefulness  not  diminished,  and 
her  distended  form,  after  the  foal  has  been  dropped,  will  resume 
her  normal  shape  more  quickly  than  if  not  distended  until  all  the 
frame  and  muscles  have  been  fixed  and  set,  and  growth  has 
ceased.  It  is  a  generally  accepted  truth  that  the  foal  of  a 
young  mare  is  of  more  value  than  of  one  that  is  old  or  on 
the  decline. 

Aged  Brood-mares. — Mares  usually  breed  quite  regularly 
until  they  are  sixteen  or  eighteen  years  old.  There  are  many 
cases  on  record  of  their  breeding  well  until  twenty-five  years. 
The  U.  S.  Veterinary  Journal  gives  a  case  where  the  mare  is 
estimated  to  be  between  thirty-seven  and  forty  years  old,  and 
has  a  yearling  by  her  side,  and  she  is  heavy  in  foal.  She  never 
was  known  to  be  sick;  her  teeth  are  sound,  and  she  eats  well. 
She  is  of  racing  blood,  sorrel  in  color,  and  has  white  points. 
She  was  owned  by  William  Rogers,  who  now  has  six  of  her 
colts  on  his  farm,  ranging  in  age  from  one  to  twelve  years. 

Sex — Can  it  be  Controlled? — From  earliest  times,  the 
question  of  controlling  the  sex  of  coining  offspring  has  been  a 
study,  and  there  have  always  been  those  who  claimed  it  was  a 
matter  subject  to  control  of  the  skillful  breeder. 

But  as  yet,  no  physiologist  h;is  been  so  skillful  as  to  find 
at  what  period  in  its  history  the  ovum,  from  the  time  it  left 
the  ovaries  of  the  mother,  met  the  spermatozoa  of  the  father, 
on  down  to  the  birth,  nor  has  been  able  to  note  the  influence 
which  gave  the  character  of  male  or  female  to  the  offspring. 


THE  HORSE— BREEDING.  685 

It  is  one  of  the  many  mysteries  of  generation,  which  has  wisely 
been  concealed  from  man. 

It  was  at  earliest  date  assumed  that  the  male  had  two  tes- 
ticles, and  the  female  two  ovaries,  and  that  somehow  the  two 
sexes  had  a  relation  to  these  dual  organisms.  It  was  next  as- 
sumed that  the  right  testicle  and  the  right  ovary  were  the  pro- 
ducers of  males,  and  the  female  came  from  the  left  testicle  and 
left  ovary.  Physiologists  and  farmers  long  since  proved  the 
folly  of  these  assumptions.  Men  and  lower  animals  having  but 
one  testicle,  and  women  and  female  animals  with  but  one  ovary 
have  produced  young  of  both  sexes,  and  with  the  same  regu- 
larity, as  to  sex,  as  when  possessed  of  both  organisms 
complete. 

The  Country  Gentleman,  some  years  ago,  published  the 
theory  of  Professor  Thury,  of  Geneva,  claiming  that  "  the 
sex  depends  upon  the  degree  of  maturity  of  the  egg  at  the 
moment  of  fecundation,"  the  less  mature  producing  a  female; 
the  more  mature,  a  male. 

In  accordance  with  this  theory,  the  belief  is  common  among 
breeders  that  a  female  animal,  served  by  the  male  during  the 
first  half  of  the  period  of  heat,  would  give  a  female  or  a  ma- 
jority of  females;  and  served  later  in  the  heat,  would  produce 
a  male,  or  a  majority  of  males.  This  has  been  proven  a  failure, 
after  a  long  line  of  years  of  close  observation. 

There  is  an  important  physiological  fact  overlooked  in  this 
theory.  It  is  this :  Fecundation  is  the  result  of  the  ovum  of 
of  the  female  coming  into  contact  with  the  spermatozoa  of  the 
male.  Now,  as  this  union  or  contact  does  not  necessarily  oc- 
cur at  time  of  copulation,  the  theory  must  fail  as  often  as  this 
union  fails.  Dalton's  Physiology  has  shown  that  the  period 
when  the  ovum  escapes  from  the  ovary  is  uncertain.  Caste  has 
shown  that  it  may  escape  early  or  late  in  the  period  of  heat. 
In  experiments  with  dogs  and  rabbits,  it  is  shown  that  several 
days  may  elapse  after  copulation  before  the  ovum  comes  in  con- 
tact with  the  spermatozoa,  if  at  all. 

Naturalists  are  now  investigating  the  plausible  theory  that 
sex  is  determined  by  the  activity  of  the  processes  of  nutrition. 


586  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Mrs.  Mary  Treat,  in  her  study  of  insects,  has  shown,  of  butter- 
flies, that,  "if  the  larvae  be  not  well  fed  before  going  into  the 
chrysalis  state,  the  perfect  insects  developed  from  them  are 
males ;  but  if  the  larvae  are  abundantly  fed,  the  perfect  in- 
sects are  females." 

Dzirerzon,  in  his  study  of  bees,  has  shown  that  the  females 
come  from  the  eggs  of  the  queen  which  have  been  fertilized  by 
impregnation,  and  the  unimpregnated  eggs  produce  males.  The 
bee  men  understand  that  if  a  swarm  lose  its  queen,  a  new  queen 
can  be  produced  from  working-larvae,  provided  their  cells  be  en- 
larged, and  the  larvae  therein  be  supplied  with  appropriate  food. 
Incredible  as  this  may  seem,  it  is  so  well  established  th;it  even 
Baron  Berlepsch  says,  "it  is  nevertheless  true."  Mr.  Knight 
has  shown,  in  regard  to  some  plants,  that  he  can  regulate  the 
production  of  male  or  female  blossoms  by  regulating  the  heat 
and  light.  "If  heat  be,  comparatively  with  the  quantity  of 
light  which  the  plant  receives,  excessive,  then  male  flowers  only 
appear."  From  such  and  similar  facts,  Miles  says,  "  It  may  be 
that  the  determination  of  sex  depends  upon  a  number  of  con- 
ditions that  are  all  intimately  connected  with  the  function  of 
nutrition." 

The  Stuyvesant  theory,  which  has  been  so  widely  published, 
is  based  on  two  assumptions,  and  only  assumptions.  The  first 
is,  "  The  sex  of  the  offspring  depends  entirely  upon  the  female ;" 
and  the  second  is,  "  Every  alternate  egg  is  of  the  same  sex."  If 
the  last  colt  or  calf  was  a  female,  and  a  male  was  desired  next 
time,  then  the  dam  must  be  served  by  the  male  the  first  time 
she  comes  in  heat.  If  she  fails  to  conceive  then,  she  must  go 
again  the  third  heat,  or  fifth,  and  so  on.  The  long  line  of  ex- 
periments on  this  theory  have  not  established  it.  The  condition 
of  the  female  at  time  of  service  seems  to  be  an  important  fea- 
ture, not  only  in  the  matter  of  producing  the  best  animal,  but, 
if  the  theory  of  nutrition  affecting  the  ovum  have  force,  then 
the  breeder  may  well  pursue  his  studies  further  along  that  line, 
and  note  carefully  the  results. 

It  is  held  by  many  that  young  heifers  and  young  mares  bred 
to  vigorous  males  drop  a  larger  per  cent  of  males.  On  the 


THE  HORSE— BREEDING.  587 

other  hand,  older  cows  in  their  full  vigor  have  produced  a  larger 
per  cent  of  females.  The  facts  collected  at  the  Agricultural 
College  at  Grignon  and  at  the  Agricultural  Institute  of  Hohen- 
heim  point  that  way.  Fluet  says,  "  If  you  put  a  cow  that  has 
recently  calved,  while  still  rather  feeble,  to  a  vigorous  bull,  the 
product  will  almost  invariably  be  a  male." 

To  breeders  of  high-bred  animals,  the  solution  of  this  yet  un- 
solved problem  is  one  of  vast  importance.  If  we  could  control 
the  sex  with  any  degree  of  surety  or  safety,  we  could  realize 
greater  profits  from  our  ability  to  meet  the  demands  of  trade. 
Among  Jersey  cattle,  for  example,  we  should  desire  only  enough 
males  to  keep  up  the  stock,  and  would  have  heifer  calves,  whose 
average  value  will  ever  be  more  than  ten-fold  that  of  the  average 
bull  calf.  Owners  of  breeding  establishments  usually  prefer  the 
foal  to  be  a  female,  especially  if  production  of  a  favorite  family 
be  desired.  It  is  certain  that,  as  yet,  science  has  no  solution  of 
this  question,  about  which  many  superficial  observers  have 
claimed  to  have  a  certain  rule  by  which  they  can  control  the  sex 
of  coming  colts. 

Importance  of  First  Impregnation. — The  influence  of 
the  male  upon  the  female  is  so  marked  and  far-reaching  that  we 
may  profitably  consider  the  importance  of  the  first  impregnation. 
This  influence  is  not  limited  to  the  offspring  of  the  first  sire,  but 
to  the  young  begotten  by  sires  years  afterwards  on  the  same  fe- 
male. This  paradoxical  statement  is  supported  by  so  many  un- 
equivocal cases  of  mares,  cows,  ewes,  and  sows  that  its  discus- 
sion must  be  of  value  to  all  breeders  of  good  stock. 

We  can  not  take  the  space  to  cite  a  fraction  of  the  many  re- 
corded instances  in  proof.  In  1815,  a  seven-eighths  Arabian 
mare,  chestnut,  belonging  to  Earl  of  Morton,  was  covered  by  a 
quagga,  a  species  of  zebra.  The  foal  resembled  the  sire  in  color 
and  markings.  The  same  seven-eights  Arabian  mare  was  after- 
wards twice  bred  to  a  black  Arabian  stallion  owned  by  Sir  Gore 
Ousley.  The  two  colts  by  the  black  Arabian  "  were  partially 
dun  colored  and  were  striped  on  the  legs  more  plainly  than  the 
real  hybrid  or  even  than  the  quagga,"  says  Darwin.  The  same 
distinguished  authority  adds :  "  One  of  the  colts  had  its  neck  and 


588  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

some  other  parts  of  its  body  plainly  marked  with  stripes.  Stripes 
on  the  body,  not  to  mention  those  on  the  legs,  are  extremely 
rare  with  horses  of  all  kinds  in  Europe,  and  are  almost  unknown 
in  the  case  of  Arabians."  But  the  case  is  made  more  striking 
by  the  fact  that  the  hair  of  mane  on  these  colts  was  short,  stiff, 
and  upright,  like  that  of  the  quagga.  Darwin  says  "  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  quagga  affected  the  character  of  the  off- 
spring subsequently  begot  by  the  black  Arabian  horse." 

A  mare  once  bred  to  a  jack  and  afterwards  bred  to  a  horse 
is  believed  to  be  so  influenced  by  the  impregnation  from  the 
jack  as  to  affect  the  character  of  future  colts  of  hers  gotten  by 
stallions.  Dr.  Burgess,  of  Denham,  Mass.,  says :  "  From  a  mare 
which  had  once  been  served  by  a  jack,  I  have  seen  a  colt  so 
long-eared,  sharp-backed,  and  rat-tailed  that  I  stopped  a  second 
time  to  see  if  it  were  not  a  mule."  "Alexander  Morrison,  of 
Bognie,"  says  Miles,  "had  a  fine  Clydesdale  mare,  which  in 
1843  was  served  by  a  Spanish  ass  and  produced  a  mule.  She 
afterwards  had  a  colt  by  a  horse  which  bore  a  marked  likeness 
to  a  mule ;  seen  at  a  distance,  every  one  set  it  down  at  once  as 
a  mule."  Many  more  similar  cases  can  be  cited  to  show  that 
the  impression  made  on  the  mare  is  not  confined  to  the  first 
foal,  but  affects  future  foals. 

The  lesson  is  clear.  The  owner  of  a  high-bred  mare  can  not 
afford  to  endanger  her  usefulness  in  the  stud  by  allowing  her  ever 
to  go  to  an  inferior  horse  or  jack.  The  veterinary  surgeon  to  her 
majesty  states  that  several  mares  in  the  royal  stud  at  Hampton 
Court  had  foals  in  one  year  by  Acteon,  but  which  had  the  mark- 
ings of  Colonel,  the  horse  to  which  the  mares  had  all  been  bred 
the  year  previous.  Colonel  had  a  white  hind  fetlock  and  a  stripe 
in  the  face,  and  Acteon  was  perfectly  free  from  white.  George 
T.  Allman,  of  Tennessee,  says  :  "  I  bred  a  bay  mare,  black 
points,  to  Watson,  a  son  of  Lexington,  who  is  a  golden  chest- 
nut, large  star,  both  hind  and  near  front  ankles  white.  After 
dropping  her  foal  I  bred  the  same  mare  to  my  saddle-stallion, 
Prince  Pulaski,  a  very  dark  chestnut,  no  white  save  a  very 
small  star;  this  produce  was  a  fac-simile  of  Watson  in  every 
particular" 


THE  HORSE— BREEDING.  589 

Miles  gives  instances  where  calves  show  like  influences  by 
previous  bulls.  A  pure  Aberdeenshire  heifer  was  served  with 
a  Teeswater  bull  and  had  a  first-cross  calf.  The  following 
season  she  had  a  calf  by  a  pure  Aberdeenshire  bull,  which 
calf  at  two  years  old  had  long  horns,  the  parents  being  both 
hornless. 

This  mvsterious  influence  is  not  confined  to  horses  and  cattle. 

•/ 

as  we  see  by  the  following,  and  many  other  similar  facts  that 
could  be  adduced. 

Drs.  Miles  and  Shank,  of  Lansing,  Mich.,  saw  a  litter  of 
pigs,  got  by  a  pure  Berkshire  boar  out  of  a  pure  Berkshire  sow. 
More  than  half  the  pigs  were  apparently  Poland-China  in  the 
form  of  the  head,  and  their  bodies  were  spotted  with  sandy- 
white.  The  owner  told  them  the  sow,  had  been  bred  the  year 
before  to  a  Poland-China  boar,  and  had  by  him  a  litter  of  pigs 
that  were  marked  as  Poland-Chinas.  Dr.  Miles  knew  the  Berk- 
shire sow  to  be  a  pure  bred  sow  and  her  stock  had  never  before 
shown  any  variations  from  the  pure  Berkshire  type. 

Of  sheep  and  dogs  and  chickens,  we  could  give  like  strik- 
ing examples,  but  we  think  enough  have  been  given  to  show 
breeders  of  pure  stock  that  they  can  not  afford  to  cross  their 
females  with  any  but  pure  bred  males  of  good  color  and  form, 
for  the  impress  made  on  the  females  does  not  end  with  the  pro- 
duce of  that  cross. 

So  sensitive  is  the  female  to  the  influences  of  the  males 
while  in  heat,  that  even  the  association  with  other  animals  of 
different  markings  or  breeding  have  been  known  to  affect  the  off- 
spring of  the  female.  Mr.  Mustard,  of  Angus,  in  Scotland,  had 
a  cow  that  came  in  heat  while  in  a  pasture  adjoining  one  in 
which  a  horned  ox  with  black  and  white  spots  was  grazing.  He 
broke  into  the  pasture  where  the  polled  Angus  cow  was  and 
stayed  with  her  until  the  cow  was  brought  home  to  the  bull. 
The  cow  and  the  bull  that  served  her,  as  were  all  the  cattle  on 
the  farm  of  Mr.  Mustard,  were  hornless  and  black,  but  the  calf 
of  the  cow  that  was  in  company  with  the  horned  black  and  white 
ox  was  marked  like  the  ox,  and  had  horns.  This,  with  many  like 
cases,  shows  that  the  mental  impressions  received  at  the  time 


590  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

of  heat  are  deep  and  lasting,  and  oftentimes  sufficient  to  stamp 
the  progeny.  Chicken  fanciers,  who  breed  to  a  feather,  can 
fill  a  volume  with  instances  where  their  best  bred  fowls  have 
been  injured  by  associating  with  ill  marked  or  strange  breeds 

Farmers,  who  would  attain  high  excellence  in  their  stock, 
and  poultry,  will  see  to  it  that  no  such  adverse  influences  as  ill- 
bred  crosses  or  mongrel  associates  be  allowed  with  their  stock. 

Valuable  Hints. — Dr.  A.  S.  Heath,  president  of  the  Farm- 
ers' Club  of  the  American  Institute,  New  York,  has  given  some 
principles  and  facts  of  such  great  value,  that  we  reproduce  some 
of  them  : 

"  The  structures  of  animals  are  especially  adapted  to  their 
demands  arid  natures,  and  vice  versa.  A  special  aptitude  to 
fatten  is  incompatible  with  ample  milk  production,  in  the  race 
of  bovines ;  and  excessive  weight  of  body  and  shortness  of 
limbs  in  the  horse  or  hog  is  not  suggestive  of  fleetness.  Varia- 
tion is  observed  in  the  readiness  of  animals  to  adapt  themselves 
to  new  conditions,  and  the  changes  it  produces  in  them,  and 
especially  by  hereditary  transmission  to  their  offspring. 

"  Cold,  exposure,  and  neglect  produce  degeneration,  while  care, 
shelter,  and  liberal  feeding  improve  existing  animals  and  their 
expectant  offspring.  These  good  results  may  also  be  freely  trans- 
mitted to  the  progeny.  Climate  modifies  both  animals  and  plants. 
In  tropical  climates,  with  rich  soil,  many  of  our  small  grasses  attain 
gigantic  growth ;  and  in  great  altitudes,  with  poor  soil,  both  plants 
and  animals  are  dwarfed.  By  judicious  breeding,  care,  kindness, 
and  liberal  feeding,  all  the  animals  and  their  products  become 
better.  Milk  is  richer,  meat  is  finer,  beef  and  mutton  more 
tender  and  juicy,  the  very  soil  becomes  fat,  and  the  tiller 
grows  richer  and  richer.  Generosity  to  man,  beast,  and  soil  is 
profitable. 

"  Breeding  animals  must  be  healthy,  free  from  defects  of  form, 
free  from  defects  of  constitution,  free  from  predisposition  to  disease 
or  weakness,  free  from  ill  temper  or  bad  habits,  must  have  sound 
digestive  organs,  and  they  must  be  capable  of  promptly  and  per- 
fectly assimilating  food.  The  breeder  must  intimately  know  the 
capabilities  and  characteristics  of  his  breeding  animals,  so  as  to 


THE  HORSE— BREEDING.  591 

be  able  to  adapt  them  to  rear  young,  which  shall  answer  his 
preconceived  wants.  He  must  know  that,  all  other  things  being 
equal,  both  parents  equally  exert  the  same  amount  of  influence 
on  their  progeny.  This  presupposes  the  equal  health,  vigor,  and 
stamina  of  both  parents.  Both  should  therefore  be  as  pure- 
blooded  and  perfect  as  possible. 

"Because  it  has  been  recommended  that  the  male  animal 
should  be  most  highly  bred,  some  have  attributed  to  him  the 
greater  potential  share  in  the  procreation.  This  is  only  true 
because  he  is  the  parent  of  many  annually,  while  the  female  is 
the  parent  of  one,  or  of  only  a  few  during  the  same  time. 

"Though  food,  climate,  soil,  altitude,  exposure,  shelter,  care, 
kindness,  and  other  operating  circumstances  may  all  produce 
great  changes,  yet,  all  operating  at  the  same  time,  and  for  a  long 
time,  on  the  animal  and  its  progeny  can  not  change  the  species. 
By  selection,  we,  in  time,  breed  small-boned  into  large-boned 
ones,  long-legged  ones  into  short-legged  ones;  we  can  breed 
horned  into  hornless,  and  light-bodied  one§  into  heavy-bodied 
animals.  In  a  word,  by  selection,  the  breeder  can  make  the  black 
white,  the  white  black,  the  fruitful  barren,  the  deformed  straight, 
the  perfect  imperfect,  the  imperfect  perfect;  he  can  breed  to  a 
feather ;  he  can  produce  a  tendency  to  meat,  to  milk,  to  butter,  to 
cheese,  to  capacity  for  labor,  for  speed,  for  endurance,  or  to  serve 
almost  any  reasonable  desire,  demand,  or  fancy.  By  breeding  from 
carefully  selected  parents,  the  breeder  can  rapidly  increase  his 
flocks  and  herds,  by  choosing  those  of  great  fecundity  from  which 
to  breed — ewes  from  families  that  yean  twins,  cows  that  uniformly 
breed,  sows  that  farrow  large  numbers  of  pigs — and  it  is  just  as 
essential  that  the  males,  also,  should  be  selected  from  like  pro- 
lific families  and  dams." 

The  terms  "natural  selection,"  "the  struggle  for  existence," 
and  the  "survival  of  the  fittest,"  have  been  freely  used  by 
Darwin  and  others  to  convey  the  idea  of  nature  and  her  methods 
to  perpetuate  her  creatures.  The  wise  breeder  takes  advantage 
of  nature  and  methods  to  perpetuate  the  excellences  which  his 
acumen  and  judgment  in  the  selection  have  secured  for  the  art 
of  breeding.  There  are  many  things  to  be  constantly  borne  in 


592  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

mind  by  the  breeder ;  the  laws  of  variation,  correlation,  atavism, 
to  the  effect  of  climatic  and  telluric  influences,  care,  kindness, 
feeding,  and  many  other  circumstances  favorable  or  unfavorable 
to  the  modeling  of  form,  to  the  production  of  animal  products, 
to  the  perfection  and  perpetuation  of  desirable  qualities,  and  the 
judgment,  sagacity,  and  indomitable  perseverance  of  the  breeder 
must  often  be  taxed  to  the  utmost  limit  of  human  tolerance. 

Though  pure-bred  animals  are  most  desirable  to  breed  from, 
yet  in  the  great  herds  of  the  West  there  are  few  pure-blooded 
females  to  produce  the  vast  herds  and  flocks  imperatively  de- 
manded. We  must  therefore  select  the  purest  male  animals  to 
cross  on  our  common  females ;  and  upon  our  best  females  of  the 
first  produce  to  breed  up  by  the  use  of  the  same  male,  or  one 
of  like  purity  of  blood.  In-and-in  breeding  need  not  be  feared 
if  the  selection  be  judicious,  and  the  process  be  not  too  long 
continued.  But  the  mistake  too  often  committed  in  careless, 
thoughtless  breeding  is,  the  use  of  grade  males.  Grade  females 
are  indispensable  in  extensive  breeding ;  but  a  breeder  had  bet- 
ter mortgage  his  farm,  if  need  be,  to  secure  pure-bred  male 
stock-animals,  than  to  use  unreliable  grades  that  can  not  trans- 
mit with  any  degree  of  certainty  the  good  qualities  they  may 
possess,  and  one  too  apt  to  transmit  defects.  If  size  is  desired, 
as  a  general  rule,  breed  from  mature  animals.  But  for  milk 
production,  in  all  animals,  early  breeding  is  most  essential. 
Cows  are  not  profitable  after  eight  or  nine  years  of  age,  for  any 
purpose,  unless  they  be  of  extraordinary  excellence.  Ewes 
cease  to  be  at  their  best  at  the  same  age  as  cows,  though,  if 
highly  bred  and  valuable,  they  may  still  be  further  bred.  Mares 
have  brought  forth  the  most  valuable  foals  between  the  ages  of 
four  and  fifteen  years. 

Low,  rich,  succulent  pastures  are  best  suited  for  large,  heavy 
animals;  small,  active  animals  to  high,  thin,  dry  pastures.  Lux- 
urious feeding  diminishes  hardiness.  Low,  wet,  pastures  pro- 
duce big,  coarse  bones,  and  large,  flat  feet  in  horses.  In  the 
wild  state  the  strongest  males  only  beget  offspring. 

Improvement  in  breeding  goes  step  by  step  to  the  highest 
point  of  excellence.  "  Prof.  Tonner  has  shown  that  the  lungs 


THE  HORSE— BREEDING.  593 

and  liver  of  highly  improved   breeds  .are    considerably  smaller 
than  in  those  animals  at  perfect  liberty." 

The  farmer  or  breeder  who  by  intelligence  and  skill  adds  to 
the  value  of  his  live-stock  ranks  among  the  public  benefactors 
and  creators  of  wealth.  There  should  be  no  rivalry  between 
the  farmer  and  the  breeder.  Their  interests  are  one  and  insep- 
arable. The  farmer  seeks  the  animal  that  will  produce  the 
quickest  and  largest  returns.  It  is  the  breeder's  business  to 

produce  such  an  animal. 

38 


594  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


III. 

THE  HORSE— BUYINQ  AND  SELLING. 

WHY  Difficult. — From  the  earliest  writings  on  the  horse 
down  to  the  present,  writers  have  recognized  the  gener- 
ally acceded  fact  that  but  few  men  understand  the  na- 
ture and  construction  of  the  horse  so  thoroughly  as  to  enable 
them  at  all  times  to  know  his  value  with  enough  accuracy  to 
buy  with  sure  confidence. 

Xenophon  attempted  to  tell  his  readers  "how  a  man  may 
be  least  deceived  in  purchasing  a  horse."  No  writer  has  been 
able  yet  to  tell  how  a  man  may  never  be  deceived  in  buying  a 
a  horse.  There  is  no  article  which  men  buy  and  sell  that  is  so 
complicated  in  all  its  mechanism,  and  no  animal  whose  tempera- 
ment and  intelligence  and  good  training  are  of  so  much  impor- 
tance in  giving  value  to  it.  Appearances  are  deceitful  in  inani- 
mate articles  of  trade,  but  how  vastly  more  unknowable  are  the 
mysteries  of  organization,  breeding,  and  training  of  this  noblest 
of  all  dumb  animals.  The  Romans  had  a  motto,  "  Let  him  who 
is  about  to  buy  a  horse  beware."  Moderns  may  well  adopt  it. 
It  is  not  possible  to  give  rules  so  complete  that  the  average 
buyer  will  be  enabled  at  all  times  to  buy  wisely.  We  hope, 
however,  to  offer  hints  that  may  be  helpful  to  all  who  may  need 
to  buy  a  horse. 

What  is  Unsoundness?  —  Professor  Coleman  has  said, 
"Any  deviation  from  nature  is  an  unsoundness."  In  a  general 
way,  this  is  true.  Yet,  for  the  purposes  of  the  buyer,  it  is  not 
strictly  true.  If  this  rule  is  to  be  drawn  closely,* no  horse  that 
has  been  kept  at  work  regularly,  however  light  the  work  mny 
be,  until  he  is  eight  or  ten  years  old,  can  be  called  sound.  Tho 
mouth,  the  shoulders,  the  joints  of  the  limbs,  will  all  show  the 


THE  HORSE-BUYING  AND  SELLING.  595 

effects  of  use,  as  will  the  hands  of  the  artisan  or  day  laborer. 
Yet  who  will  say  the  calloused  hand  or  toughened  mouth  is 
evidence  of  unsoundness  ?  The  hand  and  arm  and  foot  of  the 
day  laborer  are  enlarged  unnaturally  when  compared  with  those 
of  the  man  who  lives  at  ease  arid  in  idleness.  The  mouth, 
shoulders,  and  limbs  of  the  colt  which  has  done  no  labor  may 
be  in  a  natural  state,  but  after  a  few  years'  work  they  will  not 
be  so.  The  chances  are,  too,  that  if  the  young  horse  has  been 
well  handled,  this  very  "  deviation  from  nature  "  will  add  to  the 
value  of  the  horse  as  a  laboring  animal. 

The  rule  must,  then,  be  taken  with  rensonable  limitations. 
Like  many  of  the  terse  apothegms  of  our  language,  it  may  some- 
times serve  as  the  edge-tools  of  speech  to  cut  the  knots  of  diffi- 
culty. For  this  use  it  is  retained  by  courts,  and  too  often  ap- 
plied by  judges  that  know  too  little  of  the  wonderful  nature  of 
the  horse  to  always  so  wisely  apply  the  principles  of  law  as  to 
meet  the  ends  of  justice.  It  behooves  the  buyer,  then,  to  "be- 
ware," and  use  diligence  to  understand  the  defects  and  ailments, 
or  "  deviations  from  nature,"  that  are  common  to  horse-flesh. 

Warranty. — A  warranty  may  be  general  or  particular  and 
limited.  A  general  warranty  does  not  extend  to  defects  which 
are  known  to  the  buyer,  or  readily  discovered.  High  authority 
says  that  a  warranty  is  not  implied  simply  because  a  full  or 
sound  price  is  paid.  The  old  rule,  caveat  emptor  (let  the  buyer 
take  care),  prevents  this.  But  this  rule  never  applies  to  a  fraud. 
Mere  silence  of  the  seller  is  not  construed  as  a  fraud.  Affir- 
mations of  quality,  made  to  secure  a  sale,  may  be  regarded  as  a 
warranty.  In  England  the  seller  said  to  buyer,  "You  may  de- 
pend upon  it,  the  horse  is  perfectly  quiet  and  free  from  vice ;" 
this  was  held  to  be  a  warranty  that  the  horse  was  quiet  and 
free  from  vice. 

If  a  horse  is  ordered  from  a  dealer  for  a  special  purpose  and 
does  not  fit  that  purpose  it  may  be  returned;  or  if  damages 
follow,  it  has  been  held  that  the  seller  is  responsible.  It  makes 
a  difference  if  the  buyer  selects;  he  then  takes  the  risk.  If  a 
man  says  to  another,  "  Sell  me  a  horse  fit  to  carry  me,"  and 
the  latter  sells  him  a  horse  which  he  knows  is  unfit  to  ride,  he 


696  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

will  be  liable  for  the  consequences;  but  if  the  buyer  says,  "  Sell 
me  that  grey  horse  to  ride,"  and  the  seller  knows  at  the  time 
the  buyer  will  not  be  able  to  ride  it,  that  would  not  make  the 
seller  liable.  Had  he  said,  "  Sell  me  that  grey  horse  if  he  is  fit 
to  ride,"  and  the  seller  sold  it  knowing  he  was  not  fit,  he  would 
be  liable. 

The  warranty  commonly  given  is  in  the  form  of  a  receipt : 

Received  of  A.  B.  dollars   for  bay  gelding,  warranted  only  seven 

years  old,  sound,  free  from  vice,  and  kind  to  work. 

Signed,  Seller 

The  word  warranted  is  limited  to  things  named  in  receipt.; 
and  the  qualities  desired  or  bought  should  be  named  in  the  war- 
ranty. This  warranty  covers  every  unsoundness  that  can  be 
detected  or  lurks  in  the  constitution  at  time  of  sale,  and  to 
every  vicious  habit  that  the  animal  had  hitherto  shown.  To 
recover  or  return,  it  is  incumbent  on  the  buyer  to  prove  the 
animal  unsound  and  viciously  disposed  at  time  of  sale. 

The  Definition  of  Unsoundness  given  by  Youatt  is 
more  extended  than  that  of  Professor  Colernan,  and  we  close 
this  subject  with  it:  "The  horse  is  sound  in  which  there  is  no 
disease,  nor  any  alteration  of  structure  in  any  part  which  im- 
pairs or  is  likely  to  impair  his  natural  usefulness.  That  horse 
is  unsound  that  labors  under  disease,  or  that  has  some  altera- 
tion of  structure  that  does  interfere,  or  is  likely  to  interfere, 
with  his  natural  usefulness.  The  term  natural  usefulness  must 
be  borne  in  mind. 

"  One  horse  may  possess  great  speed,  but  is  soon  knocked 
up ;  another  will  work  all  day,  but  can  not  get  beyond  a  snail's 
pace;  one  with  a  heavy  forehead  is  liable  to  stumble,  and  is 
continually  putting  to  hazard  the  neck  of  the  rider;  another, 
with  an  irritable  constitution  and  washy  make,  loses  his  appe- 
tite and  begins  to  scour  if  a  little  extra  work  is  exacted  from 
him.  The  term  unsoundness  can  not  be  applied  to  any  of 
these;  it  would  be  opening  far  too  wide  a  door  to  disputation 
and  endless  wrangling.  The  buyer  can  discern,  or  ought  to 
know,  whether  the  form  of  the  horse  is  that  which  will  render 
him  likely  to  suit  his  purpose,  and  he  should  try  him  sufficiently 


THE  HORSE— BUYING  AND  SELLING.  597 

to  ascertain  his  natural  strength,  endurance,  and  manner  of  going. 
Unsoundness,  we  repeat,  has  reference  only  to  disease  or  to 
that  alteration  of  structure  which  is  connected  with  or  will  pro- 
duce disease,  and  lessen  the  usefulness  of  the  animal." 

Vices  and  Disabilities. — Any  thing  that  lessens  the 
horse's  power  to  labor  detracts  from  his  value.  There  are  some 
things  which  offend  the  eye  only,  but  do  not  lessen  the  power  to 
work.  A  rat  tail  offends  the  eye,  but  does  not  injure  the  horse 
for  work.  For  a  horse-power  or  bark-mill  a  blind  horse  may  do 
better  than  one  with  good  eyes;  but  for  general  work  or  driv- 
ing, blindness  or  weak  eyes  may  be  named  as  a  serious  disa- 
bility. A  lame  horse  is  useless;  a  vicious  horse  is  dangerous. 
The  tail  carried  to  one  side,  or  the  tongue  lolled,  may  not  offend 
one  buyer  or  injure  the  animal  for  labor,  but  detract  from  value, 
so  it  is  difficult  to  sell  him.  We  may  name  a  few  vices  and 
disabilities  the  buyer  must  avoid. 

RESTIVENESS. — This  comes  from  bad  handling  and  from  a  too 
eager  disposition.  It  tells  of  a  nervousness  or  impatience  that 
develops  easily  into  a  multitude  of  vices,  such  as  rearing,  back- 
ing, bolting,  balking,  and  even  viciousness  in  shoeing,  when 
badly  handled.  The  restive  horse  is  easy  to  be  made  an  invet- 
erate balker.  It  is  difficult  to  cure  when  it  becomes  a  con- 
firmed vice.  Gentleness  and  patient  firmness  of  the  trainer 
must  cure  and  prevent.  Many  an  ambitious  horse  is  ever  ready 
to  start,  unless  he  has  been  taught  never  to  start  until  the  word 
is  given.  It  is  easy  to  train  the  average  horse  not  to  start  until 
the  lines  are  drawn  and  the  word  given.  Horses  are  usually 
less  to  blame  than  the  drivers  for  the  habit  of  starting  too  soon. 

BITING  is  evidence  usually  of  a  cross  disposition.  Yet  many 
horses  have  acquired  it  from  the  vile  and  inexcusable  habit  of 
boys  and  grooms  teasing  them. 

KICKING  is  a  vice  that  is  intolerable,  and  difficult  to  prevent 
in  some  strains  of  horses.  Too  often,  however,  it  is  the  result 
of  carelessness  in  allowing  the  habit  to  become  confirmed.  The 
fact  that  the  young  horse  kicks  when  first  put  in  harness 
should  not  discourage  the  trainer,  but  lead  to  great  care  to  pre- 
vent its  repetition,  for  it  is  a  habit  easily  confirmed. 


598 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


RUNNING  AWAY  is  a  vice  sel<lom  cured.  It  is  difficult  to  de- 
tect by  the  buyer.  The  habit  once  confirmed  is  incurable. 

SHYING  is  a  vice  that  may  come  from  nervousness,  or  defect 
of  vision.  Near-sightedness  is  a  common  cause. 

CRIB-BITING  AND  WIND-SUCKING  may  or  may  not  be  classed  as 
a  vice.  We  deem  it  an  unsoundness.  It  surely  is  an  objection- 
able habit,  and  detracts  from  value. 

CUTTING  OR  INTERFERING  may  not  be  called  vices,  rather  disa- 
bilities, which  disfigure  and  detract  from  usefulness. 

OVER-REACHING  OR  FORGING,  AND  CATCHING  OR  STRIKING  the  front 
shoe  with  the  hind  foot  is  more  serious,  and  attended  with  so 
much  danger  to  horse  and  rider  that  it  may  well  be  classed  as 
a  vice.  Young  horses,  shod  heavier  in  front,  and  heads  reined 
up  well,  may  outgrow  the  latter,  but  the  old  horse  is  hopeless. 

PAWING,  when  in  harness,  at  the  hitching-post.  or  in  the 
stable,  indicates  a  restless  disposition.  It  is  a  serious  defect, 
and  often  is  a  vice. 

SLIPPING  THE  BRIDLE  OR  HALTER  is  a  vice  attended  with 
danger,  and  is  incurable.  A  strap  that  passes  around  the  neck 
is  the  safest  hitch  for  such  horses. 

PULLING  AT  THE  HALTER  is  a  vice.     It  can  be  cured  and  pre- 

v e  n  ted.  The 
method  of  curing 
by  passing  a  rope 
under  the  tail  is 
here  illustrated. 

SPEEDY  CUT,  in- 
terfering, broken 
knees,  stumbling, 
all  tell  of  defec- 
t  i  v  e  formation, 
and  the  marks 
are  generally  in  sight  to  tell  the  buyer  of  the  habit  and 
weakness. 

STUMBLING  argues  an  imperfect  formation  or  a  weakness, 
which  may  be  natural,  or  arise  from  a  strain  or  injury.  It  is  a 
disability,  which  by  bad  usage  and  punishment  may  become  a  vice- 


IIOIJSK  PULLING   AT  THE  HALTER. 


THK  HOUSE— BUYING  AND  SELLING.  599 

ROARING  AND  WHEEZING  show  an  alteration  of  structure  in  air 
passages,  arising  from  disease  or  injury.  Such  alteration  in- 
terferes with  perfect  freedom  in  breathing,  and  constitutes 
unsoundness. 

THICKNESS  OF  WIND  argues  disease,  weakness,  or  over-exer- 
tion. It  may  be  detected  by  placing  the  ear  beside  the  wind- 
pipe, after  putting  a  horse  to  his  speed.  It  is  a  safe  thing  to 
test  every  horse  in  this  way. 

COUGH  argues  irritation  of  throat,  or  lungs,  and  may  be 
classed  an  unsoundness. 

HEAVES  AND  BROKEN  WIND  argue  unsoundness.  When  once 
begun  it  usually  increases.  Heaves  are  caused  by  over-exer- 
tion or  bad  feeding.  Dusty  hay  provokes  it. 

Long,  fast,  driving  against  a  strong  wind  immensely  distends 
the  air  ceils,  and  irritates  and  even  ruptures  lung  tissue.  Hav- 
ing the  stomach  much  distended  by  heavy  feeding  provokes  the 
disease,  preventing  free  action  of  the  lungs.  Heaves  and  thick 
wind  may  be  alleviated,  but  not  cured.  Light  hay -feeding,  and 
change  of  climate  are  most  beneficial. 

The  Eyes. — The  buyer  can  not  inspect  the  eyes  too  care- 
fully. The  horse  with  perfect  eyes,  it  is  said,  never  shies,  un- 
less badly  handled.  The  diseases  of  the  horse's  eye  are  not 
numerous,  but  occult.  A  good,  clear  light  from  above  is  best  for 
inspection  of  the  eyes,  as  from  a  sky-light.  With  the  horse 
directly  under  it,  with  no  light  from  any  other  source,  the  eye 
may  be  examined  so  clearly  as  to  show  every  defect.  The  next 
best  light  is  to  put  the  head  of  the  horse  at  a  stable  door,  look- 
ing out.  The  buyer,  then,  by  standing  to  one  side,  within 
doors,  can  inspect  one  eye  at  a  time.  Then  stand  before  the 
horse  and  look  through  both  eyes  into  the  stable.  Because  one 
eye  is  perfect  does  not  necessarily  argue  the  other  is  equally 
good.  Any  derangement  of  the  eye  is  considered  an  un- 
soundness. 

WHITE  OF  EYES. — The  eye  which  shows  much  white  at  the 
front  corner  that  is  nearer  to  the  nose  indicates  usually  a 
hasty,  nervous  temper,  and  if  the  animal  be  used  roughly,  will 
develop  a  violent  nature.  Occasionally  an  eye  with  an  unusually 


600  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

small  iris,  may  show  much  white,  and  yet  the  animal  have  a 
mild  temper,  but  in  such  a  case  the  expression  will  be  entirely 
different  from  that  of  the  former.  One  has  an  expression  of 
mildness  and  confidence,  while  the  other  expresses  rage 
or  fear. 

The  Feet. — "  No  foot,  no  horse,"  is  an  old  maxim  telling 
concisely  the  value  of  the  foot  to  the  animal,  whose  value  de- 

* 

pends  so  much  on  its  ability  to  move  freely  and  long. 

Because  contraction  of  the  hoof  is  so  common  among  horses 
confined  to  stable  floors  and  hard  roads,  and  maltreated  by  far- 
riers and  blacksmiths  and  grooms,  the  buyer  of  small  experi- 
ence jumps  at  the  conclusion  that  a  large  foot  is  better  than  a 
small  one. 

A  naturally  small  foot  on  man  or  horse  does  not  argue 
unsoundness  or  weakness  any  more  than  that  because  the 
man  or  horse  has  an  uncommonly  large  foot  he  is  uncommonly 
strong  or  powerful. 

The  small  foot  may  be  more  perfect  than  the  large  one. 
The  inside  of  the  foot  may  be  injured  by  the  contraction  of  the 
horny  shell,  caused  by  heat  or  dryness  of  the  stable,  and  inflam- 
mation aggravated  bv  stimulating  food. 

«/ 

The  horse  reared  on  the  softest  and  wettest  ground,  would 
have  large,  flat  feet,  liable  to  injury  and  disease,  when  taken  to 
hard  roads  and  dry  stable  floors.  The  horses  reared  on  dry, 
hard,  and  stony  plains,  like  the  Arabians,  would  have  compact, 
hard  feet,  that  do  not  so  easily  suffer  by  a  change  to  the  sta- 
bles and  streets  of  cities.  Soundness  or  unsoundness  can  not 
be  predicated  from  the  size  of  the  foot  alone.  The  form  tells 
more  than  size  as  to  the  value  of  the  foot.  The  medium  size, 
with  a  uniform  structure  of  bone,  not  heavy  in  front  or  too  thin 
on  the  side,  or  wanting  at  the  heel,  is  the  most  desirable.  The 
flat  foot,  with  a  convex  sole,  and  low  heel,  may  be  sound,  but  is 
liable  to  give  way  under  hard  usage. 

THE  PUMICE  SOLE,  lower  in  the  middle  than  at  the  sides,  is  to 
be  shunned.  The  thousand  laminae  in  the  foot  that  act  as 
springs  to  ease  the  shock  are  weakened  and  the  coffin  bone  is 
let  down  and  presses  on  the  sole,  and  as  there  are  no  means 


THE  HORSE- n  U  YING  A  ND  SEL  LING.          601 

for  lifting   it  back   and    keeping    it    there,    the    animal    never 
will  be  sound. 

LAMENESS,  from  foot  or  any  other  cause,  is  an  unsound  ness. 

SAND-CRACK,  QUARTER-CRACK,  AND  CORNS,  may  each  be  classed 
as  an  unsoundness. 

THRUSH  is  an  unsoundness  too  common  among  farmers' 
horses.  It  tells  of  want  of  cleanliness  in  the  stalls,  and  neg- 
lect. It  may  first  be  detected  at  the  cleft  of  the  frog.  It  is  a 
diseased  condition  of  the  secretives,  and  can  be  detected  by  the 
smell  as  well  as  by  the  sight.  If  the  frog  is  not  too  much  in- 
volved it  is  easily  cured,  and  the  buyer  will  need  experience  to 
know  the  extent  of  injury  done  by  its  presence. 

CONTRACTION  is  not  necessarily  an  unsoundness,  but  care 
should  be  taken  to  ascertain  that  there  is  no  heat  about  the 
quarter;  that  the  frog,  though  diminished  in  size,  is  not  dis- 
eased ;  that  the  horse  does  not  step  short,  and  favor  its  feet  as 
if  tender.  The  slightest  lameness  proclaims  an  unsoundness  in 
such  case. 

The  Limbs. — RING-BONES  are  situated  above  the  hoof.  This 
disease  is  an  ossification  of  the  cartileges  at  the  top  of  the 
coronet.  Until  it  is  seen  approaching  the  heels,  the  flexibility 
of  the  cartilege  is  not  lost.  Although  it  often  spreads  slowly, 
and  the  horse  is  able  to  do  slow  work,  yet  there  is  always  a 
tendency  to  spread,  and  the  animal  must  be  pronounced  un- 
sound. 

SPLENT,  OR  SPLINT. — If  it  is  not  near  a  joint,  and  does  not 
press  on  any  ligament  or  tendon,  it  may  not  be  the  cause  of 
unsoundness.  The  location  of  it  is  to  decide  its  character. 

BROKEN  KNEES,  if  healed,  may  not  be  an  unsoundness.  They 
are  a  warning,  however,  to  the  buyer  to  look  well  at  the  foun- 
dation of  the  leg,  and  see  if  the  fore  quarters  and  hind  are  in 
proportion,  and  the  action  straight  and  true.  The  high,  thin 
withers  tell  nothing  here.  The  deep,  sloping  shoulder,  thick  at 
the  point  next  the  back,  is  better  than  the  tall  withers  and  up- 
right shoulder.  The  best  of  horses  may  fall,  with  bad  rider  or 
driver.  The  cut  knee  is  hardly  enough  to  condemn  him  if  his 
form  and  action  are  good. 


602  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

CAPPED  HOCKS  may  be  occasioned  by  lying  on  an  uneven 
floor,  with  scant  bedding,  or  by  kicking.  If  from  the  latter,  it 
tells  of  a  vice.  A  special  warranty  is  advisable. 

CURB,  OR  CORB,  is  an  unsoundness  while  swelling  remains. 
It  is  a  hard  bony  enlargement  at  the  back  of  and  on  lower  part 
of  the  hock.  "Whether  a  curbed  horse  is  sound  or  unsound,  is 
a  matter  of  dispute,"  says  Howden.  If  large  enough  to  be 
readily  seen,  they  are  blemishes.  While  they  are  forming,  and 
come  from  strain,  kicking,  or  blows,  the  horse  is  lame  and  un- 
sound. The  curby  leg  is  an  offense  to  the  eye,  but  no  evidence 
of  weakness.  A  curb  may  be  sprung  suddenly,  and  a  buyer 
will  have  difficulty  in  returning  an  animal  on  plea  of  curb. 

CUTTING. — The  speedy  cut  is  seen  on  the  inside,  and  on  hind 
edge,  and  lower  corner  of  the  knee.  It  is  occasioned  by  a 
weakness,  or  awkwardness,  or  working  beyond  the  normal  ca- 
pacity. When  the  horse  can  not  travel  at  ordinary  gait  with 
an  average  driver  without  cutting,  he  is  to  be  rejected. 

SPAVIN. — Whether  bog,  bony,  or  blood  spavin,  is  an  unsound- 
ness.  This  is  an  enlargement  on  the  inside  and  rather  toward  the 
front  of  the  hock.  It  is  produced  by  an  over-exertion.  Bog 
spavin  is  a  wind-gall  on  the  inside  front  of  the  hock  joint.  Af- 
ter the  heat  and  inflammation  are  gone,  it  is  of  minor  conse- 
quence. Blood  spavin  is  the  enlargement  of  the  thigh  vein, 
where  it  passes  over  the  inside  of  the  hock.  It  never  produces 
lameness,  but  it  always  offends  the  eye.  It  may  be  produced 
in  an  instant,  by  a  severe  strain  or  bruise.  When  an  enlarge- 
ment of  the  joint  is  produced,  there  is  commonly  a  lameness  at 
starting.  Some  call  it  then  bone-spavin. 

THOROUGHPINS  are  a  wind-gall  in  the  hock.  They  are  quite 
common  among  horses  that  have  done  much  work.  Unless  they 
cause  lameness,  the  horse  is  considered  sound. 

WINDGALLS  are  situated  at  the  bottom  of  the  cannon  bone 
on  each  side  of  the  leg,  at  the  union  of  the  two  bones,  just 
above  the  pastern  joint.  They  are  soft,  and  seldom  cause  any 
inconvenience.  They  are  evidence  the  animal  has  done  work. 
They  usually  disappear  with  age,  or  when  horses  are  long 
rested,  or  lightly  worked.  They  are  not  evidence  of  unsoundness. 


THE  HORSE— BUYING  AND  SELLING.  603 

STRINGHALT  is  readily  detected  by  the  awkward  jerk  or 
catch  of  the  leg.  It  is  usually  supposed  to  arise  from  inflam- 
mation of  the  sciatic  nerve,  or  an  excess  of  energy.  It  may 
increase  to  an  unsoundness,  and  while  it  usually  detracts  very 
little  from  the  usefulness  of  the  animal,  it  injures  the  sale  greatly. 

GREASE,  OR  SCRATCHES,  like  cracked  heels,  usually  is  caused 
by  bad  grooming,  or  neglect  in  filthy  stables  and  yards,  attended 
with  grass  feeding,  and  want  of  regular  exercise.  They  argue  a 
low  state  of  the  system.  When  long  neglected,  they  become 
obstinate,  and  some  horses  of  a  sluggish  nature  bike  on  the  ail- 
ment every  spring  or  winter.  In  case  of  long  standing,  it  is  an 
unsoundness.  If  of  recent  appearance,  it  can  be  easily  cured, 
and  then  the  animal  is  ranked  sound. 

SWOLLEN  LEGS  argue  a  tendency  to  dropsy  and  farcy,  and  is  a 
sure  sign  of  debility.  They  are  difficult  to  cure,  and  horses 
long  afflicted  with  this  are  useless  for  any  but  slow  work. 
Mild  forms  of  it,  called  "  stocking,"  appear  from  long  standing 
still.  Young  horses  are  more  subject  to  it  from  this  cause 
than  old  ones.  Hence  the  young  horse  should  be  allowed  the 
freedom  of  a  box-stall  or  yard  when  not  in  use.  It  is  a  symp- 
tom of  weakness,  and,  in  mild  form,  disappears  with  exercise. 

ELEPHANTIASIS  OR  LYMPHANGITIS  is  kindred  to  stocking,  but 
an  aggravated  form  of  long  standing.  It  is  a  species  of  surfeit, 
showing  plethora.  It  usually  appears  in  one  hind  leg,  sometimes 
in  both.  It  may  develop  by  the  horse  standing  from  Saturday 
to  Monday,  when  the  animal  is  fat  and  surfeited.  The  lym- 
phatic glands  of  the  leg  become  inflamed  and  weak,  unable  to 
perform  their  functions,  and  the  fluid  oozes  through  or  infiltrates 
the  cellular  tissue  and  makes  the  leg  like  that  of  the  elephant. 
No  cure. 

ENLARGED  JOINTS  are  most  common  among  horses  running  in 
the  meadows,  or  those  used  for  hunters.  When  the  enlargement 
is  free  from  heat,  and  has  become  hard  and  does  not  interfere 
with  the  action  and  capacity  for  work,  the  horse  may  be  con- 
sidered sound.  The  enlargement  is  a  blemish.  If,  however, 
the  joint  becomes  feverish  from  hard  exercise,  it  is  an  un- 
soundness. 


604  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

OVER  REACHING  is  catching  the  toe  of  the  hind  shoe  against 
the  heel  or  shoe  of  the  fore-foot,  injuring  the  foot  or  straining 
the  limb,  and  endangering  the  rider.  It  is  a  vile  habit  which 
jockies  and  farriers  tell  you  shoeing  will  correct.  Until  shoe- 
ing, and  boots,  and  pads  make  over  the  anatomy  of  the  over- 
readier,  this  fault  will  exist  with  danger. 

FORGING  is  a  clicking  of  the  hind  and  fore  shoes  when  trot- 
ting. The  point  of  the  hind  shoe  may  touch  the  heel  of  the  fore 
shoe,  but  usually  it  strikes  the  web  of  the  fore  shoe  when  the 
foot  is  clear  of  the  ground,  and  the  bottom  presented  to  the 
hind  one.  This  is  called  also  "  clicking,"  "  shovel  and  tongs," 
"poker  and  tongs,"  and,  like  over-reaching,  shows  a  defect  in 
formation.  The  belly  is  usually  too  short  for  the  back,  or  the 
back  is  long  in  proportion  to  the  belly,  or  the  body  is  short 
and  legs  long.  The  clicking  of  untrained  colts  may  not  be 
classed  an  unsoundness  unless  the  form  is  such  as  to  indicate  it 
will  be  a  habit  that  training  will  not  correct. 

If  the  proportions  of  back,  belly,  and  limbs  are  reasonably 
good,  and  the  young  horse  clicks  on  a  jog,  we  have  found  he 
usually  abandons  it  after  a  few  weeks  driving.  It  is  not  then 
safe  to  class  it  as  unsoundness. 

DAISY  CUTTING  or  abnormally  low  action  tells  of  tender  feet, 
strained  muscles,  or  need  of  rest  at  pasture.  It  may  be  classed 
unsoundness  until  corrected  by  rest. 

CLAMBERING  is  an  abnormally  high  action,  too  high  for  prac- 
tical or  easy  work,  but  is  not  an  unsoundness. 

KNEE-SPRUNG  though  not  a  disease  in  itself,  is  the  effect  of 
a  disease.  When  legs  are  good,  the  center  of  gravity  passes 
through  the  center  of  the  limbs  and  touches  at  the  heels.  The 
sprung  knee  may  be  from  defect  in  formation,  or  from  sprains 
of  the  metatarsal  or  suspensory  ligaments;  long  continued  sore- 
ness in  the  feet,  shins,  joints,  etc. 

CALF-KNEE  OR  CALF-LEGGED  is  a  weakness  or  defective  forma- 
tion where  the  knee  falls  back  of  the  line  of  gravity.  The  leys 
of  sound  horses  are  straight  from  the  elbow  to  the  fetlock.  Any  de- 
viation from  that  detracts  from  value.  The  greater  the  devia- 
tion the  less  the  value  of  the  animal. 


THE  HORSE— BUYING  AND  SELLING.  605 

COCKED  ANKLE,  like  knee-sprung,  is  a  mark  of  previous  injury, 
or  ocular  evidence  of  local  weakness.  It  is  known  by  the  ankle- 
joint  being  thrown  forward  like  a  knuckle,  and  for  this  reason 
it  is  sometimes  called  knuckling.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases 
it  is  only  a  symptom.  The  cause  will  be  found  in  the  feet  gen- 
erally, or  in  sprains  of  suspensory  ligaments,  or  tendon  passing 
over  the  fetlock. 

SWEENY  is  a  wasting  of  the  muscles  of  the  shoulder-blade. 
It  is  usually  caused  by  a  bruise  from  a  bad-fitting  collar,  or  at 
heavy  loads,  or  plowing,  or  having  the  head  pulled  to  one  side 
by  wide  checks  or  a  jockey-stick.  The  farmers'  colts  are  more 
liable  to  it  than  any  others,  because  of  faulty  collars,  want  of 
care  in  having  the  young  horse  comfortable  and  well-arranged 
in  his  harness,  and  in  the  wagon  or  plow.  The  head  should 
always  be  in  a  line  with  the  spinal-column  when  plowing  or  pull- 
ing. Any  deviation  from  this  for  any  length  of  time,  overtaxes 
the  muscles  and  causes  a  weakness,  manifested  in  a  shrinking 
of  the  same.  Rest  will  usually  restore  the  muscle.  If  allowed 
to  run  on  without  rest  or  treatment,  it  becomes  chronic,  and  ex- 
tends to  the  leg  and  affects  the  heads  of  bones,  and  permanent 
lameness  results.  Not  all  shoulder-lameness  is  sweeny.  In  fact, 
sweeny  is  rather  exceptional. 

UNNERVING. — There  is  an  operation  performed  for  navicular 
disease  and  ailments  of  the  lower  limbs,  known  as  nervotomy, 
or  unnerving.  Its  purpose  is  to  deaden  sensibility  to  pain  and 
prevent  limping,  or  it  may  be  performed  to  give  higher  action 
and  a  harder,  heavy  step.  The  buyer  can  easily  discover 
whether  the  operation  has  been  performed  if  he  will  pass  the 
finger  and  thumb  along  the  back  sinew,  and  notice  if  the  horse 
catches  up  the  foot  sharply  as  the  fingers  press  on  two  little 
knobs  or  lumps.  Now,  if  the  little  scars  over  these  lumps  be 
pressed  and  the  horse  jerks  up  the  leg  suddenly,  he  may  safely 
conclude  nervotomy  has  been  performed.  How  long  the  horse 
will  work  after  this  operation  is  all  chance.  He  may  work  free 
from  pain  for  years.  In  some  cases  it  is  a  humane  act  to  un- 
nerve, as  it  may  save  pain  and  enable  the  horse  to  be  useful. 

Howden  tells  of  a  mare  used  in  the  coach-line  between  Car- 


606  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

lisle  and  Glasgow,  which  had  been  unnerved  for  the  navicular 
disease.  "  One  dark  night,  about  three  months  after  the  oper- 
ation, the  coachman  felt  her  drop,  but  she  recovered  herself  and 
ran  to  the  end  of  the  stage.  She  was  then  discovered  to  bo 
very  lame,"  and  it  was  found  the  whole  foot  was  off,  which,  the 
next  morning,  was  found  two  miles  back,  and  the  courageous 
animal  had  made  that  distance  on  the  stump  of  her  leg." 

The  pluck  and  courage  of  the  horse  excels  that  of  any  other 
animal.  He  will  drop  dead  in  the  struggle  for  victory,  but 
never  flinch,  though  his  leg  be  broken  or  he  feels  the  sword  or 
bayonet  pierce  his  body.  His  patient  endurance  invites  the 
cruelty  of  hard-hearted  men,  and  makes  him  the  victim  of  un- 
told sufferings,  because  of  an  owner's  recklessness  or  caprice,  or 
love  of  display  and  victory. 

The  Back  and  Body. — CHINKED  BACK  is  an  injury  of  the 
vertebral  column,  caused  by  over-weighting  or  sudden  pulling 
up  when  the  head  is  high.  It  comes  on  instantly  and  makes 
the  horse  unsound,  though  he  may  long  continue  to  work. 
When  he  drops  on  the  pastern  of  hind  legs  when  mounted,  or 
grunts  or  winces  under  pressure  of  the  affected  part,  there  is 
suspicion  of  the  injury.  Knuckling  of  the  pastern-joint  may 
come  from  this  injury. 

HIPPED,  OR  LOW  HIP,  is  a  term  applied  where  one  hip  has  been 
knocked  down.  It  is  a  fracture,  and  the  broken  part  is  drawn 
down  by  contraction  of  the  muscles,  and  unites  below  its  original 
place.  As  soon  as  it  is  healed  within,  the  horse  ceases  to  go 
lame,  and  is  considered  sound,  though  blemished. 

SADDLE  GALLS,  arise  from  injuries  by  the  saddle.  The  galls 
under  the  gag-rein  hook  are  akin  to  these,  and  alike  painful  and 
difficult  to  permanently  remove.  The  cause  must  be  removed, 
or  continued  use  will  result  in 

SIT  FASTS,  which  are  large  calloused  tumor-like  lumps.  Any 
treatment  but  cutting  them  out  is  almost  useless. 

SADDLE-BACK,  CHADLE-BACK,  sway -back,  or  any  deviation  below 
the  line  of  a  level  broad  back,  detracts  from  value,  as  all  those 
depressed  backs  lack  the  support  of  a  well  formed  vertebrae, 
and  bear  a  weight  at  mechanical  disadvantage. 


THE  HORSE— BUYING  AND  SELLING.  607 

ROACH-BACK  is  the  reverse  of  the  sway-back,  yet  like  it  is  a 
deviation  from  the  normal  line  of  strength,  and  lessens  power  or 
strength.  It  is  often  produced  by  causing  colts  or  young  horses 
to  draw  too  heavy  loads.  When  the  back  is  weakened  it  becomes 
an  unsoundness.  The  short,  level,  broad  back,  filling  up  well 
back  of  the  shoulder  and  between  the  hips  may  be  taken  as  the 
ideal,  and  departures  from  it  avoided. 

LONG  WAIST  is  a  horseman's  term,  used  when  the  animal  is 
long  between  the  last  rib  and  haunch  bone.  It  is  apt  to  be 
associated  with  a  light  loin,  a  narrow  loin.  Long  waist,  narrow 
hips,  all  tell  of  weakness,  and  generally  go  together. 

HIGH  HIPS,  are  unsightly,  and  usually  owe  their  prominence 
to  the  narrow  and  poorly  developed  loin.  High  hipped  horses 
are  usually  long  waisted.  Horses  possessing  these  marks  are 
washy,  easily  "  gaunted,"  or  thrown  off  their  feed  by  a  hard  task, 
and  easily  purge  on  a  journey.  Large  hips  of  themselves  give 
great  leverage,  and  if  with  them  the  loins  are  full,  and  the  ani- 
mal "  well  ribbed  up,"  the  wide  hips  give  great  power. 

LARGE  BARREL,  or  middle  piece.  A  good  large  barrel-shaped 
middle  piece,  with  the  broad  hips  and  full  loin  and  level  back, 
complete  the  points  that  show  powers  of  endurance  and  vitality. 
POT-BELLIED,  is  a  term  applied  to  the  animal  abnormally  large 
in  the  barrel.  It  tells  of  grossness,  sluggishness,  and  lack  of 
endurance  and  pluck.  It  may  be  a  good  point  in  a  milch  cow, 
but  is  wholly  unbecoming  an  animal  whose  value  arises  from 
action  and  endurance. 

HERRING-GUTTED  is  the  opposite  of  the  large  round  barrel, 
and  is  indicative  of  the  nervous,  irritable  disposition  that  comes 
along  with  poor  digestion  or  improper  assimilation  of  food.  It  is 
akin  to  the  narrow  chest  and  slab-side.  All  tell  of  defect  in 
strength,  temper  and  endurance,  as  no  animal  defective  in  lung 
and  digestive  power  can  be  of  the  best  form  and  temper  and 
quality.  In  the  horse  as  the  human,  temper  and  power  to 
endure  arise  largely  from  the  character  of  lungs  and  stomach, 
as  well  as  from  the  head  and  heart. 

General  Hints  to  Purchasers. — Experience  and  a  prac- 
ticed eye  can  only  enable  one  to  be  a  skillful  buyer.  The 


608  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

inexperienced  lacks  a  correct  idea  of  the  animal  suited  to  his 
business.  In  fact,  he  does  not  know  a  good  horse  when  he  sees 
it.  He  is  as  likely  to  buy  a  diseased  horse  as  a  sound  one.  If 
he  needs  one  for  his  plow  or  cart,  he  may  buy  an  upheaded, 
long  backed,  nervous  brute,  wholly  unfit  for  his  use.  The  first 
thing,  is  to  know  what  you  want.  This  necessitates  considera- 
tion of  size,  form,  make,  power,  endurance,  temperament,  dispo- 
sition, and  avoidance  of  defects  and  disabilities  named  before. 

Notice  first  the  head,  the  eye — its  expression,  form,  color 
and  condition.  By  the  head  and  eye  you  are  to  judge  of  the 
temperament  and  disposition  and  qualities.  This  word  qualities 
means  much ;  of  its  full  import  and  value  you  can  not  tell  with- 
out extended  trial. 

If  the  buyer  is  not  acquainted  with  the  horse  and  owner, 
and  has  little  or  no  experience  in  buying,  he  will  fare  better  to 
employ  an  expert  to  buy  for  him.  The  faults,  defects,  and 
vices  of  horses  and  men  are  so  numerous,  and  sellers  are  so 
artful  in  covering  up,  that  even  the  shrewdest  and  most  experi- 
enced buyers  are  deceived  at  times. 

If  the  head  and  eyes  are  satisfactory,  next  scrutinize  the 
legs  and  feet.  See  that  the  legs  are  not  too  long,  that  they  are 
set  under  the  horse  properly,  that  the  fore  legs  are  straight  from 
elbow  to  pastern,  well  muscled,  knee  broad  and  well  articulated ; 
that  they  are  short  between  the  knee  and  pastern,  flat,  clean, 
bony,  sinuous,  and  muscles  strong  and  well  defined.  If  the 
muscles  are  properly  developed,  stand  boldly  out  from  the  bone, 
and  are  free  from  fattiness,  they  can  be  traced  by  the  eye.  The 
hind  leg  must  not  be  crooked,  the  hock  must  be  deep,  clean,  and 
strong.  The  horse  must  stand  squarely,  on  four  legs,  and 
equally,  and  they  must  not  be  stretched  too  far  apart  or 
gathered  too  much  under  him.  Notice  if  the  limbs  are  clean, 
free  from  bunches  or  lumps.  After  the  eye,  pass  the  half  closed 
hand  down  each  leg,  carefully,  with  moderate  pressure,  to  learn 
if  there  are  bunches  or  scars  or  splint  or  windgalls  concealed  by 
hair.  Give  special  care  to  the  hocks,  for  spavins,  curbs  and 
thorough  pin,  which  disfigure  and  depreciate,  though  they  may  not 
hinder  usefulness.  If  at  any  lump  or  enlargement  there  is  sore- 


THE  HORSE— BUYING  AND  SELLING.  609 

ness,  reject  that  animal.  Next  lift  each  foot,  and  feel  around 
coronet  for  ringbone.  Notice  shape  of  foot,  then  the  sides  for 
quarter  crack.  See  that  the  heel  is  broad,  and  the  horny 
case  sets  squarely  and  does  not  turn  under  on  the  ground  or 
shoe.  Look  at  the  frog  for  thrush ;  see  that  frog  is  full  and 
sound,  and  the  hollow  of  the  foot  is  arching  and  not  depressed. 
A  white  foot  is  never  as  tough  as  a  black  one.  The  horse 
with  split  or  flat-foot  will  never  be  fit  for  other  than  slow  work. 
The  feet  with  high  and  narrow  heels  are  said  to  be  more  liable 
to  founder  and  contraction.  "  No  foot,  no  horse,"  is  true. 

Next  look  at  the  body.  If  the  ribs  are  round,  back  short, 
loin  broad  and  full,  and  wind  good,  he  will  be  useful.  Test 
his  wind  by  causing  him  to  trot  or  run  sharply  a  hundred  rods 
and  return,  and  then  let  him  stand  still.  Notice  closely  his 
breathing.  If  he  takes  at  once,  on  stopping,  a  long  breath  or 
two  and  breathes  easily,  without  any  appearance  of  inconven- 
ience or  distress,  his  wind  will  do.  Sometimes  by  placing  the 
ear  at  side  of  the  wind-pipe  or  lungs,  one  can  detect  if  there  is 
any  irritation  there.  Heaves  or  broken-wind  can  not  be  too 
carefully  guarded  against.  A  cough,  or  the  enlargement  of  the 
gland  below  the  ear,  must  be  watched.  They  are  precursors 
of  evil. 

Now,  have  the  horse  moved  past  you  on  level  ground. 
Stand  where  you  can  have  a  good  view  of  him.  Notice  the  action 
of  the  fore-legs,  that  the  joint  at  the  shoulder  plays  freely,  that 
the  feet  are  not  raised  too  high  and  that  he  throws  his  feet  out 
boldly,  and  is  not  cautious  about  throwing  his  weight  on  them. 
If  he  takes  mincing  steps  and  seems  constrained  in  the  use  of 
his  limbs  pass  him  by.  If  possible,  see  the  horse  moved  after  a 
long  rest.  Many  horses  a  little  stiff  in  the  shoulder  will  not 
show  it  if  they  have  been  warmed  up  by  exercise. 

By  this  time  you  have  some  idea  of  his  style  and  appear- 
ance, but  you  will  do  well  to  take  your  position  in  front  of 
him  and  have  him  trot  toward  you  and  directly  from  you.  You 
can  then  see  if  he  carries  his  feet  forward  in  a  direct  line,  and 
does  not  travel  too  close  or  too  wide.  If  too  close  he  will  be 
apt  to  cut;  if  two  wide  he  will  appear  awkward  and  his  gait 

39 


610 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


laborious.  Now,. turn  him  short  and  quick;  notice  if  his  back 
and  loin  are  flexible  or.  stiff.  If  he  is  awkward  and  stiff  about 
the  hind  parts  reject  him. 


HKAD. 

1.  Muzzle. 

2.  Nostril. 

3.  Forehead. 

4.  Jaw. 

5.  Poll. 

NECK. 

6.6.  Crest. 

7.  Thropple  or  windpipe. 


FORE-QUARTER. 

8.  8.  Shoulder-blade. 
9.  Point  of  shoulder. 
10.  Bosom  or  breast. 
11.  11.  True-arm. 
12.  Elbow. 
13.  Forearm  (arm). 
14.  Knee. 
15.  Cannon-bone. 
10.  Back  sinew. 
17.  Fetlock  or  pastern- 
joint. 
JB.  Coronet. 

19.  Hoof  or  foot. 
20.  Heel. 

BODY  OR  MIDBI/EPIECE. 

21.  Withers. 
22.  Back. 
23.  23.  Ribs  (forming  to- 
gether the  barrel 
or  chest). 
24.  24.  Circumference  of 
the  chest  at  this 
point,   called   the 
girth. 
26.  The  loins. 

26.  The  croup. 

27.  The  hip. 

28.  The  flank. 

29.  The  sheath, 

30.  The  root  of  the  dock 

or  tail. 

THE  HIND-QUARTERS. 

31.  The  hip-joint,  round 

or  whirl-bone. 

32.  The  stifle-joint. 

33.  33.  Lower   thigh   or 

gaskin. 

34.  The  quarters. 


35.  The  hock. 

36.  The  point  of  the 

hock. 

37.  The  curb  place. 

38.  The  cannon-bone. 

39.  The  back  sinew. 

40.  Pastern  or  fetlock- 

joint. 

41.  Coronet. 

42.  Foot  or  hoof. 

43.  Heel. 

44.  Spavin-place. 


We  have  not  spoken  of  mere  matters  of  taste,  such  as  color, 
style,  and  so  on,  nor  is  it  necessary  here.  When  one  is  buying 
a  horse  for  his  own  use  he  may  well  afford  to  take  time  and 
care  to  select  one  that  suits  him.  A  good  horse  is  of  untold 
value  and  comfort.  A  mean  one  can  harass  the  driver  and  do 
damage  to  his  owner  every  hour.  He  may  or  may  not  be  a 
companion  and  servant  that  is  a  source  of  pleasure  and  profit 
every  day  of  his  service. 


THE  HORSE— ANA  TOM Y  A ND  PH YSIOLOG  Y. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  HORSE— AN  ATOMY  AND  I'HYSIOLOQY. 

THE  horse  may  be  conveniently  considered  as  a  system  of  or- 
ganisms, each  having  a  special  function  or  work  to  per- 
form in  the  animal  economy. 

1.  The  bony  system  or  skeleton,  which  is  the  frame-work. 

2.  The  muscular   system,  which   may  be   considered  as  the 
cords  or  tackling  to  move  the  frame- work. 

3.  The  nervous  system,  which  includes  the  brain  and  controls 
all  other  organs. 

4.  The   digestive   system,    which   prepares    nourishment    for 
the  body. 

5.  The  circulatory  system,  which  is  a  system  of  canals  for 
tranmission  of  nourishment  to  all  parts  of  the  organism. 

6.  The  excretory  system,  by  which  the  unused  matter  is  elim- 
inated from  the  body. 

7.  The  generative  system,  or  organs,  by  which  are  begotten 
and  delivered  into  the  world  the  young  of  the  species. 

THE  SKELETON. — The  frame  of  bones  of  the  horse  comprises 
two  hundred  and  forty-seven  bones,  distributed  as  follows : 

1.  In  the  skull,  10. 

2.  In  vertebral   column   48,  divided  as  follows :  Cervical,  or 
neck,  7;  dorsal  or  back,  18;  lumbar  or  loins,  6  ;  caudal  or  tail,  17. 

3.  In  the  face  and  jaws  as  follows  :  In  face  and  lower  jaw, 
18;  in  each  ear,  4;  tongue,  5;  teeth,  40. 

4.  In  thorax  or  the  chest,  37. 

5.  In  pelvis,  3. 

6.  Bones  of  locomotion,  40   in  front  and   38  behind.     The 
bones    of   locomotion    in  front  include  the    scapula,    humerus, 
os  brachii,  carpal  bones,  metacarpals,  os  suffraginis,  os  coronoe, 


612  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

os  pedis,  os  naviculare,  ossa  sesamoidese — total,  20  on  each  side. 
The  bones  behind  include  the  femur,  patella,  tibia,  fibula,  6 
tarsal  bones,  3  metatarsals,  os  suiYraginis,  os  coronse,  os  pedis, 
os  naviculare,  2  ossa  sesamoideae — total,  19  on  each  side. 

By  reference  to  the  skeleton  and  names  of  bones  on  another 
page,  the  reader  may  be  able  to  locate  and  understand  the  rela- 
tion of  each  of  the  bones  named  above.  It  is  an  interesting 
fact  that  there  is  no  essential  point  of  difference  between  the 
bones  of  the  human  and  equine  races,  except  the  teeth.  The 
chief  divergence  between  the  bones  of  their  faces,  jaws,  ribs 
and  pelvis  is  in  form.  The  teeth  vary  in  construction  and 
material. 

A  careful  study  of  the  frame-work  of  the  horse,  in  com- 
parison with  that  of  man,  will  reveal  a  striking  similarity.  Take, 
for  example,  the  function  and  form  of  the  shoulder-blades.  It 
will  be  seen  how  strongly  the  humerus  of  the  horse  bears  like- 
ness to  that  of  man.  On  this  point  a  writer  in  the  Farm  and 
Fireside  Library  says : 

"  Next  comes  the  radius,  with  its  prolongation  forming  the 
elbow;  next,  the  carpal  bones,  occurring  in  the  knee  of  the 
horse,  and  in  the  wrist  of  man;  next,  the  metncarpals,  corre- 
sponding to  the  fi>e  bones  of  the  hand,  and  which  in  the  horse 
now  number  but  three,  viz  :  the  large  metacarpal  or  cannon 
bone,  and  the  two  small  metacarpals  or  splints ;  but  the  re- 
searches of  Marsh  and  others  into  the  history  of  the  fossil 
horse,  have  shown  that  the  earliest  forms  of  the  horse  probably 
possessed  five  metacarpals,  with  the  corresponding  toes,  and  that 
the  one  now  left  corresponds  to  the  larger  or  middle  finger  of 
man.  From  this  point  down  the  relationship  between  the  three 
bones  below  the  fetlock,  the  lower  one  its  horny  hoof,  with  the 
three  bones  below  the  knuckle,  the  last  one  with  its  horny  nail, 
is  easily  perceived."  In  like  manner  the  resemblances  between 
the  bones  of  hind  limbs  of  the  horse  and  the  lower  limbs  of 
man  may  be  traced. 

The  Frame-work  an  Index  of  Value. — It  is  of  the 
first  importance,  that  every  breeder  or  buyer  of  horses,  cattle,  or 
swine  should  be  so  familiar  with  their  frame-work  as  to  be 


o 


614  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

able  to  compare  with  reasonable  accuracy  their  relations  and 
proportions. 

In  rearing  or  buying  horses  this  is  of  especial  importance, 
since  in  the  perfection  of  these  parts  the  value  is  so  largely  de- 
pendent that  without  it  other  perfections  of  muscular  develop- 
ment will  not  make  amends. 

Not  only  the  relative  proportions  of  length,  size,  and  arrange- 
ment, but  also  the  quality,  solidity,  fineness,  or  density  must  be 
considered  in  estimating  values  and  uses  to  which  the  animal 
may  be  best  adapted.  The  frame-work  of  the  trotter  and 
racer  and  draft  horses  has  variations  to  adapt  the  parts  to  the 
use  intended.  The  back  of  the  cart-horse  must  be  shorter  and 
stronger  than  that  of  the  trotter,  his  shoulders  more  upright 
and  thicker  than  that  of  the  animal  to  be  used  for  speed.  The 
saddle-horse  must  have  a  longer,  finer  pastern  than  that  of  the 
draft  or  farm  horse,  that  he  may  have  more  ease,  freedom,  and 
elasticity  of  motion.  Nor  can  one  judge  of  the  relative  size  and 
form  of  muscles  that  give  form  and  power  to  the  animal,  until 
he  can  measure  by  his  eye  the  form  and  size  of  the  bony  struc- 
ture. The  gracefulness,  or  ease  of  motion,  the  power  of  endur- 
ance, the  degree  of  vitality,  and  constitutional  vigor  may  be 
discerned  through  the  form  of  the  frame  and  the  manner  in 
which  the  muscles  are  attached  and  arranged  on  the  frame-work. 

The  Muscular  Development. — The  functions  and  con- 
stitution of  the  muscles  of  the  horse  come  under  the  same  laws 
of  development  as  those  of  man.  A  study  of  the  works  on 
human  anatomy  and  physiology  will  aid  in  the  study  of  this 
subject.  The  highest  degree  of  health  and  vigor  and  form 
come  with  good  breeding,  proper  nourishment,  even  of  ancestor 
and  offspring,  and  judicious  training.  The  physiological  law  is 
never  to  be  lost  sight  of,  that  use  strengthens,  disuse  weakens. 
The  muscles  of  the  arm  that  never  toils  become  soft,  flabby,  and 
feeble.  The  arm  and  sinews  of  the  well-trained  racer  become 
strong  and  firm,  and  have  the  ability  to  do  and  to  endure.  The 
animal  or  man  that  spends  days  in  confinement,  deprived  of  exer- 
cise and  sunshine,  whose  lungs  are  never  taxed  with  inflation  of 
air  enough  to  quicken  and  purify  the  blood,  becomes  soft  and 


THE  HORSE— ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY.  615 

enfeebled,  and  a  fit  subject  for  disease.  On  the  other  hand,  ex- 
ercise and  taxing  the  strength  of  muscle,  without  regular  sup- 
ply of  nutrition  to  repair  waste  and  wear,  impairs  and  weakens 
muscular  fibre. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  glorious  mean  between  exertion  and 
rest,  moderation  and  abundance,  is  to  be  reached  only  by  an  in- 
telligent understanding  of  the  nature  and  wants  of  the  animal 
economy. 

Physiology  of  Muscle. — The  movements  of  the  body 
and  limbs  are  performed  mainly  by  that  part  known  as  "flesh" 
or  muscle,  which  anatomists  call  "muscular  tissue." 

In  the  half  starved  "plug,"  or  highly-trained  track-horse,  in 
which  the  fat  has  almost  entirely  disappeared,  we  see  nothing 
but  muscles  and  their  tendons,  attached  to  and  inclosing  the 
bones  beneath  the  skin-covering  of  the  legs.  On  the  trunk  they 
spread  out  into  layers  and  folds  so  as  to  give  symmetry  and 
protect  the  organs  within  the  trunk,  moving  freely  upon  each 
other,  and  causing  motion  of  the  several  parts  of  the  body. 

The  tendons  are  composed  of  white  fibrous  tissue,  and  serve 
to  connect  the  muscles  to  the  bones.  They  are  stronger  than 
muscle,  more  compact,  and  not  so  easily  injured  by  violence. 
They  center  about  the  joints  and  occupy  less  space,  than 
muscle.  The  fibres  are  firmly  attached  to  the  bones,  which  at 
points  of  union  are  rough.  This  union  is  so  strong  that  it 
rarely  gives  way.  The  bone  will  break  or  the  tendon  snap  in 
the  middle,  rather  than  the  union  of  the  two  loosen.  Tendons 
are  non-elastic. 

The  muscles  are  made  up  of  fibres  bundled  and  held  in 
parallel  lines  by  a  fine  membrane.  These  fibres  under  the 
microscope  appear  made  up  of  finer  fibres,  united  in  linear  direc- 
tion bv  a  fine  filament.  Now  these  finest  fibres  or  fibrilla  are 

* 

made  up  of  distinct  cells,  alternately  light  and  dark.  In  the 
action  of  the  muscle,  these  cells  contract,  shorten  in  length  in 
proportion  as  they  increase  in  width,  causing  the  whole  muscle 
to  gain  in  thickness  what  it  loses  in  length.  It  is  a  most  in- 
teresting fact  that  this  power  of  contraction  and  relaxation, 
called  irritability,  varies  in  different  individuals  according  to  the 


616  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

vitality.  Now  as  this  pure  muscular  fiber  appears  to  be  identi- 
cal in  composition  with  the  fibrine  of  the  blood,  we  see  the 
force  of  the  expression  "  blood  will  tell,"  which  means  that  a 
highly-bred  animal  has  greater  vitality,  or  ,in  other  words, 
greater  muscular  power,  than  the  mongrel. 

The  Blood. — The  blood  is  supplied  from  the  food  by  the 
digestive  process.  It  furnishes  all  the  tissues  of  the  body  with 
a  constant  stream  of  the  materials  which  they  severally  need— 
at  one  time  for  nutrition,  at  another  for  secretion  or  excretion, 
functions  performed  by  suitable  organs,  such  as  stomach,  liver, 
kidneys,  and  so  on. 

The  muscles  demand  fibrine  and  oxygen,  combined  in  arte- 
rial blood.  The  nervous  system  can  not  respond  to  the  calls  of 
its  grand  center  without  having  a  due  supply  of  fatty  matter, 
in  combination  with  oxygen,  which  the  process  of  respiration 
affords,  and  also  eliminates  the  excess  of  carbon.  For  these 
purposes  the  blood  must  be  supplied  with  liquid  elements,  which 
are  derived  by  absorption  from  the  digestive  organs.  Its  oxy- 
gen is  supplied  by  means  of  the  delicate  lining  of  the  lungs. 
Thus  we  see  that  the  stomach,  bowels,  liver,  pancreas,  and 
spleen  are  all  employed  furnishing  the  fluid  with  grosser  mate- 
rials, while  the  heart,  lungs,  kidneys,  and  skin  are  constantly 
engaged  in  circulating  it  and  supplying  it  with  oxygen  and 
purifying  it  from  noxious  salts  and  gases.  The  importance, 
then,  of  blood  free  from  impurities  is  apparent. 

This  suggests  to  the  farmer  that  the  animal  needs  pure  air 
to  furnish  the  oxygen  in  due  proportions.  It  needs  pure  water 
free  from  deleterious  matters  that  if  once  taken  into  the  system 
must  be  eliminated  by  the  action  of  functions  designed  for  this 
purifying  process.  The  action  of  the  skin  is  so  important  that 
we  can  not  afford  to  tax  the  delicate  inner  organs  to  do  what 
they  might  have  been  saved  from  by  the  groom's  proper  use 
of  the  brush  and  friction,  and  keeping  the  stable  and  bedding 
clean  and  free  from  impure  air.  The  whole  process  of  blood- 
making  and  nutrition  calls  for  intelligent  provision  of  appro- 
priate food  and  water  and  air.  Impurity  of  blood  is  the  pre- 
cursor of  disease. 


THE  HORSE— ANA  TOM  Y  A ND  PH  YSIOLOG  Y.  G 1 7 

Physiology  of  Respiration. — The  chief  end  of  respira- 
tion or  breathing  seems  to  be  the  absorption  of  oxygen  from 
the  air,  and  the  elimination  of  carbonic  acid  from  the  blood. 
Respiration  is  slower  when  the  animal  is  in  a  state  of  rest  than 
when  in  motion.  Carbonic  acid  is  constantly  developed  in  the 
system  by  the  decay  of  tissues,  and  by  the  conversion  of  car- 
bon of  the  food  which  is  used  for  the  development  of  heat. 
The  vigorous  exercise  of  force  augments  the  destruction  of  tis- 
sues, hence,  the  necessity  of  more  rapid  and  deep  breathing 
while  the  animal  exerts  power,  that  oxygen  may  be  more  freely 
supplied  to,  and  carbon  carried  from,  the  blood.  Here  we  see 
the  wisdom  of  nature  in  providing  the  racer  with  such  superior 
nostrils  and  lungs,  and  also  an  enlarged  system  of  blood  vessels, 
that  so  display  themselves  under  the  fine  skin  of  the  racer  on 
the  course.  As  the  venous  blood  is  brought  into  contact  with 
the  oxygen  through  the  thin  membranous  lining  of  the  lungs, 
we  see  the  terrible  tax  placed  on  this  organ  by  intense  and  long- 
continued  exertion.  Here  arises  the  danger  often  incurred  of  pro- 
ducing rupture  of  these  delicate  lung  cells  and  membranes,  caus- 
ing injury  to  the  wind  of  the  horse.  From  serious  injury, 
whether  caused  by  over-exertion  or  long  exertion  in  extremes 
of  heat  or  cold,  inflaming  the  lungs,  we  have  wind  impaired 
and  dangerous  lung  fevers. 

Under  favorable  circumstances  the  blood  enters  the  lungs, 
and  is  acted  on  by  the  atmospheric  air,  absorbing  oxygen,  while 
giving  off  volumes  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  In  passing  through 
the  small  blood  vessels,  the  arterial  blood  loses  about  eight  per 
cent  of  oxygen,  and  receives  about  nine  per  cent  of  carbonic  acid 
gas;  and  when  the  blood  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  atmospheric 
air  in  the  lungs,  it  receives  oxygen  and  loses  carbonic  acid  gas. 
By  this  the  blood  changes  color  from  a  dark  red  to  a  bright 
scarlet,  or  pure  blood. 

Physiology  of  Digestion.  For  the  descriptive  anatomy 
of  the  stomach  and  digestive  apparatus,  we  must  refer  the  reader 
to  larger  works  on  anatomy.  We  must  be  content  with  a  glance 
at  the  physiology  of  digestion,  that  we  may  better  understand 
the  care  and  feeding  of  our  domestic  animals  and  ourselves. 


618  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Healthy  digestion  demands,  complete  mastication,  and  mixing 
with  saliva.  Hence  slow  eating  is  conducive  to  health,  and  bolt- 
ing food  is  injurious.  Saliva  acts  as  a  ferment  in  converting  the 
starchy  matters  into  sugar,  which  by  the  action  of  the  gastric 
juice,  is  converted  into  the  proteine  compounds  which  go  to  the 
formation  of  flesh.  The  stomach  of  the  horse  being  small,  the 
food  does  not  stay  in  it  long  enough  to  be  converted  into  chyme, 
but  passes  into  the  duodenum,  for  that  purpose.  Here  it  is 
further  macerated,  and  receives  bile  and  pancreatic  juice,  through 
the  pores  of  the  inside  of  this  organ,  or  intestine.  The  nutri- 
tious parts  of  the  food  are  now  gradually  converted  into  chyle, 
find  passes  from  the  duodenum  into  the  lacteals,  whose  mouths 
absorb  the  chyle.  After  the  loss  of  its  chyle  or  nutrition  the 
food  passes  from  the  small  intestines,  which  are  about  ninety  feet 
long,  on  into  the  the  large  intestines,  whence  it  is  discharged  as 
faeces  or  dung.  The  chyle  is  at  once  carried  to  the  heart,  passing 
through  the  liver,  is  purified  and  undergoes  a  chemical  change. 

In  the  digestive  apparatus  of  the  horse  there  is  a  peculiar 
pocket  called  the  caecum,  or  "water  stomach"  which  will  hold 
about  four  gallons,  while  the  stomach  itself  holds  about  three 
gallons.  The  office  of  the  caecum  seems  to  be  two-fold,  viz:  to 
hold  the  surplus  of  water  drank  more  than  the  stomach  will 
hold,  and  to  retain  food  until  the  glands  have  extracted  all  nu- 
trition from  the  mass.  The  innutritious  part  passes  off  as  excre- 
ment. It  is  held  in  by  bands  or  tucks  in  the  intestines  so  the 
refuse  comes  along  in  little  balls. 

Secretion  and  Excretion. — /Secretion  is  defined  to  be  the 
process  of  separation  of  the  various  matters  from  the  blood. 
Saliva,  bile,  etc.,  are  known  as  secretions.  These  are  removed 
from  the  blood  for  one  or  two  purposes ;  first,  to  be  employed 
for  the  various  processes  of  nutrition  or  repair,  or,  secondly,  for 
purification,  or  removal  as  injurious.  This  latter  process  is  called 
excretion.  How  the  cells  select  the  good,  and  reject  the  bad,  the 
cells  of  the  liver  select  the  bile,  the  salivary  glands  the  saliva, 
and  so  on,  is  as  mysterious,  as  how  one  tree  will  select  acids 
for  its  fruit,  and  another  in  same  soil  will  select  sweets. 

The  most  important  would  seem  to  be  the  selection  of  nutri- 


THE  HORSE— ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 


619 


tion  from  the  food ;  but  the  depuration  or  power  to  remove  or 
eliminate  impurities  is  so  essential  to  life,  that  though  the  animal 
may  live  many  days  without  the  secretory  organs  taking  up 
nourishment,  yet  if  the  depuration  or  removal  of  impurities  of 
blood  ceases  but  for  a  few  hours,  death  must  speedily  follow. 

If  saliva  and  gastric  juice  and  bile  are  not  mixed  with  the 
food,  nutrition  will  be  imperfect  and  health  suffer.     If  the  ele- 


SECTION  OF  HORSE  SHOWING  DIGESTIVE  APPARATUS. 

1  Mouth.  2.  Pharynx.  3.  CEsophagus.  4.  Diaphragm.  5.  Spleen.  6.  Stomach.  7.  Duo- 
denum. 8.  Liver  (upper  ext.).  9.  Large  colon.  10.  Caecum.  11.  Small  Intestine.  1'i 
Floating  colon.  13.  Rectum.  14.  Anus.  15.  Left  kidney  and  ureter.  16.  Bladder.  17. 


Urethra. 


ments  of  bile  and  urine,  for  example,  are  not  eliminated  from 
the  blood,  the  system  is  deranged  and  death  must  follow.  Hence 
the  importance  of  arranging  the  diet  of  our  animals  so  that  the 
processes  of  digestion,  secretion,  and  depuration  can  be  insured 
to  go  on  harmoniously  and  without  check.  The  chief  organs  for 
cleansing  the  blood  of  impurities,  are  the  lungs,  which  remove 
carbon;  the  liver,  which  secretes  bile;  the  kidneys,  which  get 


620 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


rid  of  urea ;  and  the  skin,  which  bears  off  fluid  and  more  or  less 
of  solid  refuse. 


CIRCULATORY  ORGANS  OF  THE  HORSE. 


1.  Heart— right  ventricle.  2.  Heart— left  ventricle.  3.  Heart— left  auricle.  4.  Pulmonary  ar- 
tery. 5.  Pulmonary  veins.  6.  Anterior  aorta.  7.  Common  carotid  artery.  8.  External 
maxillary  artery.  9.  Left  axillary  artery.  10.  Dorsal  artery.  11.  Superior  cervical  artery. 
12.  Vertebral  artery.  13.  Humeral  artery.  14.  Radial  artery.  15.  Collateral  of  the  can- 
non. 16.  Coronary  branch.  17.  Posterior  aorta.  18.  Cardiac  trunk,  distributed  to  the 
stomach.  19.  Mesenteric  vessels.  20.  Renal  artery.  21.  Spermatic  artery.  22.  Posterior 
venacava,  23.  Vena  poi  tee.  24.  External  iliac  artery.  25.  Internal  iliac  artery.  20.  Sub- 
sacral  artery.  27.  Femoral  artery.  28.  Posterior  tibial  artery.  29.  Digital  artery.  30. 
Veinous  network  of  the  foot.  31.  Veins  of  the  leg.  32.  Jugular  vein. 

The  Nervous  System. — This  system  of  the  horse  is 
similar  to  that  of  man.  It  is  not  so  highly  organized,  and  for 
this  reason  it  is  supposed  the  horse  is  not  so  liable  to  nervous 
disorders. 

The  sense  of  touch  is  necessary  in  man  and  beast  to  pro- 
tect from  harm.  By  it  we  discern  temperature,  and  get  the 
ideas  of  hardness,  softness,  etc. 

It  is  located,  generally  speaking,  in  the  nerves  of  sensation 
on  the  skin;  and  in  the  horse,  the  lips  and  nose  are  especially 
endowed  with  the  sense  of  touch.  The  lips  and  feet  are  espe- 
cially endowed  with  nerves  of  sensation. 


THE  HORSE— ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 


621 


The  sense  of  hearing  as  well  as  of  smell,  seems  to  be  more 
acute  in  the  horse  than  in  man,  and  yet  the  horse  is  less  liable 
to  deafness  than  man. 

The  Foot. — The  structure  of  the  foot  is  an  object  of 
wonder,  and  is  worthy  of  more  attention  than  we  can  here  give 
it.  It  is  so  essential  to  the  horse  that  we  say,  "No  foot,  no 
horse."  It  is  complicated  in  its  mechanism  and  subject  to 
severe  use,  and  for  these  reasons  is  liable  to  many  diseases  and 
accidents.  No  other  part  of  the  animal  is  so  liable  to  injury 
from  hard  work  or  mismanagement. 

A  reference  to  the  following  cut  will  show  the  parts  en- 
tering into  the  composition  of  the  foot,  and  the  fetlock  and  pas- 
tern joint : 

A.  Coffin  or  foot  bone. 

B.  Navicular  or  nut  bone. 

C.  Coronary  or  lower  pastern  bone. 

D.  Upper  pastern  bone. 

E.  One  of  the  sesamoid  bones. 

F.  Cannon  or  shank  bone. 

G.  Horny  frog. 
H.  Sensitive  frog. 
K.  Sensitive  sole. 

L.  Horny  or  insensitive  sole. 

M.  Outer  wall  or  crust. 

N.  Laminated  leaves  or  horny 

plates. 

O.  Sensitive  laminae. 
]'.  P.  Tendon  of  the  extensor  muscle 

of  the  foot  and  coronary  bones. 
K.  R.  Tendon  of  the  flexor  muscle 

of  the  coronary  and  foot  bones. 

SECTION  OF  THE  FOOT  AND  PASTERNS. 

It  will  be  noticed  there  is  very  little  space  between  the 
navicular  bone  (b,)  and  the  crust,  which  together  with  the  sole 
forming  a  case  or  shoe  of  horn  for  the  protection  of  this  deli- 
cate arrangement.  When  inflammation  arises  here,  from  injury, 
there  is  no  room  for  swelling,  and  this  causes  most  intense 
pain,  as  well  as  rapid  disorganization  of  the  structure  itself. 


622  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

The  foot  consists  of  three  distinct  parts  :  1.  The  external 
wall  or  crust.  2.  The  sole.  3.  The  frog. 

The  CRUST  reaches  from  the  hairy  skin  to  the  bottom  of  the 
foot,  averaging  about  three  and  a  half  inches,  with  a  thickness 
of  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  having  horny  fibers  running  par- 
allel from  skin  to  bottom  of  foot. 

The  SOLE  is  a  horny  plate  at  the  bottom  of  the  foot,  which 
should  be  slightly  coRcave.  It  is  usually  about  one  sixth  of 
an  inch  thick,  but  varies,  like  the  wall,  in  different  horses.  It 
is  thicker  where  it  runs  back  between  the  bars  and  the  crust. 

The  FROG  is  the  elastic  triangular,  horny  cushion,  filling  the 
space  between  the  heels,  and  placed  directly  under  the  navicu- 
lar  bone. 

The  crust  and  sole  and  frog  are  all  fibrous.  The  crust  is 
like  whale-bone,  the  sole  rather  separating  into  scales ;  while  the 
frog  has  finer  fibers  and  a  larger  portion  of  gelatine,  which 
keeps  it  soft  and  more  elastic. 

The  hoof  is  developed  by  secretions  from  the  blood,  sup- 
plied by  small  vessels  or  villi  at  the  coronet.  The  growth  of  the 
hoof  lengthwise  is  constant,  to  make  repairs  or  to  make  good 
the  natural  wear  of  the  foot  of  the  horse  unshod.  The  weight 
of  the  horse  does  not  mainly  rest  on  the  sole  of  the  foot,  but 
mostly  on  the  coronary  ligaments.  So  the  weight  is  direct  on 
the  horny  or  whale-bone  part.  The  elasticity  of  all  the  solid 
parts  and  of  the  coronary  ligaments  afford  protection  and 
relief  from  the  shock  of  a  blow  of  the  foot  on  hard  roads  or 
paved  streets.  This  elasticity  should  never  be  lessened  by 
cutting  away  of  part  of  the  frog,  as  do  many  farriers,  when 
preparing  the  foot  for  the  shoe.  Cutting  the  frog  not  only 
lessens  it,  but  causes  it  to  harden. ^  There  is  no  reason  favor- 
ing the  trimming  of  the  frog,  as  of  the  crust,  because  its  con- 
stant contact  with  the  ground  or  floor,  and  its  softer  nature, 
cause  it  to  wear  away  sufficiently. 

Stonehenge  closes  his  chapter  on  the  foot  with  the  following: 
"  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  foot  of  the  horse  is  a  most  com- 
plex structure,  which  is  liable  to  derangement  whenever  the 
hoof  or  horny  case  is  interfered  with,  and  this  may  occur  either 


THE  HORSE—ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY.  623 

from  mismanagement  in  shoeing,  causing  mechanical  injury,  or 
from  inflammation  of  the  secreting  surface,  which  will  end  in 
the  formation  of  imperfect  horn,  or  from  punctures  or  other 
wounds  of  the  foot.  Perhaps  in  no  organ  does  an  injury  so 
soon  produce  a  return  at  compound  interest,  for  the  inevitable 
result  is  a  malformation  of  the  hoof,  and  this  only  adds  again 
to  the  original  mischief.  Hence,  it  is  that  in  the  foot,  more 
than  in  any  other  part  even,  prevention  is  better  than  cure,  for 
in  many  of  its  diseases  it  happens  that  a  cure  can  not  be  ob- 
tained without  rest;  and  yet  it  is  also  the  fact  that  the  secre- 
tion of  horn  will  not  go  on  perfectly  without  the  stimulus 
afforded  of  necessity  by  exercise.  The  position  of  the  leg  is 
such  that  its  veins  have  a  hard  task  to  perform  at  all  times  in 
returning  the  blood  from  the  feet,  but  when  the  horse  is  not 
exercised  at  all,  they  become  doubly  sluggish,  and  congestion 
in  them  is  almost  sure  to  occur." 

The  Mouth  and  Teeth. — In  the  mouth  the  process  of 
digestion  really  begins.  Here  the  food  is  ground  and  mixed 
with  saliva.  That  part  of  the  mouth  that  will  command  our 
attention  is  the  teeth,  as  every  horseman  and  buyer  must  know 
certain  things  concerning  them,  that  he  may  tell  the  age.  The 
lower  jaw  is  somewhat  narrower  than  the  upper,  but  each  con- 
tains the  same  number  of  teeth,  and  in  pairs. 

The  teeth  originate  in  the  jaws  and  form  little  cells  therein, 
in  each  of  which  is  a  delicate  bag  of  jelly-like  substance.  It 
is  there  at  time  of  birth,  and  in  due  time  the  jelly  begins  to 
change  to  bony  matter.  Enamel  and  a  cement  are  supplied  as 
the  teeth  begin  to  take  form. 

The  first  teeth  are  called  milk  teeth,  since  they  appear  while 
the  colt  depends  mainly  on  milk  for  food.  In  course  of  time 
they  are  superseded  by  permanent  teeth. 

There  are  in  each  jaw  six  incisors,  or  nippers,  two  canines, 
or  tushes,  and  twelve  molars,  or  grinders.  Each  is  made  up  of 
three  distinct  substances — cement,  enamel,  and  dentine.  These 
substances  vary  in  texture,  and  by  this  varying  quality  the 
teeth  are  not  so  brittle  as  if  all  enamel,  and  the  unequal  wearing 
of  the  surface  of  each  tooth  makes  a  roughness  similar  to  the 


624 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


rough  surface  of  the  mill-stone,  by  which  their  grinding  power 
is  improved. 

The  temporary  or  milk  teeth  differ  in  shape  from  the  perma- 
nent. They  are  smaller,  and  the  neck,  or  fang,  is  constricted, 
while  in  the  permanent  teeth,  which  go  on  growing  as  they 
wear  off  on  top,  the  diameter  is  greater  and  gradually  dimin- 
ishes, holding  the  thickness  well. 


Fro.  1.— MT:LK  INCISORS. 

The  natural  size  and  form  and  markings  of  the  milk  incis- 
ors of  lower  jaw  are  shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  two  central  teeth 
are  called  nippers,  and  are  seen  in  the  mouth  at  birth.  The 
pair,  one  on  each  side  of  nippers,  are  called  also  middle  teeth,  and 


FIG.  2.— Six  MONTHS'  MOUTH. 


appear  about  the  middle  of  the   second   month.     By  the   sixth 
or  ninth  months  the  next  outside  pair,  called   corner  teeth,  ap- 


THE  HORSE— ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 


625 


pear.  By  the  end  of  the  first  year  these  six  incisors,  reach 
their  full  size.  The  first  teeth  dill'er  from  the  permanent,  in  be- 
ing more  rounded  in  front  and  hollow  towards  the  mouth,  show- 
ing the  outer  edge  at  first  much  higher  than  the  inner.  After 
the  foal  begins  to  use  them  in  eating,  the  outer  edge  wears 
down,  but  the  corner  nippers  keep  their  original  appearance. 

Fig.  2  shows  the  inside  view  of  the  lower  jaw  at  six  months. 
The  central  nippers  are  almost  level,  and  have  the  black  "mark" 
in  the  middle  of  each,  wide  and  faint.  The  outer  edge,  but  not 
the  inner,  of  the  middle  teeth  now  show  wear.  About  the 
ninth  month  the  inner  edge  of  the  middle  teeth  will  appear  worn. 


FIG.  3.— ONE-YEAR-OLD  MOUTH. 


Fig.  3  shows  the  lower  jaw  at  one  year.  The  outer  and 
inner  edges  of  all  the  nippers  are  partly  worn,  excepting  the 
inner  edges  of  the  corner  teeth  which  have  not  come  to  that  yet. 


FlO.   4.— TWO-YEAR-01,1)   MOTTTH. 

Fig.  4  shows  lower  jaw  at  two  years.     At  a  year  and  a  half 
the  "mark"  in  the  central  pair  becomes  very  faint  from  wear; 


40 


626 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AXD  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


the  second  pair  is  worn  flat,  the  mark  not  so  faint;  the  corner 
teeth  are  flat  and  mark  clear.  If  colts  are  reared  on  hay  and 
grain,  the  teeth  wear  down  much  faster  than  when  grass  alone 
is  fed.  At  two  and  a  half  years  the  colt  teeth  begin  to  shed, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  5. 

Before  going  to  an  examination  of  the  permanent  teeth,  let 
us  notice  that  the  foal  is  born  with  two  grinders  in  each  jaw, 
above  and  below,  or  they  appear  the  first  week.  Within  one 
month  they  are  succeeded  by  a  third,  next  back  of  them.  By 


FIG.  5.— TWO-AND-A-HAI.K-YEAU-OLD  MOTTTH. 


the  end  of  the  first  year  a  fourth  grinder  usually  appears  in  each 
jaw.  The  fifth  grinder  shows  at  two  years.  But  as  the  grinders 
are  difficult  to  see,  we  will  confine  our  investigation  to  the  front 
teeth.  By  the  third  year  the  mouth  has  become  so  large  that 
the  colt  teeth  do  not  fill  the  space.  Now  nature  has  provided 
for  this,  and  the  permanent  teeth  are  formed  below  and  are  be- 
ginning to  absorb  the  roots  of  the  colt  teeth,  preparatory  to 
their  easy  falling  out.  The  permanent  teeth  sometimes  push  up 
beside  the  colt  teeth  and  show  themselves  too  soon,  and  then 
are  called  wolfs  teeth.  Now,  as  the  teeth  are  beginning  to 
change  in  form,  let  us  attend  to  that  more  particularly  before 
passing  to  the  three-year-old  mouth. 

A  nipper  is  undergoing  constant  change  in  form  from  birth 
to  old  age.  The  wear  of  the  teeth  calls  for  a  corresponding 
growth,  but  in  fact,  the  growth  of  the  tooth  is  more  rapid  than 
the  wear.  Consequently  we  find  the  teeth  becoming  incon- 
veniently long  by  the  time  the  horse  has  reached  his  twentieth 


THE  HORSE— ANATOMY  AND  1'HYSIOLOGY. 


027 


in. 


year.  Figure  I.  shows  the  shape  and  appear- 
ance of  the  face  or  level  of  a  three-year-old  nip- 
per as  it  comes  through.  II.  shows  same  tooth 
at  six  years,  the  crown  worn  off  one-fourth  of 
an  inch.  It  is  narrower  and  thicker  than  at 
three  years.  III.  shows  this  tooth  at  twelve 
years.  The  breadth  and  thickness  are  nearly 
equal,  and  the  crown  or  face  has  become  nearly 
round.  IV.  shows  the  tooth  in  an  eighteen 
year-old  mouth.  Quite  oval.  V.  shows  the 
tooth  at  twenty-four,  the  reverse  of  its  condition 
in  the  three-year-old  mouth.  Its  depth  is  greater 
than  its  breadth  about  two-fold.  These  diagrams 
give  a  correct  idea  of  the  character  of  the  change 
going  on,  and  will  help  to  understand  the  dif- 
ference between  mouths  of  various  ages. 

In  the  third  year  the  second  dentition  begins 
and  takes  place  in  the  same  order  in  which  the 
milk  teeth  appeared.  During  the  third  year  the 
grinders  begin  also  to  be  visible,  so  that  by 
the  end  of  the  third  year  the  sixth  grinder  ap- 
pears, but  grows  very  slowly.  By  the  middle  of 
the  year  the  nippers  show  wear  on  outer  edge, 
and  the  middle  teeth  are  pushing  through.  The  corner  teeth,  of 
remaining  foal  teeth,  are  worn  down,  and  the  mark  has  disap- 
peared in  a  great  measure. 


IV. 


v. 


FIG.  6.— CHANGES  IN 
KOKM  OK  TEETH. 


Fio.  ".— ADVANCED  THKKK-YF.AK-OI.D  MODTH. 


By  this  time  the  foal  teeth  are  all  gone.     The  nippers  show 
wear  on  both  edges,  and  the  outer  edge  of  middle  teeth  is  worn. 


628  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


FIG.  8.-  ADVANCED  Form- YEAR-OLD  MOUTH. 


The  tushes  are  just  appearing.  Some  jockeys  knock  out  the 
corner  nippers  at  four  years,  to  make  the  horse  appear  older  by 
five  or  six  months. 


FlO.  0.— FlVE-YKAK-OT,D  MOTTTH. 


At  five  years  the  number  of  teeth  is  complete.  Figure  9 
gives  inside  view  of  lower  jaw.  The  nippers  are  worn  down  on 
both  edges,  so  there  is  only  a  small  black  speck  in  the  middle 
of  a  smooth  surface,  while  the  next  or  middle  teeth  show  wear 


THE  HORSE— ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 


629 


on  outer  edge  to  a  degree  that  the  inner  edge  begins  to  show 
worn.  The  corner  teeth  have  the  outer  edge  worn  but  little. 
The  tush  is  full-grown,  and  does  not  show  any  wear.  Its  outer 
surface  is  regularly  convex,  and  its  inner  concave,  the  edges 
being  sharp  and  well  defined.  The  sixth  molar  is  full-grown, 
and  the  third  is  shed  to  make  room  for  the  coining  permanent 
grinder.  These  last  two  named  molars  should  be  examined 
when  there  is  any  doubt  about  the  age.  After  the  fifth  year 
there  is  no  further  shedding  of  the  teeth.  The  horse  now  is 
.said  to  have  a  "full  mouth." 


Fio.  10.— MOUTH  AT  Six  YEARS. 

This  figure  shows  the  lower  jaw  at  six  years  old.  The  nip- 
pers are  worn  down  even  with  the  middle  teeth,  which  have 
still  a  cavity.  The  inner  edge  of  the  corner  teeth  is  also  worn 
down  even  with  the  outer  one.  "The  six-year-old  mouth  is 
the  last  one  "  says  Stonehenge,  "  upon  which  any  great  reliance 
can  be  placed,  if  it  is  desired  to  ascertain  the  age  of  the  horse  to  a 
nicety,  but  by  attentively  studying  both  jaws  a  near  approxi- 
mation to  the  truth  may  be  arrived  at."  "  It  is  ascertained  that 
the  nippers  of  the  upper  jaw  take  about  two  years  longer  to 
wear  out  than  those  of  the  lower;  so  that  until  the  horse  is 
^ight  years  old,  his  age  may  be  ascertained  by  referring  to  them 
nearly  as  well  as  by  the  lower  nippers  at  six."  But  as  the 


630 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


amount  worn  is  one  of  the  chief  factors  in  the  problem  of  telling 
the  age,  it  must  be  noticed  that  the  teeth  of  some  horses  wear 
rapidly.  Crib-biters  and  wind-suckers  wear  off  the  upper  teeth 
wonderfully  soon.  Horses  accustomed  to  grazing  on  sandy  pas- 
ture lands  will  show  older  mouths  than  those  on  clay  lands. 


FIG.  11.— MOUTH  AT  SEVEN  YEARS. 

This  figure  represents  the  lower  jaw  of  a  seven-year-old. 
The  tushes  have  become  dull  at  the  point  and  somewhat 
rounded  by  wear.  Both  edges  of  the  corner  teeth  are  worn 
smooth,  with  a  small  cavity  on  the  face.  The  middle  teeth 
have  lost  their  cavity  or  mark,  and  show  an  even  surface. 

In  Fig.  12  we  see  the  six  teeth  all  equally  worn,  and 
only  a  slight  mark  in  the  corner  teeth.  The  edges  of  the 
tushes  are  worn  down  almost  half.  The  upper  tushes  are  more 
worn  than  the  lower  ones. 

BISHOPING,  named  so  from  the  scoundrel  that  invented  itr 
now  comes  in  to  deceive  the  inexperienced.  It  is  a  means  of 
making  the  naturally  smooth  crown  or  surface  show  the  marks 
of  a  six  or  seven-year-old.  With  an  engraver's  tool  a  hole  is 
dug  out  in  the  corner  teeth  usually,  to  imitate  the  "mark"  of 
the  seven-year-old.  The  hole  is  then  burned  with  a  hot  iron 
to  give  the  black  stain.  The  careful  examiner  will  notice  this 
stain  is  more  diffused,  and  the  cavity  not  so  well  defined  as 


THE  HORSE-ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 


631 


FIG.  12.— MOUTH  AT  EIGHT  YEARS. 


nature    has    them    in    younger    horses.     Horsemen,    after    the 
eighth  year,  look  at  the  nippers  of  the  upper  jaw. 

The  upper  jaw  at  nine   years  is  here  shown.     The  mark  in 
the  corner  teeth  is  comparatively  deep  and  clearly  defined ;  the 


FIG.  13.— MOUTH  AT  NINE  YEARS. 


mark  is  still  visible  in  the  middle  teeth,  but  it  has  almost  en- 
tirely disappeared  from  the   nippers.     The   inner  edge  is  worn 


632 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


down  also.     The  section  of  each  nipper  now  appears  more  tri- 
angular than  oval. 


FIG.  14.— MOUTH  AT  TEN  YEARS. 


At  this  age  we  notice  the  oval  surface  shortening.  The 
mark  in  the  middle  teeth  is  worn  down,  but  it  is  still  visible  in 
the  corner  teeth.  The  corner  teeth  wear  into  a  curve,  as  they 
grow  longer,  and  do  not  bear  so  directly  on  the  lower  ones. 


PIG.  15.— MOUTH  AT  FIFTKBN  YEARS. 


THE  HORSE-ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 


633 


Fig.  15  shows  the  triangular  form  disappearing,  especially 
in  the  nippers.  The  corner  teeth  retain  yet  something  of  the 
triangular  form;  the  tushes  are  becoming  more  blunt;  the  teeth 
longer  and  further  from  a  direct  line,  or  from  bearing  one  upon 
another. 


FlG.   16.— MOtTTH  AT  TWKNTT  YEARS. 


The  corner  teeth  now  have  become  triangular — deeper  from 
front  to  back  part.  At  twenty-one,  the  angles  have  disappeared 
from  the  teeth,  and  all  are  oval;  but  this  is  reversed,  being 
deeper  from  outward,  inward.  As  the  horse  advances  in 
years  the  teeth  grow  thicker  than  they  are  broad,  and  as  this 
thickness  increases,  the  space  between  the  teeth  increases.  As 
the  teeth  increase  in  length,  they  become  of  a  dirty  yellow,  with 
occasional  streaks  of  brown  and  black.  The  gums  recede  and 
waste  away,  and  the  tushes  wear  to  stumps,  and  project  directly 
forward,  and  often  one  or  both  drop  out. 

Irregularities  of  Teeth  are  by  no  means  uncommon. 
The  practice  of  punching  out  the  milk-teeth,  to  hasten  growth 
of  permanent  set,  induces  growth  in  a  wrong  direction,  and, 
not  meeting  the  opposing  tooth,  they  do  not  wear  down  regu- 
larly. A  horse  occasionally  has  what  is  called  a  "  pig  jaw ;"  that 
is,  the  upper  longer  than  the  lower,  in  which  case  the  teeth 
grow  to  so  great  length  as  to  interfere  with  taking  food. 

Diseases  of  Teeth. — Fortunately  the  horse  is  singularly 
exempt  from  diseases  of  teeth  common  to  man.  The  edges  of 
grinders  sometimes  wear  unevenly,  and  the  sharp  edges  cut  the 
cheek  and  cause  ulcers.  The  cure  is  to  rasp  off  the  sharp  edge 
with  a  tooth-rasp.  Many  a  horse  has  suffered  from  neglect  of 


634  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

this.  Occasionally  a  grinder  is  not  met  by  its  fellow,  and  it 
grows  to  such  great  length  as  to  interfere  with  grinding  of  food, 
and  to  penetrate  the  bars  opposite,  and  cause  ulcers.  The  rem- 
edy is  to  saw  off  the  tooth  as  often  as  it  may  demand.  A  horse 
with  irregular  teeth  is  unsound,  and  of  little  value.  A  carious 
tooth  may  produce  disease  of  jaw  and  other  teeth.  It  should 
be  removed. 

Dentistry  is  making  the  life  of  the  horse  more  comfortable, 
and  also  increasing  his  days  of  usefulness.  The  hammer  and 
punch  are  means  of  torture,  and  are  superseded  by  other  de- 
vices for  extraction,  which  are  more  humane,  and  do  not  leave 
the  fangs  in  the  jaw,  as  the  hammer  and  punch  so  often  do. 

When  we  reflect  on  the  nature  of  the  changes  going  on  dur- 
ing the  third  and  fourth  years,  we  may  expect  to  find  poor 
mastication  and  febrile  affections  common  at  that  period  of  life. 
At  that  period,  especially,  should  the  teeth  have  care.  Youatt 
says,  "  The  careful  observer  will  frequently  trace  a  fever,  cough, 
catarrhal  affections,  diseases  of  the  eye,  cutaneous  affections, 
diarrhea,  dysentery,  loss  of  appetite,  and  general  derangement  to 
irritation  from  teething."  Under  all  febrile  affections  of  young 
horses,  the  teeth  should  be  examined.  Mr.  Percival,  in  speak- 
ing of  treatment  of  gums  by  incision,  etc.,  says:  "In  this  way 
I  have  catarrhal  and  bronchial  inflammations  abated,  coughs  re- 
lieved, lymphatic  and  other  glandular  tumors  about  the  head 
reduced,  cutaneous  eruptions  got  rid  of,  deranged  bowels  re- 
stored to  order,  appetite  returned,  and  lost  condition  restored  " 


FIG.  17.— FRONT  VIEW  AT  HALF  YEAR. 


THE  HORSE— HYGIENE  AND  SANITARY  CONDITIONS.        635 


CHAPTKR  V. 

HYGIENE  AND    SANITARY  CONDITIONS    ON   THE  FARM. 

IN  this  chapter  we  will  speak  of  things  which  tend  to  the 
preservation  of  health.  The  term  Hygiene  comes  from  a 
Greek  word  that  signifies  good  for  the  health.  Sanitary  laws 
are  those  that  relate  to  preservation  of  health,  or  the  prevention 
of  disease.  The  importance  of  this  is  recognized  in  the  old 
maxim,  "  an  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of  cure." 

The  air  we  breathe  and  the  food  we  eat,  as  well  as  the 
manner  in  which  we  eat,  or  their  conditions  at  time  of  being 
taken  into  the  system,  must  be  considered.  The  laws  of  sani- 
tation that  govern  the  health  of  men  may  be  applied  to  that  of 
all  domestic  animals,  since  all  animals,  whether  biped  or  quad- 
ruped, depend  for  life  on  the  air  they  breathe  and  the  food 
and  drink  they  consume.  The  conditions  of  heat  and  cold, 
moisture  and  drouth,  cleanliness  and  filth,  purity  and  impurity, 
all  have  their  influence  on  the  comfort  and  health  of  animals. 

The  Air. — The  atmosphere  is  indispensable  to  life.  It 
envelops  and  permeates  every  organism,  whether  animal  or 
vegetable.  Its  purity  or  impurity  affects  the  health  and  com- 
fort of  all  animals.  So  essential  is  it  to  all  life,  animal  or 
vegetable,  that  the  ancient  philosopher  Thales  asserted,  that 
"  living  beings  are  only  condensed  air."  It  may  predispose  or 
excite  many  of  the  epizootic  diseases  that  sweep  like  a  storm 
from  east  to  west  over  our  continent.  With  some  of  its  con- 
ditions of  temperature,  or  moisture,  its  motion  or  calm,  or  its 
holding  in  its  composition  obnoxious  gases,  or  organisms,  or 
germs,  we  witness  outbreaks  of  disease  that  become  a  pesti- 
lence to  desolate  the  land.  A  sudden  change  from  heat  to  cold 
is  a  recognized  cause  of  disease.  It  acts  suddenly  on  the  cupil- 


630  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

laries  and  nerves  of  the  skin,  and  causes  the  former  to  contract, 
and  the  skin  loses  its  power  of  depuration,  or  carrying  off  im- 
purities arising  from  exhausted  air,  and  tissues  relax  in  the  proc- 
esses of  assimilation  and  exhalation,  and  the  blood,  unpurified, 
is  driven  to  the  lungs  and  membranes  of  the  air  passages.  The 
blood  is  abnormally  charged  with  waste  materials,  and  the  or- 
gans on  which  the  work  of  the  skin  is  thus  thrown  become 
inflamed  and  congested,  and  disease  follows. 

The  history  of  nations  has  shown  that  the  dry  atmosphere  is 
unfavorable  to  the  spread  of  contagious  diseases,  while  the  moist 
or  hot  and  damp  atmosphere  is  most  favorable.  This  may  arise 
from  two  causes.  First,  the  evaporation  from  the  skin  is  imper- 
fect, the  textures  of  the  animal  less  elastic,  and  as  a  conse- 
quence the  circulation  is  languid.  Second,  the  hot,  damp  at- 
mosphere favors  the  rapid  development  of  fungi  of  a  para- 
sitic nature,  whose  hurtful  germs  are  rapidly  and  indefinitely 
multiplied. 

Ventilation. — From  this  we  see  some  of  the  reasons  why 
pure  air,  and  protection  against  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold 
and  moisture,  are  desirable.  Of  course,  man  can  not  control  these 
in  nature.  They  are  variable  with  the  latitude  and  elevation 
and  characteristics  of  the  country.  Man  can  never  make  the 
deltas  of  the  Nile  and  the  Mississippi  as  healthful  regions  as 
are  the  elevated  plains  where  the  rivers  have  their  origin.  We 
can,  however,  in  the  artificial  arrangements  of  dwellings,  stables 
and  sheds,  see  that  the  air  is  not  vitiated,  and  its  purity  not 
impaired. 

DRYNESS  of  the  atmosphere  of  the  dwelling  or  stable  is  of 
the  first  importance.  The  horse  has  ever  produced  his  highest 
type  in  a  dry  elevated  region,  where  there  was  a  pure,  dry  brac- 
ing atmosphere.  The  animals,  of  greatest  activity  dwell  in  dry 
and  elevated  regions.  The  sluggish  animals  like  the  hippopo- 
tami and  pachyderms,  flourish  in  the  low  marsh  districts.  The 
nature  of  the  horse  demands  first  of  all  a  dry  place  to  sleep 
and  feed  in.  The  damp  stable  favors  development  of  fungi, 
decomposition  of  litter,  dung,  and  urine,  and  waste  of  feed,  all 
rich  in  nitrogeneous  matter,  which  decays  readily  and  defiles  the 


THE  HORSE— HYGIENE  AND  SANITARY  CONDITIONS.         637 

atmosphere.  The  dark,  damp  stable  favors  all  fungous  growth. 
Light  and  dryness  destroy  it.  The  damp  stable  is  unfavorable 
to  healthy  action  of  the  skin  and  lungs,  and  of  all  members 
used  in  depuration  or  purifying  the  system.  Thus  we  see  the 
train  of  ills  that  follow. 

The  Location  of  Barns  and  Stables. — If  these  prin- 
ciples be  correct,  we  see  that  the  site  on  which  the  dwelling  of 
man  or  beast  is  located  is  a  matter  of  first  importance.  Venti- 
lation can  never  be  so  perfect  as  to  keep  the  air  of  the  inclosure 
dry  and  pure  while  the  foundation  and  ground  beneath  are  damp. 
The  site  must  be  dry,  with  a  complete  drainage.  The  old  style 
of  locating  the  stables  on  a  hill  where  the  manure  would  wash 
off  out  of  the  way,  had  its  compensation,  for  though  the  farmer's 
soil  lost  much  of  the  fertility  from  the  manure,  his  animals 
gained  the  health  and  vigor  that  come  with  a  dry  undefiled 
atmosphere,  in  and  around  his  barns. 

In  these  days  when  farmers  are  learning  to  prize  the  riches 
of  the  manure,  and  are  planning  to  save  all  and  to  increase  its 
amount  they  need  to  be  warned,  that  while  they  accumulate  a 
vast  amount  of  quickly  fermenting  material  in,  under,  and  around 
their  barns,  they  are  liable  to  contaminate  the  atmosphere  by 
increasing  its  moisture,  and  permeating  it  with  unwholesome 
gases.  While  the  manure  increases,  let  our  care  increase,  that 
by  the  liberal  and  constant  use  of  absorbents,  we  retain  the 
wealth  of  the  accumulating  fertilizers  and  preserve  the  health 
of  our  animals.  The  increased  value  of  the  manure  will  never 
compensate  for  the  injury  to  the  health  of  the  animals,  that  must 
be  housed  in  the  barns  so  many  months  of  the  year.  True  wis- 
dom and  economy  will  teach  us  not  to  gain  one  while  we  lose 
the  other,  but  to  secure  both,  richness  and  abundance  of  manure, 
with  vigor  and  health  of  our  stables  and  herds. 

The  barn  should  be  located  on  an  elevation  sufficient  to  secure 
good  and  prompt  drainage.  A  knoll  with  a  gravel  subsoil 
affords  a  natural  drainage  that  will  be  prompt  and  efficient.  It 
will  be  improved,  if  eave  troughs  and  spouting  be  arranged  so  as 
to  carry  water  far  enough  from  the  building  to  prevent  soakage 
or  dampness  in  the  stables.  There  is  no  danger  of  having  a 


638  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

stable  too  dry  ;  but  the  dangers  of  a  damp  stable  are  constant  and 
fearful. 

Bank-barns. — The  severity  of  our  winters,  convenience  in 
handling  feed,  economy  in  feed  and  building  material,  together 
with  the  comfort  of  our  animals,  have  led  many  farmers  to  build 
bank-barns.  The  writer  has  two,  and  knows  something  of  their 
value  and  superiority.  Yet,  when  he  built  them  he  was  imbued 
with  the  idea  of  not  only  securing  the  comfort  of  his  horses  and 
cattle,  but  preserving  their  health.  He  abhorred  a  damp,  cold 
stable.  He  sought  comfort  and  health  for  his  animals,  and  economy 
and  convenience  for  himself.  He  believes  he  has  hit.  the  glorious 
mean.  The  barns  are  handy,  comfortable  and  dry,  and  lighted 
and  ventilated  thoroughly.  The  winds  of  winter  do  not  chill  his 
stock,  and  the  heat  and  flies  of  summer  do  not  torment  them. 

Bank-barns  as  often  built  are  damp,  dark  and  most  un- 
healthy places  for  horses.  The  darkness  is  injurious  to  the 
eyes,  and  that  with  dampness  make  the  basement  stable  as 
usually  arranged,  a  complete  device  for  development  of  fungous 
growth  and  defilement  of  air  and  exclusion  of  sunlight  and 
pure  air.  To  secure  dryness,  the  writer's  barns  are  on  eleva- 
tions with  a  gravel  subsoil,  and  under  the  walls  are  laid  tile 
drains,  and  the  water  from  the  roofs  is  carried  away  with  gutters 
and  spouts  so  the  foundation  and  floors  are  perfectly  dry.  To 
secure  purity  of  the  air  and  light,  windows  are  placed  in  the 
east,  south  and  west,  so  that  every  part  of  the  basement  floor  is 
well  lighted,  and  the  sun  shines  in  from  three  sides  in  the  course 
of  the  day.  The  ventilators,  connecting  the  basement  with  the 
cupolas  in  the  roof,  change  and  carry  off  the  air  from  the  base- 
ment so  readily  that  there  is  never  any  close  or  offensive  smell 
in  the  stables.  It  is  a  common  thing  for  writers  on  sanitation 
and  health  to  denounce  in  strongest  terms  all  bank-barns.  It 
would  be  as  unreasonable  to  denounce  all  thoroughly  built  dwell- 
ings, because  by  their  exclusion  of  cold  air,  they  allow  the  air 
to  become  impure,  and  can  not  furnish  as  constant  a  supply  of 
fresh  air  as  can  the  open  cabin  with  the  huge  open  fire-place. 

The  length  of  human  life  has  been  increased  by  the  improved 
science  of  building  and  increasing  the  comforts  of  man.  The 


THE  HORSE— HYGIENE  AND  SANITARY  CONDITIONS.         639 

better  dwellings  for  man  and  beast  are  better  lighted  and  better 
ventilated,  and  better  drained  than  the  old  cabin,  whose  chief 
comfort  was  the  huge  blazing  fire  on  the  open  hearth. 

Light  and  Pure  Air  are  essential  to  health  of  all  animals. 
The  experience  of  the  last  generation  has  brought  out  many 
facts  to  prove  that  health  can  not  long  be  secured  without  them. 
As  long  as  men  lived  in  open  air,  or  in  cabins  with  huge  wood 
fires,  which  changed  the  air  of  the  house  every  few  minutes,  all 
attention  to  the  laws  of  ventilation  and  sanitary  science  was 
neglected.  As  soon,  however,  as  better  houses  were  built,  and 
they  were  heated  by  close  stoves,  some  plan  for  artificial  venti- 
lation became  necessary. 

In  1830  an  experiment  in  ventilation  was  made  by  scientific 
men  at  the  Foundling  Hospital,  and  at  the  Zoological  Garden,  in 
London.  The  results  achieved  were  astonishing,  and  attracted 
the  attention  of  intelligent  men  in  all  parts  of  the  civilized 
world.  By  the  improved  ventilation  in  the  hospital,  the  length 
of  life  of  the  foundlings  was  increased  one  hundred  per  cent. 
The  same  degree  of  improvement  was  found  in  the  monkeys' 
quarters  of  the  zoological  garden.  Under  the  old  plan  the 
children  and  monkeys  had  generally  died  of  tubercles  of  the 
lungs  and  bowels.  The  impure  air  of  their  quarters  had  too 
little  oxygen  and  too  much  carbonic  acid.  Consumption  finds 
its  victims  in  the  homes  where  the  air  is  impure,  and  the  sun- 
light and  fresh  air  have  not  free  access.  In  the  North  where 
economy  of  fuel  leads  to  close  houses  and  stoves,  there  are  more 
lung  diseases  than  where  the  houses  are  open  and  fires  are  few, 
as  in  the  Southern  climes.  The  lesson  of  confined  air  often 
used,  teaches  that  disease  must  ensue. 

Impure  Air  Poisonous. — In  the  chapter  on  anatomy  was 
noted  the  character  of  the  action  of  the  lungs.  By  considering 
the  nature  of  the  functions  of  respiration,  we  see  it  consists  of 
two  parts — viz :  inspiration  and  expiration.  By  inspiration  the 
air  is  taken  into  the  cells  of  the  lungs.  Around  these  cells  are 
vast  numbers  of  capillaries  or  minute  blood-vessels,  wherein  a 
peculiar  work  is  done,  as  the  impure  blood  of  the  system  comes 
to  be  purified  by  contact  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  The  blood 


640  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA 

is  changed  in  color,  the  oxygen  acting  on  the  carbon  forms  car- 
bonic acid,  which  is  an  impurity,  and  is  thrown  oil'  by  expira- 
tion into  the  atmosphere  around  us.  The  atmosphere  that  was 
inhaled  contained  oxygen  and  nitrogen.  In  that  combination 
they  are  beneficial.  As  soon,  however,  as  the  oxygen  has  been 
acted  on  by  the  blood  or  lungs,  nature  throws  off  the  nitrogen 
with  the  carbonic  acid.  Now,  as  nitrogen,  in  some  forms,  and 
carbonic  acid  are  injurious  to  animal  life,  it  will  be  seen  how 
imperative  is  the  demand  that  these  do  not  again  enter  the 
lungs;  but  if  the  ventilation  is  defective,  and  fresh,  new  air  is 
not  furnished,  the  inhalation  of  the  second-hand  or  oft-used  air 
goes  on  to  the  inevitable  contamination  of  the  blood.  We  get  a 
better  idea  of  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  thrown  off  from  the 
lungs  by  noting  that  Carpenter  gives  the  average  amount  per 
hour  set  free  by  a  full-grown  man  to  be  about  one  hundred 
and  sixty  grains,  or  in  twenty-four  hours  about  3,840  grains,  or 
eight  ounces  Troy  weight. 

"Warm  Stables. — As  external  cold  increases  the  amount 
of  carbon  thrown  off,  we  have  an  incentive  to  keep  our  stables 
warm  in  the  winter.  But  in  this  we  encounter  another  danger. 
The  effect  of  several  horses  and  cattle  shut  up  in  a  close  stable 
can  be  imagined.  The  air  becomes  laden  with  the  excreted  car- 
bonic acid,  and  with  the  impurities  added  by  the  urine,  dung, 
and  decomposition  of  vegetable  matter,  increased  by  bad  drain- 
age, we  have  a' stifling  atmosphere. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  in  the  neglected  stables  we  find  sore 
throat,  inflamed  lungs,  diseased  eyes,  grease  or  scratches,  farcy, 
mange,  and  even  glanders.  Nor  is  it  wonderful  that  when 
disease  appears  it  spreads  rapidly  through  the  whole  herd  or 
stud,  since  they  have  all  been  exposed  to  the  same  kind  of  pro- 
voking causes.  The  heat  of  the  stable  sets  free  the  nitrogen 
and  hydrogen  abounding  in  the  vegetable  matter,  and  in  the 
dung  and  urine,  and  these  gases  unite  and  form  ammonia,  the 
salts  of  which  were  first  made  from  camels'  dung,  in  the  district 
of  Ammonia,  in  Africa.  Hence  the  name.  The  ammonia  is  a 
pungent  gas,  and  acts  powerfully  on  the  eyes  and  nose  and 
lungs.  Since  any  affection  of  the  wind  and  sight  of  the  horse 


THE  HORSE— HYGIENE  AND  SANITARY  CONDITIONS.        641 

greatly  damages  the  animal,  it  is  a  sufficient  reason  for  extra 
care  to  secure  good  ventilation. 

The  custom  of  throwing  the  damp  bedding  forward  under 
the  manger,  is  a  very  damaging  one.  It  defiles  the  feed  in  the 
manger,  and  the  horse  is  compelled  to  breathe  its  poisonous 
fumes.  The  bedding  is  better  to  be  removed  from  the  stable 
entirely  each  morning.  If  this  can  not  be  done,  then  at  least 
carefully  remove  all  that  is  wet,  and  pile  the  remainder  in  the 
rear  rather  than  under  the  nose  of  the  horse.  Since  the  days 
of  close,  warm  stables,  we  note  the  disease  of  pneumonia,  and 
lung  troubles  are  increasing. 

The  Temperature  of  the  Stable. — This  is  an  important 
consideration.  The  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  tax  the  system 
heavily.  The  office  of  the  lungs  and  skin  is  so  essential  in  the 
work  of  depuration  or  cleansing  the  system,  that  it  can  not  be 
interrupted  without  danger.  The  lungs  and  skin  of  a  man 
throw  off  about  three  pounds  of  carbon  a  day,  and  any  thing 
that  clogs  or  closes  the  pores  hinders  the  process  of  respiration. 
It  is  well  known  that  the  normal  condition  is  best  preserved 
when  the  temperature  is  neither  high  nor  low.  About  60°  to 
70°  in  summer,  and  40°  to  50°  in  winter  may  be  considered 
favorable. 

Because  a  warm  stable  favors  a  glossy  coat  and  less  feed, 
grooms  and  owners  are  inclined  to  keep  the  stables  close  and 
tight,  that  the  temperature  may  be  kept  up  by  the  heat  thrown 
off  by  the  animals.  The  danger  is  two-fold.  The  air  becomes 
vitiated  and  the  animals  debilitated.  The  coat  of  the  horse 
or  ox  kept  day  and  night  in  a  warm  stable  does  not  thicken  up 
enough  to  protect  against  a  chill  that  comes  when  taken  out  of 
the  stables.  Unless  there  is  constant  and  prompt  attention  to 
covering  with  a  blanket  as  soon  as  exercise  ceases,  the  animal  is 
suddenly  chilled,  and  the  tax  on  the  system  is  most  damaging. 
If  the  stables  are  close  enough  to  keep  the  winds  from  sweeping 
through,  and  to  prevent  all  draughts  of  air  on  the  animals,  they 
will  be  comfortable  with  a  lower  temperature  than  when  draughts 
are  felt. 

The  farmer  who  uses  his  horses  for  slow  work  will  not  find 

41 


642  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

the  coat  of  the  horses  getting  too  long  in  a  stable  of  50  degrees 
temperature.  Those  who  use  horses  for  fast  driving,  and  warm 
them  up  to  a  lather,  may  find  they  can  clean  them  more  easily 
when  the  coat  is  light.  For  this  reason  the  practice  of  clipping 
has  become  common.  The  clipped  horse  needs  a  warmer  stable 
and  must  be  carefully  blanketed  as  soon  as  exercise  ceases.  In 
general,  it  is  true  that  warm  stables  are  close  and  ventilation  is 
limited.  Dangers  of  impure  and  impoisoned  air  increase  as  ven- 
tilation diminishes. 

The  Size  of  the  Stable. — If  the  stable  is  to  be  kept  close 
it  must  be  greatly  enlarged.  A  small  close  stable  is  but  a 
dungeon  or  a  pest-house.  A  man  needs  a  bed-room  containing 
800  cubic  feet,  a  horse  needs  one  three  times  as  large  if  the 
room  is  close.  The  size  may  be  lessened  as  the  ventilation  is 
increased.  Youatt  says  :  *'  A  stable  for  six  horses  divided  into 
stalls  should  not  be  less  than  forty  by  sixteen,  and  the  ceiling  from 
nine  to  twelve  feet  high."  If  there  be  no  ventilator  connecting 
with  the  roof,  the  atmosphere  of  such  a  pen  would  be  stifling  by 
morning  if  closed  tight  enough  to  keep  the  temperature  at  50 
degrees  when  thermometer  is  below  zero  without.  Gratings  in 
the  walls  are  not  enough  to  secure  pure  air  in  the  average  stable. 
Ventilators. — The  farmer  who  has  his  horses  and  cattle  in 
the  barn  where  hay  and  other  feed  is  stored,  has  an  additional 
reason  for  providing  ventilators  connecting  with  the  roof  to  allow 
the  free  escape  of  impure  air.  He  is  to  provide  not  only  pure 
air  for  his  animals,  but  he  is  to  protect  his  feed  from  contami- 
nation. Ventilating  shafts  may  be  so  arranged  as  to  do  double 
duty.  They  can  be  used  as  exits  for  impure  air  and  a  great  con- 
venience in  the  mow  for  throwing  down  hay  or  straw. 

The  taller  the  barn  the  more  readily  can  it  be  ventilated,  as 
the  draft  will  be  better.  A  ventilating  shaft  4x5  feet,  or  better 
5  feet  square,  extending  from  the  barn  floor  to  the  cupola  in 
in  the  roof,  will  keep  fresh  and  wholesome  the  air  in  a  stable 
where  there  are  thirty  to  fifty  head  of  animals.  It  may  have 
at  convenient  points  in  the  mow  doors  hinged  at  their  upper 
ends,  so  as  to  yield  readily  to  the  fork  full  of  hay  and  fall  back 
as  soon  as  the  hay  has  dropped  into  the  ventilating  shaft.  By 


THE  HORSE— HYGIENE  AND  SANITARY  CONDITIONS.        643 

this  device  the  shaft  is  always  closed  and  no  foul  air  from  the 
stables  comes  into  the  barn  or  settles  among  the  stored-up  hay, 
oats,  or  straw.  This  ventilating  shaft  is  promotive  of  health 
among  the  animals  and  cleanliness  in  the  barn  and  feed  rooms. 
The  expense  of  such  shafts  is  trifling  when  compared  with  the 
gains  in  a  sanitary  point  of  view. 

Sub-ventilators. — As  warmth  in  the  horse  stable,  cattle 
barn,  and  pig  pen  is  economical,  being  a  saving  of  fuel  in  the  form 
of  feed  to  keep  up  animal  heat  it  is  the  part  of  sanitary  science 
to  devise  means  for  securing  warmth  of  stables  arid  keeping  the 
air  pure  as  nearly  as  possible.  Since  carbonic  acid  gas  is  heavier 
than  common  air,  no  system  of  ventilation  is  complete  that  does 
not  provide  for  change  of  air  at  the  floor  of  the  building.  Air 
brought  into  the  stable  through  underground  tubes  gives  warmer 
air  and  causes  the  removal  of  heavier  air  and  impure  gases  so 
they  can  not  accumulate  to  an  injurious  degree.  The  law 
of  diffusion  of  gases  causes  the  carbonic  acid  gas  to  be  thus 
lifted  with  the  nitrogen  and  oxygen  and  hydrogen  and  passed  to 
the  outer  air  by  the  ventilators.  The  system  of  supplying  air 
of  a  higher  temperature  than  outer  air  to  the  closely  built 
stables  is  economical  and  health-giving. 

Prof.  Cook,  of  Lansing,  Mich.,  has  successfully  adopted  sub- 
earth  ventilation  for  the  College  Apiary.  The  air  entering  by 
the  sub-earth  tubes  or  tiles  is  many  degrees  warmer  than  the 
surface  air.  By  this  means  we  can  have  a  comfortable  tempera- 
ture and  a  pure  atmosphere  in  our  stables  at  a  very  small  out- 
lay. The  cost  of  repairs  of  these  devices  is  absolutely  nothing, 
yet  the  benefits  derived  are  very  great. 

A  Vitiated  Atmosphere  is  the  source  of  more  loss  by 
disease  to  the  farmers  who  have  horses  and  cattle  in  close  stables, 
and  sheep  and  swine  in  illy  ventilated  pens,  and  poultry  in 
noisome  houses,  than  all  other  causes  combined.  The  air  that 
is  expired  from  the  lungs  differs  from  that  which  was  intro- 
duced into  them  not  merely  in  the  altered  proportions  of  its 
oxygen,  nitrogen  and  carbonic  acid,  but  also  in  a  large  addition 
to  its  watery  vapor,  which  from  the  lungs  of  a  man  ranges 
between  16  to  20  oz.  a  day. 


644  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM:  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

And  this  vapor  is  not  pure  water.  It  holds  in  solution  a 
considerable  amount  of  carbonic  acid  and  some  animal  matter, 
3  parts  in  1,000,  which  the  best  authorities  now  hold  to  be 
an  albuminous  substance  in  a  state  of  decomposition.  The 
changes  of  air  and  food  and  tissue  in  the  processes  of  assimila- 
tion and  depuration  or  throwing  off  refuse,  are  wonderful  and 
essential  to  animal  life  and  health.  If  we  better  understood  the 
nature  of  this  process,  there  would  not  be  such  a  neglect  of  the 
means  of  securing  to  our  families  and  herds  and  flocks  an  ample 
supply  of  pure  air  that  can  be  had  without  money  and  without 
price,  if  we  will  but  allow  it  to  come  in.  Of  the  hydrogen 
which  food  contains  only  about  one-eight  to  one-tenth  passes 
from  the  system  by  other  excretions,  the  remaining  seven- 
eights  or  nine-tenths  being  exhaled  in  the  condition  of  watery 
vapor  from  the  lungs. 

Predisposing  Causes  of  Disease. — The  lungs  absorb 
continuously  volatile  matters  diffused  through  the  air.  This  is 
easily  shown  by  the  inhalation  of  turpentine  affecting  the  urine. 
If  we  consider  the  astonishing  effect  of  some  substances  when 
brought  into  relation  with  the  blood  in  the  gaseous  form,  we  will 
realize  in  some  degree  the  importance  of  preventing  their  inhala- 
tion by  our  animals.  The  inhalation  of  a  few  hundredths  of  a 
grain  of  arseniuretted  hydrogen  will  prove  fatal,  causing  the 
symptoms  of  poisoning  with  arsenic.  Its  effects  on  a  human  sub- 
ject are  not  so  violent  as  on  some  other  animals.  One-fifteen- 
hundreth  part  will  destroy  a  bird,  and  one-eighth-hundredth  part 
suffices  to  kill  a  dog,  and  one-two-hundred-and-fiftieth  part  is 
fatal  to  a  horse. 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  hydro-sulphuret  of  ammonia  are 
given  off  from  most  forms  of  decaying  animal  and  vegetable 
matter,  and  when  confined,  as  in  sewers,  we  have  many  in- 
stances of  death  caused  by  entering  them.  Carbonic-acid  gas, 
which  so  abounds  in  our  stables,  is  absorbed  by  the  lungs  of 
animals,  and  exerts  a  really  poisonous  influence.  "  The  con- 
tinued respiration  of  an  atmosphere  charged  with  exhalations 
from  the  lungs  and  skin,  is  among  the  most  potent  of  all  the 
predisposing  causes  of  disease,"  says  Carpenter. 


THE  HORSE— HYGIENE  AND  SANITARY  CONDITIONS.        645 

« 

The  same  high  authority  teaches  that  the  presence  of  even 
a  small  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  air,  taken  in  by  breath- 
ing, causes  a  serious  diminution  in  the  amount  thrown  off,  and 
of  oxygen  absorbed,  hence  the  effete  matter  of  the  system  is  not 
thrown  off  perfectly,  and  the  blood  is  contaminated  thereby. 

The  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta  affords  a  remarkable  illus- 
tration of  the  poisonous  character  of  a  confined  and  oft-breathed 
atmosphere.  In  1756  one  hundred  and  fifty-six  prisoners  were 
confined  in  a  room  eighteen  feet  square,  provided  with  only  two 
small  windows.  One  hundred  and  twenty-three  died  in  one 
night.  Of  the  thirty-three  who  were  found  alive  in  the  morn- 
ing, many  of  them  were  cut  off  by  a  putrid  fever,  caused  by  con- 
tamination of  the  blood.  In  the  crowded,  close  stables  on  too 
many  farms  of  America,  if  we  have  not  almost  Black  Holes  of 
Calcutta,  we  have  such  shameful  neglect  of  sanitary  laws,  and 
especially  of  ventilation,  that  the  animals  kept  there  are  re;idy 
for  any  form  of  disease  that  may  be  introduced,  while  the  occu- 
pants of  well-ventilated  barns  and  stables  will  escape  many 
forms  of  epidemics  or  pass  through  without  loss.  We  have 
given,  perhaps,  too  much  space  to  this  part  of  our  chapter,  but  it 
seems  to  us  the  bad  ventilation  of  stables  and  pens  is  the  pro- 
lific cause  of  disease  and  loss. 

OVERCROWDING  of  school-houses,  jails,  etc.,  has  furnished  the 
history  of  epidemics  with  many  striking  illustrations  of  the  in- 
creased danger  to  those  who  had  been  exposed  to  the  damaging 
influences  of  crowded  rooms  before  the  outbreak  of  an  epidemic. 

The  Stable  Floor. — In  connection  with  the  subject  of  ven- 
tilation or  keeping  the  atmosphere  free  from  taint,  the  stable 
floor  plays  an  important  part.  If  the  sole  object  of  the  floor 
were  to  keep  the  horse  dry  and  clean,  then  an  open  or  loose 
board  floor  would  be  the  best.  But,  while  this  floor  admits  of 
quick  drainage,  it  allows  the  urine  to  soak  into  the  ground  be- 
neath, which  defiles  the  foundation,  and  after  the  soil  has  been 
saturated,  it  gives  forth  gases  most  detrimental  to  health.  The 
board-floor,  too,  is  dryer  than  the  ground,  and  the  horse's  hoof 
becomes  as  dry  as  the  board,  whereas  the  normal  and  healthy 
condition  of  the  foot  is  to  be  moist  and  pliable.  The  board-floor, 


646  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

i 

too,  that  is  high  enough  from  the  ground  to  avoid  a  harbor  for 
vermin  and  fungus,  endangers  the  limbs  as  the  floors  become 
•worn  or  decayed  from  age  and  moisture. 

On  the  whole,  there  are  more  objections  to  the  plank-floor 
than  to  earth  or  brick,  or  cement  or  bowlder-floors.  The  earth- 
floor  is  the  best  of  all  so  long  as  it  can  be  kept  free  from  holes. 
If  the  foundation  be  well  drained,  and  well  packed  by  tamping 
as  thoroughly  as  the  dirt  is  packed  about  a  post,  a  good  clay- 
floor  will  last  years  if  it  has  reasonable  care.  The  writer  has 
such  a  floor  that  has  been  in  use  five  years  and  has  never  been 
repaired,  yet  there  are  no  holes  in  it.  The  secret  is  in  first  hav- 
ing it  well  made  and  evenly  packed  with  clean  clay  in  which 
there  are  no  stones  or  gravel.  If  packed  and  made  as  level  and 
true  as  a  board-floor,  it  will  cost  far  less  and  last  as  long  with- 
out repair  as  a  board  or  cement-floor.  It  takes  more  bedding  to 
absorb  the  moisture  than  the  board-floor.  This  also  protects  the 
floor  from  injury  by  the  feet  of  the  horses.  The  feet  of  the 
horses  that  stand  on  the  earth-floor  are  never  so  hard  and  dry 
as  to  be  brittle,  and  the  horses  never  slip  or  break  through,  and 
there  is  no  harbor  for  rats  and  filth  underneath. 

The  floor  most  usually  recommended  as  best,  is  one  made  of 
good  pavement-brick,  set  on  edge  on  a  good  foundation  of  coarse 
sand.  If  the  bricks  are  uniformly  good,  evenly  laid  on  a  foun- 
dation that  will  not  settle  in  holes,  we  have  in  such  a  floor  a  sat- 
isfaction that  does  not  come  with  any  other. 

The  writer  has  a  stable  paved  with  cobble-stones,  such  as 
are  used  in  street  pavements.  It  has  been  in  use  now  twelve 
years  and  has  not  come  to  repair.  It  has  all  the  advantages  of 
the  brick,  except  that  when  there  is  most  moisture  the  cement  or 
sand  that  fills  the  crevices  works  out  when  the  broom  is  used 
to  clean  the  floor.  By  using  the  pavement-brooms  we  can  clean 
the  floor  perfectly,  and  we  have  no  defilement  of  the  atmosphere 
from  gases  arising  from  fermentation  and  decay  beneath.  A 
well-made  bowlder-pavement  has  no  superior  for  utility,  neat- 
ness, comfort,  economy,  and  sanitary  conditions.  The  black- 
smith who  shoes  the  driving-horses  kept  on  this  floor  says  the 
horses'  feet  are  in  uniformly  better  condition  than  any  horses 


THE  HORSE- HYGIENE  AND  SANITARY  CONDITIONS.        647 

that  come  to  his  shop.  The  stable  that  has  a  brick  or  cobble- 
stone floor,  well  laid  on  a  foot  of  sand  and  gravel,  and  so  ar- 
ranged that  rats  do  not  undermine,  has  a  floor  that  will  cost  less 
and  give  more  comfort  and  security  to  health  and  against  acci- 
dent than  can  be  had  by  any  other  method. 

Let  the  floor  be  what  it  may,  the  comfort  of  the  horse  and 
saving  of  the  valuable  liquid  fertilizer  can  be  secured  by  abund- 
ance of  straw,  leaves,  or  saw-dust,  while  the  bedding  must  be 
aired  and  the  floors  cleaned,  so  as  to  dry,  each  day. 

If  the  farmer  will  arrange  his  stalls  and  windows  so  that 
while  the  horses  are  at  work  the  floors  can  receive  the  sunlight 
and  fresh  air,  he  will  add  to  the  neatness  of  his  stable,  rid  it 
of  foul  odors,  and  prolong  the  life  and  usefulness  of  his  team, 
and  if  he  has  boys,  will  set  them  an  example  worthy  of  imita- 
tion. Cleanliness  is  of  first  importance  in  the  stables.  It  is 
profitable  for  health  and  decency. 

The  Care  of  the  Feet. — On  such  floors,  where  the  bed- 
ding and  filth  are  removed  every  day,  we  do  not  find  disgusting 
cases  of  thrush  and  grease.  The  carefulness  that  provides  such 
quarters  for  the  horse  also  cares  for  the  feet.  The  farmer  who 
will  clean  his  horses'  feet  in  the  morning  free  from  manure  and 
filth,  will  have  them  perfectly  deodorized  as  they  go  to  the 
plowed  field.  But  if  he  leaves  the  frog  bedded  in  manure,  the 
loose  earth  packs  and  fills  about  the  shoe,  and  makes  a  com- 
plete device  for  injuring  the  frog  and  inducing  thrush,  and  in- 
juring the  structure  of  the  foot.  The  rosidster  should  have  his 
feet  cleaned  night  and  morning,  as  he  is  likely  to  have  a  gravel 
wedged  in  beside  the  frog.  We  are  here  treating  of  prevention 
of  ailments,  and  the  foot  needs  special  care,  as  it  is  a  compli- 
cated structure  that  must  be  kept  in  good  repair  to  insure  the 
highest  usefulness  of  the  horse. 

Cleaning  or  Grooming. — The  practice  of  cleaning  horses 
in  the  stall,  and  while  eating,  is  a  common  one  on  the  farm.  It 
is  convenient  for  the  man  to  do  this  before  breakfast,  and  while 
the  horse  eats,  so  that  as  soon  as  the  morning  meal  is  over,  the 
team  can  go  to  the  field.  But  it  is  neither  conducive  to  clean- 
liness nor  health.  The  dust  from  cleaning  a  horse  thus  defiles 


648  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

the  atmosphere  of  the  stable,  settles  into  the  manger  and  through 
the  feed,  and  the  poor  animals  are  compelled  to  feed  on  their 
own  excremented  matter. 

The  horse  appreciates  cleanliness,  and  abhors  filth  in  his 
feed  more  than  any  other  of  the  domestic  animals.  His  sense 
of  smell  is  acute,  and  he  will  suffer  intense  thirst  before  he  will 
drink  from  a  vessel  that  has  about  it  an  offensive  odor.  This 
trait  of  his  nature  tells  us  to  be  cleanly  in  the  food  we  provide 
for  him.  The  carelessness  of  men  and  boys  who  trample  over 
the  hay  and  grain  with  filthy  boots,  is  an  offense  to  the  decency 
of  the  horse.  If  the  groom  does  not  care  enough  for  his  own 
cleanliness  to  take  the  horse  out  of  the  stable  to  curry  and 
brush,  then  for  the  sake  of  the  horse  and  stable  we  bespeak  it. 
The  cleaning  of  the  farm  horse  is  not  generally  such,  however, 
as  to  liberate  a  great  amount  of  dirt  from  his  skin,  and  for  this 
reason  it  may  be  true  that,  "  there  is  no  dust  to  hurt,"  as  we 
once  heard  a  farm  hand  say. 

If  the  farmer  will  remember  that  the  skin  of  his  horse  per- 
forms an  office  more  essential  to  life  and  health  than  even  diges- 
tion, he  will  surely  see  that  it  needs  to  be  cleaned  and  freed  from 
the  vast  accumulation  of  excremented  matter.  In  nature  the 
horse  rolls  often  and  relieves  the  surface  and  pores  of  impacted 
matter.  The  presence  of  the  pure  soil  taken  up  by  rolling  even 
acts  as  a  disinfectant  and  absorbent  of  impurities. 

Where  the  horse  runs  at  large,  the  sunlight,  fresh  air,  and 
rains,  and  rolling,  disinfect  the  skin  and  absorb  and  remove  the 
refuse  of  the  system.  When  confined  to  the  stable  and  at  the 
service  of  man,  the  horse  depends  for  these  offices  on  the  faith- 
fulness of  his  groom. 

The  horse  is  not  properly  groomed  when  the  filth  and  sweat 
have  been  scraped  off  so  that  the  neighbor  and  passers-by  can 
not  see  it  across  the  field.  Many  a  farmer  simply  cleans  or  cur- 
ries his  team  enough  to  prevent  the  neighbors  making  fun  of 
him.  It  is  well  that  owners  of  horses  like  to  have  them  look 
well,  and  they  clean  the  coat  for  appearance  sake.  Let  it 
be  kept  in  mind,  the  skin  needs  to  be  regularly  cleaned  for 
health's  sake. 


THE  HORSE— HYGIENE  AND  SANITARY  CONDITIONS.         649 

"The  share  which  the  skin  has  in  the  office  of  excretion,  or 
throwing  off  of  impurities,"  Carpenter  says,  "  has  probably  been 
generally  underrated."  The  skin  and  lungs  throw  off  impurities 
in  the  relation  of  eleven  to  seven.  We  have,  under  Ventilation, 
spoken  of  the  amount  of  impurities  exhaled  by  the  lungs,  but 
we  now  see  that  is  not  so  large  as  the  amount  thrown  off  by 
the  skin.  Now,  any  check  of  this  excretion  by  the  skin 
throws  additional  labor  on  the  lungs  and  kidneys,  and  is  likely 
to  produce  disorder  of  their  functions.  Dr.  Fourcault  experi- 
mented on  animals  by  suppression  of  perspiration.  The  evil 
effects  were  found  to  be  in  proportion  to  the  interference,  until 
by  varnishing  the  animals,  "  cutaneous  asphyxia "  followed,  and 
the  animals  died.  The  blood  can  not  be  kept  pure  unless  the 
lungs,  kidneys,  and  skin  are  each  in  condition  to  remove 
promptly  the  wastes  of  the  system.  The  great  secret  of  pre- 
serving health  is  in  keeping  a  healthy  action  of  the  organs  that 
carry  off  the  wastes  of  the  system. 

Now,  since  the  skin  is  provided  with  thousands  of  pores  to 
the  square  inch,  and  each  pore  has  its  office  to  perform,  we  can 
see  that  keeping  the  skin  clean,  aids  in  this  work  so  essential 
to  life  and  health.  The  most  of  matter  thrown  off  by  the  skin 
is  water,  but  in  every  one  thousand  parts  there  is  about  ten 
parts  of  solid  matter,  that  is  offensive  to  the  organs. 

If  horsemen  can  not  be  led  to  understand  the  philosophy  of 
cleanliness  of  the  skin  and  stables  as  a  means  of  health,  it 
is  well  that  they  can  be  influenced  by  the  pride  of  appear- 
ing well. 

The  farmers,  however,  who  have  so  little  reason  for  display 
in  their  work,  on  their  farms,  must  realize  the  value  of  cleanli- 
ness as  a  health  and  wealth  promoter. 

The  Stalls.— For  health  and  comfort,  the  box  stall,  12x16 
or  larger,  is  superior,  but  this  method  of  stabling  takes  more 
room  than  the  man  of  average  means  can  afford.  The  stall 
should  then  be  not  less  than  five  feet  wide.  A  dealer  in  horses 
who  had  built  several  stables  and  handled  thousands  of  horses, 
gave  it  as  his  opinion,  that  a  stall  five  feet  nine  inches  in  the 
clear  is  better  than  wider,  since  he  found  horses  would  get  cast 


650  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

oftener  in  wider  stalls.  The  length  from  the  manger  back  to  the 
wall  should  not  be  less  than  fourteen  feet;  sixteen  feet  gives 
room  for  stall  and  manger.  The  stalls  should  extend  back  about 
eight  feet  and  slope  toward  the  manger,  so  the  horse  can  turn 
out  of  the  stall  more  easily.  The  plan  of  a  post  four  feet  high 
at  end  of  the  stall  gives  room,  but  since  the  writer  saw  a  valua- 
ble, good-feeling  horse  playfully  kick  up  and  land  his  flank  on 
the  top  of  a  post  and  disembowel  himself,  he  has  an  abhorrence 
of  the  low  post  at  the  end  of  the  stall  partition. 

The  partition  should  be  so  strong  as  to  avoid  the  danger  of 
breaking  down,  to  entangle  or  cripple  the  horse.  Bolts  are  bet- 
ter than  nails,  for  binding  the  posts  and  boards  together,  as 
they  do  not  loosen  and  project,  to  the  injury  of  the  horse.  The 
stall  partition  should  not  be  more  than  five  and  a  half  feet 
high,  and  from  that  to  the  ceiling  rounds  can  be  placed  six 
inches  apart,  so  as  to  allow  free  circulation  of  air,  and  yet  pre- 
vent horses  biting  each  other. 

The  two  points  of  strength  and  circulation  of  air  must  be 
kept  prominent  in  building  a  stable.  The  poorly,  carelessly 
built  stalls  are  the  cause  of  much  discomfort  and  many  a  wound 
to  horseflesh. 

The  Rack,  or  Manger. — As  commonly  constructed,  the 
racks  and  mangers  are  wasteful  of  feed,  and  endanger  the  sight 
and  health  of  the  horses.  If  the  building  is  of  such  size  and 
shape  that  racks  and  not  mangers  must  be  used,  the  writer 
asks  that  the  comfort  of  the  horse  be  considered,  and  the  racks 
be  perpendicular  in  front  of  the  horse,  and  not  slope  toward 
him,  as  is  common.  In  the  latter  case  the  hay  seed  is  more 
likely  to  fall  into  the  eyes,  and  the  litter  fall  into  mane  and 
foretop,  and  the  position  assumed  by  the  horse  to  pull  out  the 
hay  is  most  unnatural. 

The  writer  has  both  racks  and  mangers  in  use,  and  gives 
preference  to  the  rack,  when  the  rungs  stand  perpendicular. 
They  are  handy  for  man  and  horse,  and  the  horses  never  can 
get  seeds  into  eye,  mane,  or  foretop,  and  can  not  waste  hay ; 
and  the  great  desideratum  of  all  is,  it  acts  as  a  perfect  ventil- 
ator, allowing  the  breathed  air  to  pass  upward  direct  to  the 


THE  HORSE— HYGIENE  AND  SANITARY  CONDITIONS.        6f)l 

ventilator  in  the  roof.  Now,  as  the  racks  are  purposely  made 
so  that  more  hay  than  a  horse  should  eat  can  not  be  placed  be- 
fore him,  the  hay  is  consumed  before  it  becomes  defiled  by  the 
vapor  and  gases  from  the  breath  and  bedding  of  the  animals, 
while  the  ventilation  of  the  stall  is  unobstructed.  The  reader 
will  see  that  in  the  arrangement  of  stalls  and  racks  and  man- 
gers, the  floors,  doors,  and  windows  of  the  stable,  we  need  1o 
have  in  view  the  ventilation  of  the  dwelling  of  our  most  noble 
animal. 

Disinfectants. — Since  in  all  inclosed  rooms  and  quarters 
for  animals  there  are  times  when  the  air  may  become  contami- 
nated, we  need  some  means  of  removing  causes  of  infection,  and 
these  are  called  disinfectants.  They  may  be  divided  into  natu- 
ral and  artificial.  An  antiseptic  agent  is  one  which  prevents  de- 
composition of  animal  or  vegetable  matter.  A  deodorizer  is  an 
agent  which  destroys  hurtful  or  bad  smells  that  arise  from  de- 
composing matter.  Ventilation  is  a  mechanical  means  of  disin- 
fecting dwellings,  stables,  and  pens. 

Nature  has  arranged  so  that  sunlight,  air,  earth,  and  water 
are  all  valuable  and  ever-present  means  of  correcting  impurities 
generated  by  animal  and  vegetable  decay. 

Sunlight  is  a  disinfectant  for  our  houses  and  stables  that 
comes  in  at  every  opening  to  annihilate  the  fungous  growth, 
which  is  destructive  to  all  animal  and  vegetable  life.  Its  value 
is  not  appreciated  by  either  architect,  builder,  or  farmer. 
Without  light  the  rose  on  the  lawn  or  on  the  cheek  of  the 
maiden  will  not  bloom.  It  is  essential  to  the  vigor  and  growth 
of  animals.  Without  light  and  sunshine  falling  upon  it,  no  do- 
mestic animal  has  ever  arrived  at  a  mature  growth.  The  young 
pig  or  colt,  calf  or  lamb,  will  seek  the  corner  of  the  stall  or 
pen  where  the  ray  of  sunlight  falls.  Sunlight  facilitates  evap- 
oration to  a  degree  that  removes  so  much  moisture  from  things 
exposed  to  it  that  the  decomposition  is  checked.  Cold,  too,  is 
an  antiseptic ;  yet,  in  our  quarters  warm  enough  for  animals,  its 
power  is  not  efficient. 

Water  may  be  used  mechanically  for  cleansing,  but  when  ab- 
sorbed by  vegetable  matter,  it  is  usually  a  means  for  hastening, 


652  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

rather  than  retarding,  decomposition.  Dry  earth  is  unequaled 
as  an  absorbent  of  gases. 

Dry  Earth  an  Absorbent  and  Disinfectant. — The  ex- 
ceeding great  value  of  dry  earth  as  an  absorbent  of  moisture 
and  gases  is  not  generally  appreciated.  Muck  and  peat  have 
been  used  and  commended  as  absorbents  for  stables  and  pens 
by  those  who  have  them  convenient,  but  these  are  few,  com- 
pared with  farmers  who  have  no  muck  beds  or  peat  bogs 
within  reach.  As  absorbents  of  moisture  they  excel  loam  or 
clay,  but  as  absorbents  of  gases  they  are  not  equal  to  either. 
Clay  possesses,  to  a  greater  degree,  the  property  of  absorbing 
and  retaining  ammonia.  A  moist  soil  absorbs  more  ammonia 
than  a  dry  one.  Now,  we  see  why  muck,  containing  a  large 
per  cent  of  clay-wash,  is  so  grand  a  disinfectant.  The  humus  in 
the  muck  absorbs  moisture  to  a  rare  degree.  This  moisture  in- 
creases the  capacity  of  the  clay  particles  to  absorb  ammonia. 
Humus  acts  chemically  and  mechanically ;  so  does  the  clay. 
Ammonia  enters  chemically  with  silica  and  alumina,  and  forms 
double  silicates.  All  soils  contain  some  ingredients  which  tend 
to  fix  the  ammonia,  and  a  remarkable  feature  of  it  is  that,  year 
by  year,  this  soil  may  be  used  as  a  disinfectant,  and  after  dry- 
ing, it  seems  to  have  as  great  power  to  appropriate  moisture 
and  ammonia  as  when  first  used.  Compared  with  straw  or  saw- 
dust, dry  earth  is  vastly  superior  as  an  absorbent,  but  it  has 
this  objection:  When  wet,  it  adheres  to  the  animals,  which 
straw  and  sawdust  do  not.  The  perfection  of  bedding  is  a 
layer  of  dry  earth,  covered  with  clean  straw. 

That  the  farmer  may  see  how  completely  he  is  provided 
with  a  ready  means  of  keeping  up  fertility  while  protecting  his 
stables  against  disease,  and  promoting  health,  and  thrift,  and 
neatness,  we  give  a  table  to  show  the  property  of  soils  to  re- 
tain moisture : 

One  hundred   pounds  of  dry   soils,   named   below,   will  retain  as  many 
pounds  of  water  as  the  ^figures  opposite  indicate : 

Quartz    sand 25     Loam 51 

Clay  loam 40     Garden  mold 89 

Heavy  clay 61     Humus 181 


THE  HORSE— HYGIENE  AND  SANITARY  CONDITIONS.        653 

Loam  is  the  kind  of  soil  most  easily  obtained  on  the 
average  farm.  It  will  absorb  half  its  own  weight  of  urine,  and 
if  then  it  is  sprinkled  with  a  little  dry  earth,  it  will  give  off 
no  odor. 

We  thus  see  nature  has  provided  us  farmers  with  a  perfect 
disinfectant,  which  if  we  will  use  constantly  and  freely,  we  will 
keep  the  air  of  our  stables,  pig  pens,  and  privies  pure  and  free 
from  all  disease  germs  and  odors,  and  also  retain  and  return 
the  most  valuable  fertilizer  to  our  soils.  Dry  earth  is  at  once 
an  absorbent*  deodorizer,  disinfectant,  and  antiseptic. 

Artificial  Disinfectants. — When  any  disease  prevails,  or 
when  an  epidemic,  threatens  or  epizootic  disease  approaches,  our 
cellars,  dwellings,  barns,  stables,  and  pens  should  all  be  purified 
by  use  of  disinfectants.  They  are  cheap  and  most  effective  in 
destroying  germs  of  disease  and  spores  of  fungous  growth.  In 
the  swine-yards  and  pens,  we  have  nothing  better  than  a  liberal 
use  of  carbolic  acid  about  the  beds  and  feeding  troughs.  Copperas 
water  not  only  cleanses  the  floors,  but  purifies  the  atmosphere. 
Whitewashing  with  fresh  lime  is  unequaled  as  a  means  of  puri- 
fication and  prevention  of  diseases  that  so  readily  develop  in 
an  impure  atmosphere.  These  same  remedies  are  all  equally 
efficient  in  cellars,  stables,  and  pens.  By  their  regular  and 
seasonable  use  on  the  farm,  the  loss  by  disease  would  rapidly 
decrease. 

When  stables  or  pens  have  been  occupied  by  sick  animals, 
the  quarters  should  also  before  whitewashing  be  disinfected  by 
smoke  of  sulphur,  that  it  may  penetrate  every  pore  and  crack 
and  destroy  the  hidden  germs.  Of  course  the  animals  must  first 
be  removed,  as  sulphur  smoke  will  destroy  animal  life.  In 
cases  of  too  great  moisture,  the  free  and  frequent  use  of  fresh 
lime  is  most  helpful,  as  it  absorbs  many  times  its  own  bulk  of 
ammoniacal  and  other  gases. 

Fresh  Lime  is  cheap  and  most  effective  in  reducing  the 
moisture  of  a  cellar  or  stable,  as  one  bushel  of  it  will  absorb  28 
pounds  of  water,  and  yet  its  value  is  not  diminished  for  many 
purposes.  It  absorbs  carbonic  acid,  compounds  of  sulphur,  and 
hastens  decomposition  and  causes  "dry  putrefaction." 


654  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Pure  Charcoal,  such  as  tinners  use,  and  not  such  as  comes 
with  ashes  from  our  stoves,  is  a  great  absorber  of  gases.  A  cubic 
inch  of  good  charcoal  will  absorb  nine  times  its  volume  of  oxygen 
and  ninety  cubic  inches  of  ammonia.  For  this  reason  and  its 
affinity  for  carbonic  acid  gas,  it  is  a  most  valuable  preventive 
and  curative  on  the  farm.  It  is  a  sure  cure  for  hoven,  given  to 
the  animal  pulverized,  an  ounce  at  a  time  every  fifteen  minutes 
until  relief  comes.  Because  of  its  absorbing  carbonic  acid  gas 
so  readily  it  is  invaluable  for  feeding  to  pigs  and  hogs  that  are 
highly  fed.  It  is  thus  both  a  disinfectant  and  preventive  of 
disease. 

Chloride  of  Zinc. — This  is  a  liquid,  and  poisonous.  It  is 
usually  called  Burnett's  fluid,  after  Sir  William  Burnett.  It  con- 
tains about  35  per  cent  of  the  chloride,  and  it  has  peculiar  value 
in  coagulating  albumen,  and  absorbing  ammonia,  and  sulphuretted 
hydrogen.  One  part  of  the  chloride  to  three  hundred  parts  of 
water  instantly  destroys  infusorial  life,  checks  decomposition, 
and  its  effect  in  preventing  the  appearance  of  animalcules  and 
fungi  will  be  apparent  for  forty  days  or  more.  It  has  special 
value  as  a  disinfectant  of  faecal  matter.  It  has  no  power  as  a 
disinfectant  of  the  atmosphere,  hence  it  is  not  appreciated  by 
the  masses.  Diluted  with  ten  times  its  bulk  of  water,  it  may 
be  used  to  sprinkle  floors,  to  cleanse  mangers,  racks,  and  some 
parts  of  harness  or  stable  furniture,  which  may  need  disinfect- 
ing. Blankets  and  the  like  should  not  come  in  contact  with  it, 
as  it  is  too  corrosive  for  that  kind  of  fabrics. 

Chloride  of  Lime. — This  is  a  general  disinfectant,  and  de- 
pends mainly  for  its  virtue  on  the  chlorine,  yet  the  alkaline 
substance  has  virtue  also.  This  with  an  addition  of  muriatic 
acid  disengages  hypochlorous  acid  and  makes  an  excellent  aerial 
disinfectant.  A  solution  of  chloride  of  lime  in  the  proportion 
of  one  pound  to  two  gallons  of  water  makes  a  valuable  wash 
for  mangers,  racks,  woodwork,  etc..,  but  they  should  first  be  well 
cleaned  with  a  wash  of  copperas  water. 

Chlorine. — Chlorine  is  given  off  in  small  quantity  from 
chloride  of  lime,  when  moistened  with  water  or  dilute  sulphuric 
acid.  It  is  a  powerful  disinfectant,  and  is  placed  foremost  as  a 


THE  HOltSE-HYGIENE  AND  SANITARY  CONDITIONS.        ()55 

disinfectant.  It  more  surely  than  any  other  agent  decomposes 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  than  any  other  gas,  and  is  an  energetic 
destroyer  of  any  other  gas.  It  checks  putridity  and  the  develop- 
ment of  animalcules  in  organic  solutions,  and  will  kill  them  when 
about  four  per  cent  of  it  is  present.  It  destroys  organic  matters 
in  the  air,  and  deodorizes  by  abstracting  hydrogen  or  by  oxydiza- 
tion.  It  is  of  great  value  as  an  antiseptic  and  destroyer  of 
miasmata  and  effluvia. 

Carbolic  Acid. — This  is  a  most  potent  agent  in  preventing 
the  appearance  of  bacteria,  and  as  many  of  our  animal  diseases 
show  presence  of  bacteria,  this  is  a  valuable  article  on  the  farm. 
Even  in  a  diluted  form  carbolic  acid  will  destroy  all  the  lower 
forms  of  life,  vegetable  or  animal.  Hence  its  great  value  as  a 
disinfectant.  It  possesses  remarkable  power  as  an  antiseptic. 
It  prevents  putrefaction,  and  arrests  fermentation  in  organic 
matter,  which  lends  weight  to  the  theory  that  bacteria  is  the  ori- 
gin of,  or  at  least  always  present  and  essential  to,  fermentation. 
Its  efficiency  as  a  destroyer  of  bacteria  is  noted  in  the  use  of 
it  as  a  preventive  of  the  swine  plague,  or  so-called  hog  cholera. 
Its  value  has  been  recognized  by  the  commission  which  investi- 
gated hog  cholera,  and  reported  to  the  commissioner  of  agricul- 
ture. It  is  commonly  used  now  by  the  most  careful  breeders 
of  swine.  Some  use  it  constantly  about  the  pens  and  feeding- 
floors  and  troughs.  One  writer  says  that  even  the  vapor  of 
carbolic  acid  will  destroy  the  spores  of  germs  of  disease  which 
float  in  an  affected  atmosphere.  It  prevents  the  development 
of  bacteria  if  used  before  it  has  arrived  at  the  glia  stage,  or 
massing.  Dr.  Stetson,  of  Neponset,  111.,  has  had  remarkable 
immunity  from  the  disease,  though  he  raises  from  three  hun- 
dred to  five  hundred  head  of  hogs  each  year,  and  the  disease 
has  raged  all  around  him.  The  beds,  pens,  feeding-floors,  and 
water-troughs  are  never  free  from  the  odor  of  crude  carbolic 
acid.  Dr.  Detmers,  in  his  report  to  the  department  of  agricul- 
ture, 1880,  says  he  thinks  it  possible  by  carbolic  acid  treatment 
"  to  destroy  the  conditions  necessary  to  formation  of  glia  and 
the  development  of  swine  plague  schizophytae,"  by  treating 
about  three  weeks  with  regular  doses  of  carbolic  acid.  With 


656  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

this,  however,  he  urges  keeping  the  sick  and  well  separated,  and 
all  to  have  pure  water,  sound  feed,  and  clean  quarters. 

Disinfectants. — During  the  prevalence  of  epidemics  far- 
mers are  led  to  buy  disinfecting  powders  and  mixtures,  and  pay 
ten  times  as  much  for  them  as  they  ought.  We  give  some 
formulas  that  are  known  to  be  most  efficient  and  the  materials 
of  which  can  be  bought  and  mixed  by  the  farmer  at  a  great 
saving.  It  is  said  that  no  one  substance  acte  so  effectually  by 
itself  as  it  does  in  combination. 

The  "  Excelsior  Disinfectant "  costs  about  fifteen  cents  a 
pound,  and  is  composed  of 

Copperas  (sulphate  of  iron),         .         .         .         .         .6  pounds. 

Common    salt,          .......         4  pounds. 

Flowers  of  Sulphur, 2  pouuds. 

Mix  well. 

CARBONATE  OF  LIME  is  sold,  made  as  follows.  It  costs  about 
fifty  cents  a  bushel: 

Air-slacked  Lime,         .......     1  buehel. 

Copperas, 1  pound. 

Carbolic  Acid, \  pound. 

The  following  is  valuable : 

Copperas, 300  parts. 

Plaster  of  Paris, 100  parts. 

Carbolic  Acid,        .......  2  parts. 

Professor  Gamgee's  liquid  disinfectant  is  also  called  "Chlo- 
ralum."  It  is  not  poisonous,  and  is  inodorous.  The  cost  is 
fifty  cents. 

Chloride  of  Aluminum, 1$  pounds. 

Water, ...     1     gallon. 

A  cheap  and  efficient  disinfecting  wash  may  be  made  by 
mixing 

Sulphate  Zinc  (white  vitrol), 1  ounce. 

Carbolic  Acid $  ounce. 

Water, 1  gallon. 

A  powerful  disinfectant. 

Sulphate  of  Iron, 16  ounces. 

Chloride  of  Zinc, 8  ounces. 

Water,      .      .                  1  gallon. 


THE  HORSE— HYGIENE  AND  SANITARY  CONDITIONS.        657 

The  cost  of  this  will  be  about  one  dollar.  A  pint  of  it 
mixed  with  a  gallon  of  water  is  strong  enough.  It  is  poisonous. 

The  farmer's  standby,  however,  for  the  cow-stable,  pig-pen, 
and  chicken-house  is  lime.  If  every  time  these  are  cleaned  out 
a  light  sprinkling  of  lime  is  given,  the  stables  and  pens  will  be 
dryer  and  free  from  odor,  and  the  value  of  the  fertilizers  in- 
creased. Lime  should  be  used  regularly  in  the  cellars  and  barns. 
It  costs  but  little,  and  adds  much  to  the  neatness  and  health- 
fulness  of  the  home  and  premises.  Lime,  copperas,  and  car- 
bolic acid  should  be  kept  and  used  as  regularly  as  salt  on  the 
farm.  They  are  as  essential  to  best  stable  and  herd  manage- 
ment, as  is  soap  in  the  family. 

Predisposing  Causes  of  Disease. — Besides  the  causes 
spoken  of  before,  we  may  mention  overcrowding  of  animals  in 
winter  quarters,  or  stables,  as  a  prolific  cause  of  disease.  We 
must  bear  in  mind  that  all  of  our  domestic  animals  are  adapted  by 
nature  to  live  always  in  the  open  air.  Now,  if  in  our  farm 
management  we  find  it  more  convenient  and  more  economical  to 
house  animals,  we  must  ever  be  on  our  guard  lest  we  violate 
the  laws  of  nature  and  bring  on  disease,  which  is  her  penalty 
for  violated  law. 

Fleming,  in  his  great  work,  gives  an  instance  of  an  English 
farmer  who  tried  an  experiment  of  feeding  sheep  a  certain  va- 
riety of  turnip.  They  became  ill  and  began  dying.  A  veter- 
inary surgeon  was  sent  for  and  he  recommended  merely  letter 
ventilation.  More  air  was  allowed  each  sheep,  and  the  disease 
disappeared,  though  the  same  feed  continued.  The  horses  on 
a  vessel  imperfectly  ventilated  during  a  storm,  with  the  hatches 
closed,  were  attacked  with  glanders  and  farcy. 

Overcrowding  may  cause  sudden  death,  or  induce  epizootic 
and  contagious  diseases.  French  authority  gives  a  case  where 
forty-two  head  of  cattle  were  infected  by  the  emanations  from 
accumulated  manure. 

Labor  and  Fatigue. — That  a  certain  amount  of  exertion 
is  good  for  man  and  beast,  we  have  claimed,  but  it  is  equally 
clear  that  a  sufficient  amount  of  rest  and  suitable  food  must  be 
allowed  to  repair  the  loss  of  tissue.  Long  repose,  as  in  winter, 

42 


658  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

when  no  farm  work  is  done,  and  a  superabundance  of  food  is 
given,  tends  to  disorders  and  derangements  of  the  functions. 

Over-work  and  fatigue  on  insufficient  or  improper  food  re- 
sults in  debility,  an  impoverished  state  of  blood,  and  general 
feebleness,  which  invite  disease.  There  are  many  forms  of 
disease  that  come  with  such  conditions.  The  contagious 
foot-rot  of  sheep  was  unknown  in  France,  Italy,  and  Ger- 
many, before  the  introduction  of  merino  sheep  driven  from 
Spain.  Now,  as  the  disease  was  unknown  in  Spain,  it  was 
concluded  that  the  malady  was  produced  by  the  fatigue  incident 
to  the  long  journeys.  Some  most  eminent  veterinarians  of 
Russia  have  shown  that  the  rinderpest  or  cattle  plague  breaks 
out  among  the  droves  of  cattle,  which  are  driven  great  distances 
and  badly  fed,  and  suffer  for  water,  and  with  dust  and  heat  on 
the  long  journeys.  Cattle  which  had  left  Russia  or  Hungary  in 
perfect  health,  were  only  attacked  by  the  disease  when  they 
had  been  a  long  time  on  the  way  or  after  arrival  in  Germany  or 
France.  Such  cattle  not  only  developed  the  deadly  malady  in 
their  own  systems,  but  communicated  it  to  the  German  and 
French  animals  which  came  in  contact  with  them.  These  ex- 
amples illustrate  how  readily  disease  and  epidemics  or  epizootics 
may  be  generated  and  spread. 

Now,  as  we  have  rapidly  increasing  herds  all  over  the 
country,  and  as  farmers  everywhere  are  interested  in  the  rais- 
ing of  stock,  this  question  of  origin  and  prevention  of  endemic 
diseases  is  of  vital  importance. 

Feeding. — As  to  the  nature  and  values  of  grains  and  fod- 
ders, the  reader  will  find  much  of  profit  in  the  chapters  on  this 
subject.  But  when  we  find  men  do  not  know  even  how  to  feed 
themselves  to  keep  in  good  condition,  it  is  evident  the  problem 
of  feeding  animals  has  not  been  solved.  We  find  the  tempera- 
ment and  habits  of  the  farmer  have  more  to  do  with  his  suc- 
cess as  a  handler  of  stock  than  his  accurate  knowledge  of  the 
feeding  values  and  constituents  of  food. 

The  farmer  who  is  nervous,  excitable,  and  always  in  a  rush 
and  splutter,  never  has  horses  in  good  condition.  The  animal 
needs  to  be  free  from  all  excitement  when  feeding.  It  needs  to 


THE  HORSE-HYGIENE  AND  SANITARY  CONDITIONS.         659 

be  at  rest  and  contented.  The  digestion  is  influenced  so 
quickly  by  nervous  conditions,  that  if  we  would  feed  so  as  to 
secure  best  results  therefrom,  we  must  arrange  hours  of  work 
and  methods  of  feeding,  so  the  animals  can  contentedly  and 
quietly  take  their  rations  at  regular  times. 

The  rushing,  tearing  farmer  has  not  time  to  allow  his  team 
to  rest  before  eating.  The  animal  comes  to  the  water-trough 
heated,  and  weary,  and  excited,  and  mechanically  and  greedily 
fills  itself  with  water,' and  in  the  same  way  bolts  its  feed,  in  an 
excited,  exhausted  condition.  Animals  so  fed  and  watered  are 
never  in  good  condition.  We  have  seen  this  class  of  farmers 
feeding  ten  to  fifteen  ears  of  corn  at  a  feed,  and  stuffing  the 
mangers  three  times  a  day  with  hay  and  fodder,  and  complain- 
ing that  their  horses  never  get  fat,  and  never  look  right.  The 
neighbor's  team,  on  the  other  hand,  is  plump,  hair  lively,  and 
the  horses  always  ready  for  work  and  need  no  urging  with  whip 
or  yells  to  get  them  to  do  their  work.  How  to  feed,  is  as  im- 
portant as  what  to  feed. 

How  to  Feed. — The  burden  of  writers  is  usually  on  the 
analysis  of  feed ;  how  much  it  takes  to  keep  up  heat  and 
repairs  of  fiber  and  give  a  surplus  of  strength  or  force.  All  of 
which  are  most  important.  Yet  with  all  this,  unless  the  farmer 
loves  his  team  and  can  in  his  work  and  grooming  and  general 
handling  of  them  be  thoughtful  of  their  comfort,  he  will  not 
have  them  come  to  the  stable  in  condition  to  feed. 

When  our  teams  are  weary  from  long-continued  work,  they 
should  be  allowed  time  to  rest  before  feed  is  given.  This  is 
necessary  to  secure  proper  digestion.  It  is  not  the  amount 
eaten,  but  the  amount  digested  and  assimilated,  that  repairs  waste 
of  tissue  and  gives  strength. 

If  the  feed  and  drink  are  not  given  regularly,  and  when  the 
animal  is  in  condition  to  masticate  and  digest  the  food,  the 
drink  and  feed,  so  far  from  being  a  benefit,  may  prove  an  injury. 
Here  we  are  met  with  the  cause  of  indigestion,  followed  by 
colic,  and  then  by  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  two  ills  which 
destroy  more  farm  horses  than  all  others  combined.  Along  with 
these  come  founder. 


660  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

After  securing  regular  feeding  as  to  time  and  amount,  we 
should  notice  that  the  hours  of  feeding  and  drinking  are  not  too 
far  apart.  The  practice  of  feeding  at  four  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing, then  at  twelve,  and  not  again  until  dark,  which  means  in  the 
season  when  tending  crops  until  eight  o'clock,  places  so  heavy 
a  tax  on  the  vitality  of  the  farm  horses  that  they  are  fit  sub- 
jects for  any  ailment,  while  the  farmer  who  thus  feeds  considers 
himself  fortunate  if  his  teams  pull  through  the  season  without 
sickness  or  death. 

The  stomach  of  the  horse  is  small,  and  nature  has  designed 
it  for  short  periods  between  rations.  The  horse  in  a  twelve- 
months can  do  more  work  and  at  less  risk  from  disease  if  the 
times  between  feeding  be  shortened.  The  rule  on  some  of  the 
best  regulated  farms  is  to  feed  at  five,  at  twelve,  and  at  six  in 
the  evening.  On  other  farms  the  teams  are  fed  at  4,  11.30, 
and  7.30.  Now,  the  strain  on  the  farm  team  is  cruelly  severe. 
We  need  a  reform.  No  one  schedule  of  times  will  suit  all,  but 
economy  and  reason  and  kindness  all  demand  a  change.  Our 
farm  teams  suffer  greatly  by  these  long  intervals  between  feed 
and  water,  especially  as  the  work  is  severe  and  taxing. 

AAfhat  to  Feed. — While  horses  are  at  hard  work  for  so 
many  hours,  it  is  clear  that  the  feed  must  be  very  nourishing. 
It  is  force  and  not  fat  we  need  now.  Hence  oats  is  better  than 
corn  alone,  but  we  find  that  clean  oats  and  sound  corn,  half  and 
half,  give  better  results  than  either  fed  alone.  All  the  clean 
timothy  hay  he  will  eat  may  be  given  to  the  farm  horse  when 
worked  many  hours,  but  as  a  usual  thing  the  farm  horse  gets 
too  much  hay.  He  feels  better,  does  better,  with  less  hay  and 
some  grain,  even  when  not  at  work,  and  this  is  especially  true 
in  winter.  Timothy  hay  is  considered  best,  not  because  it  con- 
tains more  elements  of  nutrition  than  clover  or  hungarian,  or 
orchard  grass,  but  because  it  is  more  easily  cured  and  has  less 
dust  or  mold  in  it.  If  clover  hay  can  be  had  free  from  dust, 
or  can  be  cut  and  mixed  damp  with  ground  feed,  it  will  be  found 
equal  to  any  other  feed  as  a  producer  of  strength  and  fiber. 

If  the  horses  can  not  have  green  grass  once  or  twice  a  week, 
they  should  have  a  bran  mash  instead.  But  as  hired  help  will 


THE  HORSE— HYGIENE  AND  SANITARY  CONDITIONS.        661 

often  leave  enough  mash  in  the  tub  or  manger  to  ferment,  we 
have  found  that  dry  bran,  mixed  with  the  oats  and  corn,  gives 
excellent  results  and  protects  against  dangers  that  come  from 
feeding  stale  or  musty  mash.  The  horse,  of  all  animals,  needs 
pure,  sweet,  sound  feed,  and  can  not  long  "  stomach  "  filthy  treat- 
ment of  his  supplies.  Some  men  with  stomachs  like  an  ostrich 
or  a  pig,  have  no  sympathy  with  an  animal  that  can  not  eat 
heartily  of  anything  given  him.  Poor  hay  or  damaged  grain 
should  never  be  given  to  horses ;  musty,  dusty  hay  endangers  the 
wind,  while  damaged  grain  induces  inflammation  of  the  bowels. 

The  work  horse  can  not  keep  up  strength  and  flesh  on  insuf- 
ficient or  poor  feed  any  more  than  the  engineer  can  keep  up  a 
requisite  head  of  steam  on  improper  or  insufficient  fuel,  nor 
the  horse  or  engine  do  its  work  if  the  supply  of  fuel  or  feed  be 
not  given  regularly  and  as  needed.  Neither  too  much  nor  too 
little  is  the  golden  mean  which  gives  health  and  vigor. 

Economy  in  Feeding. — The  waste  about  the  stables  of 
the  farmer  is  astonishing  to  the  careful  livery  man,  who  has  to 
buy  his  feed,  and  whose  business  demands  that  his  horses  shall 
daily  be  in  condition  for  work  and  for  resisting  disease.  Farmers 
as  a  general  thing  feed  too  much,  are  not  sufficiently  careful  as 
to  the  quality,  and  do  not  regulate  the  amount  of  feed  to  the 
demands  of  the  system,  which  is  influenced  by  labor  and  rest, 
as  well  as  by  change  of  season  or  temperature.  In  the  winter 
we  can  keep  our  horses  and  colts  more  cheaply  by  the  use  of  a 
little  grain  with  a  moderate  allowance  of  hay  than  on  hay 
alone. 

A  study  of  the  feeding  values  of  hay  and  clean  straw,  of 
corn,  oats,  bran,  and  oil-cake  meal,  will  show,  as  have  our  own 
experience,  that  by  cutting  straw,  or  clover  hay,  or  timothy,  and 
adding  enough  of  bran,  oil-meal,  and  corn-meal  to  make  the  ra- 
tion complete,  we  can  keep  our  horses  and  cattle  far  more  cheaply 
and  in  better  condition  than  when  we  have  trusted  to  the  stan- 
dard feed  of  the  West — corn  and  hay,  or  even  oats  and  hay  or 
fodder.  Laziness  and  want  of  knowledge  of  the  facts  are 
against  economy  and  the  best  sanitary  and  hygienic  treatment 
of  animals  on  the  farm.  We  are  met  with  the  answer,  "0,  it 


662  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

is  too  much  trouble  to  cut  and  grind  feed — I  can  keep  my 
horses  fat  on  corn  and  hay."  So  you  can.  So  can  we  fatten  a 
steer;  but  that  does  not  argue  highest  health  or  activity  or 
strength. 

While  we  name  ground  feed  as  more  economical,  we  would 
add  that  it  must  always  be  fed  with  cut  hay  or  straw,  to  make 
it  most  wholesome  and  economical.  We  feed  too  much  bulky, 
dry  feed  to  our  horses  in  winter.  They  need  to  drink  great 
quantities  of  cold  water  when  fed  only  dry  feed.  We  can  make 
the  feed  more  palatable,  more  digestible,  by  dampening  the  hay 
and  corn,  or  cut  straw  and  mill-feed.  In  feeding  oats  it  is  bet- 
ter to  use  a  sieve  to  wash  them,  as  it  removes  dust  and  gravel, 
grit,  or  broken  nails  or  wires,  that  may  be  found  in  the  oats. 
Clover  hay,  too,  becomes  a  most  valuable  and  economical  feed 
when  run  through  the  cutting-box  and  dampened,  and  mixed 
with  ground  feed. 

Oat-straw  costs  only  about  one-fifth  or  one-tenth  as  much  in 
the  West  as  good  timothy  hay.  We  have  found  that  horses  and 
colts  can  be  kept  in  prime  condition  by  using  oat-straw  with 
grain  and  ground  feed.  The  peculiar  value  of  hay  and  straw 
lies  not  in  the  elements  of  nourishment  contained  in  them  being 
different  from  those  in  grain,  but  in  the  bulk  and  dissemination  of 
these  elements.  The  digestion  of  rich,  concentrated  feed  is  not 
so  prompt  or  complete  as  that  of  more  bulky  feed,  and  is  more 
liable  to  ferment  and  cause  indigestion,  to  be  followed  by  in- 
flammation. 

The  careful,  industrious,  and  observing  farmer  will  not  fol- 
low in  the  old  easy-going  ways  of  hastily  feeding  just  what  is 
handiest.  The  feed  of  our  animals  is  our  heavy  expense,  and 
by  its  wise  and  economical  use  we  are  to  secure  our  profits  and 
their  highest  comfort  and  health. 

The  Value  of  Bulky  Food.— E.  W.  Stewart,  in  his 
most  valuable  work  on  "  Feeding  Animals,"  has  more  success- 
fully illustrated  the  value  of  bulky  food,  and  how  to  use  it,  than 
any  other  experimenter  and  writer.  English  farmers  have  more 
carefully  studied  this  question  of  economy  in  feeding  than  have 
our  American  farmers,  simply  because  their  margins  are  smaller. 


THE  HORSE— HYGIENE  AND  SANITARY  CONDITIONS.        663 

It  is  true  that  the  horse  and  the  pig  can  not  do  as  well  on 
fodder  and  hay  as  the  ox,  because  their  stomachs  are  smaller, 
and  their  teeth  are  made  for  better  grinding  grain  than  are 
those  of  the  ox.  Nevertheless  it  is  true  that  either  the  pig  or 
the  horse,  fed  on  grain  alone,  soon  shows  derangement  of  di- 
gestion, which  has  been  corrected  by  simply  mixing  with  the 
concentrated  food  a  distender,  like  hay,  clover,  or  straw.  Bean 
meal  is  a  favorite  feed  for  horses  among  English  horsemen, 
but  it  needs  the  husk  of  the  oat,  or  the  fiber  of  hay  or  straw 
mingled  with  it,  to  facilitate  the  ready  action  of  the  gastric 
juices  on  the  mass  in  the  stomach.  For  the  same  reason  corn-meal 
alone  is  not  a  safe  or  economical  feed  for  horses,  pigs,  or  cattle. 

Nor  is  it  enough  that,  after  a  feed  of  meal,  long  hay  or  fod- 
der be  given.  The  meal  has  been  moistened  and  packed  in  the 
stomach,  and  has  not  been  masticated  and  mixed  with  saliva,  as 
when  mixed  with  rough  feed ;  it  has  to  be  more  throughly  mas- 
ticated, which  incorporates  saliva  and  combines  the  fibrous  and 
concentrated  feed  so  there  is  prompt  and  ready  action  of  the 
gastric  juices  on  the  entire  mass  in  the  stomach,  and  not  merely 
on  the  outside,  as  when  the  meal  is  in  a  doughy  mass. 

The  principle  of  this  incorporation  of  bulky  with  concen- 
trated feed  is  well  illustrated  by  an  experiment  made  by  Stew- 
art, in  feeding  pea-meal  to  horses  at  heavy  work.  He  fed 
"sixteen  pounds  of  pea-meal  mixed  with  one  bushel  of  cut  hay, 
the  hay  being  moistened  so  that  the  pea-meal  would  adhere  to 
the  hay,  and  all  be  eaten  together.  Long  hay  was  given  in  ad- 
dition, making  about  twelve  pounds  of  hay.  Four  horses  were 
thus  fed  for  four  months,  performing  full  daily  labor.  The 
average  weight  of  the  horses  at  the  beginning  of  the  experi- 
ment was  1,050  pounds,  and  at  the  end  1,065  pounds."  The 
condition  and  health  of  the  horses  were  carefully  watched,  and 
found  satisfactory.  There  was  no  feverish  condition  or  indica- 
tion of  any  disturbance  of  the  digestive  functions.  The  appe- 
tite remained  very  uniform,  and  there  was  every  appearance  of 
contentment. 

This  experiment  showed  that  the  feed  was  well  applied  for 
forming  muscle.  It  also  showed  the  valuable  effect  of  mixing 


664  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

concentrated  feed  with  hay  to  give  porosity  to  the  bulk  in  the 
stomach.  The  value  of  this  point  is  made  more  forcible  by 
the  fact  that  a  neighbor  did  not  think  it  made  any  difference 
whether  the  pea-meal  was  mixed  with  cut  hay,  or  fed  sepa- 
rately, and  the  hay  given  to  his  horses  uncut.  He  fed  four 
horses  sixteen  pounds  of  pea-meal  to  each  horse  in  three  feeds, 
with  long  hay,  unmixed.  "  Within  six  weeks  two  of  his  horses 
had  severe  attacks  of  colic,  and  both  of  the  others  had  to  be 
treated  for  constipation."  He  was  prevailed  upon  by  Mr. 
Stewart  "to  feed  the  pea-meal  mixed  with  one  bushel  of  cut 
hay,  and  in  a  few  weeks  his  horses  were  in  apparent  health, 
and  able  to  do  efficient  work."  The  effect  was  so  favorable  that 
he  continued  to  feed  meal — whether  of  peas,  corn,  or  other 
grain — mixed  with  cut  hay,  and  said  he  never  had  a  case  of 
colic  afterwards. 

Feeding  Corn-meal. — Now,  as  digestion  and  assimilation 
of  the  largest  per  cent  of  food  eaten  is  the  point  to  be  gained 
in  the  most  economical  use  of  feed,  and  as  the  animal  that 
grinds  and  masticates  the  grain  most  thoroughly  thrives  best, 
farmers  have  been  led  to  feed  ground  grain  more  than  formerly. 
But  the  verdict  of  the  majority  of  farmers  is, "  It  do  n't  pay  to 
grind  feed."  They  affirm  that  the  animals  are  liable  to  dullness 
and  colic  when  fed  a  full  feed  of  meal. 

On  this  subject  Mr.  Stewart  records  his  experience  of  thirty 
years  in  feeding  work-horses  corn-meal.  He  has  it  ground  as  fine 
as  burr-stones  will  make  it.  He  always  mixes  it  with  cut  hay  or 
straw  before  feeding  it,  and  when  so  mixed  has  never  had  colic 
among  his  horses.  He  gives  the  following  dearly  bought  expe- 
rience. An  acquaintance  called  on  his  return  from  a  pleasant 
drive  of  a  hundred  miles  west,  in  June.  Putting  his  fine  horse 
into  the  stable,  he  was  proceeding  to  give  his  horse  a  good, 
round  measure  of  fine  corn-meal,  when  a  little  seven-year-old 
son  of  Mr.  S.  warned  him  that  it  would  make  his  horse  sick  if 
he  did  not  mix  it  with  cut  hay.  He  replied,  "  I  will  risk  it." 
An  hour  later  he  started  to  drive  eight  miles,  and  was  scarcely 
able  to  get  his  horse  that  distance.  The  horse  died  before  morn- 
ing. The  owner,  speaking  of  it  afterwards,  said,  "  The  boy 


THE  HORSE  -HYGIENE  AND  SANITARY  CONDITIONS.         665 

warned  me,  but  I  was  not  humble  enough  to  learn  wisdom  from 
babes,  and  I  lost  my  horse."  He  consoled  himself  that  this  sad 
experience  would  save  other  horses  from  like  ailments. 

The  above  experience  and  incident  show  that  our  manner 
of  feeding  is  fully  as  important  as  what  we  fed.  Corn  is  the 
handy  and  ever-present  feed  in  the  West,  but  it  is  deficient  in 
muscle-forming  elements,  and  too  rich  in  heat-formers  to  be  used 
as  the  only  grain  feed  for  horses  and  even  pigs. 

A  more  wholesome  and  more  economical  ration  is  made  by 
mixing  equal  weight  of  oats  and  corn,  and  having  them  ground 
together,  and  mixing  sixteen  pounds  of  this  meal  with  a  bushel 
of  cut  hay  or  straw.  We  have  found  this  mixture  better  than 
corn  or  oats  and  long  hay,  and  more  economical. 

Mr.  Stewart  says  :  <;  A  better  ration  still  is  nine  hundred 
and  fifty  pounds  of  oats,  nine  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  corn, 
and  one  hundred  pounds  of  flaxseed,  all  ground  together."  This 
addition  of  flaxseed  improves  the  ration  in  albumenoids  and  oil. 
When  corn  is  sixty  cents  and  oats  thirty  cents  per  bushel,  this 
mixture  insures  a  saving  of  about  thirty-three  per  cent,  and  is 
far  more  healthful  than  corn  and  hay. 

Accumulated  Experience. — These  questions,  of  what  to 
feed,  and  how  to  feed,  are  of  such  vital  importance  in  securing 
health  for  our  horses,  that  we  do  well  to  consider  the  methods 
of  those  who  have  greatest  interest  in  the  problems  of  economy 
and  health,  and  most  at  stake  in  the  solution  of  them.  The 
American  Institute  Farmer's  Club  appointed  a  committee  to 
make  a  thorough  examination  of  the  methdti  of  feeding  in  the 
omnibus  and  railroad  stables  of  New  York  City.  The  number 
of  horses  kept  is  great,  and  the  experience  of  the  superintend- 
ents, backed  up  by  intelligence  and  fitness  for  their  work,  makes 
the  result  of  this  investigation  valuable.  We  give  the  sub- 
stance of  their  report  which  bears  on  our  subject.  It  is  the 
aim  of  the  several  companies  to  get  all  the  work  out  of  their 
teams  possible,  consistent  with  health. 

The  stage-horses  consumed  more  than  the  railroad  horses, 
and  the  livery  horses  less  than  either.  The  stage-horses  are 
fed  on  cut  hay  and  corn-meal,  wet  and  mixed  in  the  proportion 


666  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

of  one  pound  of  hay  to  two  pounds  of  meal,  a  ratio  adopted 
rather  for  mechanical  than  physiological  reasons,  as  this  is  all 
the  meal  that  will  adhere  to  the  hay.  The  New  York  Consol- 
idated Stage  Company  uses  a  very  small  quantity  of  salt.  They 
think  much  salt  causes  horses  to  urinate  too  freely.  They  find 
the  horses  do  not  eat  so  much  when  worked  too  hard.  The 
large  horses  eat  more  than  the  small  ones,  and  are  sooner  used 
up  by  wear,  their  feet  and  shoulders  giving  out.  Horses  do  not 
keep  as  fat  on  oats  alone,  if  at  hard  labor,  as  on  corn-meal,  or  a 
mixture  of  corn-meal  and  oats.  A  mixture  of  half  oats  and  half 
corn  is  preferred  when  oats  are  not  too  expensive.  The  hay  is 
all  cut,  mixed  with  meal,  and  fed  moist.  Yellow  Jersey  corn  is 
considered  best. 

In  cold  weather  the  horses  are  watered  four  times  a  day  in 
the  stables,  and  not  at  all  on  the  road.  In  warm  weather,  four 
times  a  day  in  the  stables,  and  are  allowed  a  sip  on  the  road  at 
middle  of  the  route.  The  horses  are  not  allowed  to  drink  when 
warm,  as  it  founders  them. 

In  warm  weather  a  bed  of  sawdust  is  prepared  for  horses 
to  roll  in.  They  eat  more  in  cold  weather  than  in  warm.  The 
difference,  however,  is  not  exactly  known.  In  the  worst  of 
traveling  the  three  hundred  and  thirty-five  horses  of  this  com- 
pany eat  forty-five  thousand  pounds  of  meal  a  week.  In  good 
weather  they  eat  forty  thousands  pounds  of  meal,  or  one- 
ninth  less. 

Of  seven  stage  lines,  using  one  thousand  one  hundred  and 
eleven  horses,  we  find  the  average  of  travel  per  day  was  sixteen 
and  a  half  miles.  On  an  average  the  horses-  were  fed  daily 
twenty  and  six-seventh  pounds  of  cut  hay  and  thirteen  and  a 
half  pounds  of  corn-meal  and  two  ounces  of  salt  per  day. 

From  this  report,  which  we  have  greatly  condensed,  it  appears : 
1.  That  horses,  even  at  hard  work,  can  be  kept  in  good  condition 
on  cut  hay  and  corn-meal.  Stewart  has  thoroughly  proven  by 
his  own  experience,  that  when  he  used  cut  clover,  hay,  and  corn- 
meal  the  horses  kept  in  better  condition  than  when  timothy  hay 
was  used.  2.  A  mixture  of  oats  benefited  the  horses,  but  in- 
creased the  expense  of  keep.  Corn-meal  keeps  horses  fat  better 


THE  HORSE— HYGIENE  AND  SANITARY  CONDITIONS.       667 

than  oats.     3.  Rye  bran,  fed  with  new  corn,  prevented  scouring. 
4.  Ten  pounds  of  hay  per  day  is  sufficient  for  a  work-horse. 

The  Cost  of  Keep. — We  farmers  find  it  difficult  to  con- 
sider any  question  without  asking  about  the  cost.  We  may  see, 
from  the  recorded  experience  of  twenty-three  English  firms, 
that  the  average  cost  of  keeping  a  horse  one  week  was  $1.87. 
The  highest  cost  given  was  $2.76,  in  which  case  there  was  fed 
70  pounds  bruised  oats,  28  pounds  bruised  beans,  243  pounds 
pulped  roots,  42  pounds  barley,  and  straw  ad  lib.  The  lowest 
cost,  $1.14,  was  made  in  the  use  of  63  pounds  oats,  42  pounds 
roots,  and  196  pounds  straw.  A  mixture  of  56  pounds  cut  hay, 
56  pounds  cut  straw,  56  pounds  ground  oats,  and  56  pounds 
pulped  potatoes,  cost  $1.56.  In  the  case  where  56  pounds  hay, 
42  pounds  oats,  12  pounds  bran,  and  straw  ad  lib.,  were  used, 
the  cost  was  $1.32.  In  all  these  cases  the  horses  were  reported 
to  have  worked  regularly  and  to  have  done  well.  The  cost  of 
keep  for  the  year  was  $97.24. 

In  my  own  experience,  when  the  work-horses  of  the  farm 
are  fed  corn  and  hay  in  winter,  and  oats,  corn,  and  hay  in 
summer,  the  cost  of  keep  averages  $72.00.  Where  the  hay  is 
cut  and  the  oats  and  corn  ground,  there  is  a  saving,  and  the  cost 
is  reduced  about  one-fourth.  The  latter  plan  of  feeding  is  not 
only  less  expensive,  but  more  conducive  to  health.  Yet,  when  the 
farmer  is  pressed  with  work,  and  the  corn  and  oats  and  hay  are 
at  hand,  it  is  less  work  to  feed  them  unground,  uncut,  and  dry. 

Drink. — The  amount  of  water  taken  daily  will  depend  on 
the  size  of  the  horse,  the  work  engaged  in,  the  weather,  and 
feed  given.  The  animal,  like  the  vegetables  he  feeds  on,  in  a 
state  of  nature,  is  composed  of  about  three-fourths  water  by 
weight.  If  the  food  consumed  is  green,  undried,  there  will  be 
less  water  drank  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  system.  When 
the  grasses  and  grains  have  become  ripe  and  dried,  it  is  plain 
that  the  animals  will  need  more  water  to  drink.  By  respiration, 
the  animal  exhales  moisture  with  every  breath.  The  process  of 
depuration  can  not  be  carried  on  without  moisture;  every  pore 
of  the  skin  and  mucous  membrane,  in  the  ever-acting  process 
of  depuration,  or  throwing  off  impurities  of  the  system,  carries 


668  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM:  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

off  particles  of  moisture.  This  moisture  is  rapidly  absorbed 
from  the  surface  by  a  dry,  heated  atmosphere,  and  when  the 
exercise  is  vigorous  the  horse  sweats  freely. 

Dr.  Southard  Smith  has  given  some  experiments,  showing 
that  workmen  at  the  Phoenix  Gas  Works  lost  by  perspiration, 
while  drawing  and  charging  retorts  with  a  temperature  of  90 
degrees,  during  forty-five  minutes  labor,  on  an  average,  per  man, 
3  pounds  6  ounces.  Now,  this  will  help  to  estimate  the  amount 
of  water  thrown  off  from  the  body  of  a  horse,  weighing  ten 
times  that  of  the  workmen.  It  will  be  at  times  as  high  as  30 
pounds  per  hour.  But  as  the  amount  thrown  off  by  perspira- 
tion is  greatest  after  drinking,  the  average  amount  thrown  off 
during  the  period  from  the  morning  to  noon  drink,  must  be  near 
10  pounds  per  hour  in  warmest  weather.  Now,  as  the  func- 
tions of  digestion  and  respiration  can  not  be  carried  on  without 
the  presence  of  a  normal  supply  of  moisture,  it  impresses  us 
with  the  importance  of  furnishing  the  horse  with  a  regular  and 
abundant  supply  of  water,  and  that  free  from  all  impurities. 
Anything  impure  in  the  water  has  to  be  eliminated  by  respira- 
tion or  through  the  kidneys.  Organic  or  vegetable  matter  that 
ferments  and  decays  speedily  in  the  presence  of  moisture  and 
warmth  are  detrimental  to  health. 

Pure  Water. — The  purity  of  water,  as  well  as  the  regu- 
larity and  abundance  of  it,  can  not  safely  be  neglected.  There 
is  an  impression  that  rain  water  is  more  pure  than  spring  or 
well  water,  but  unless  the  rain  water  has  been  carefully  filtered, 
the  average  spring  water  is  purer.  Horses  accustomed  to  either 
can  not  safely  be  changed  from  one  to  the  other  without  some 
derangement  of  digestion  or  urination. 

The  veterinary  records  show  many  instances  where  whole 
stables  have  been  disordered  by  the  water  supply  containing  or- 
ganic impurities.  In  the  season  when  the  weather  is  dry  and  hot, 
and  the  evaporation  greatest,  animals  demand  the  greatest  amount 
of  water.  It  is  during  this  period,  too,  the  supply  is  most  likely  to 
become  impure.  The  wells  and  cisterns  get  low  and  the  impurities 
abound  near  the  bottom.  Ponds  and  lakes,  too,  in  the  hot  season 
are  liable  to  become  low,  stagnant,  and  dangerous  sources  of  disease. 


THE  HORSE—HYGIENE  AND  SANITARY  CONDITIONS.       6G9 

So  important  is  pure  water  in  the  animal  economy  that  the 
farmer  can  not  safely  neglect  to  provide  against  disaster  to  his 
stables  arid  herds,  ever  ready  to  burst  on  him  when  the  water 
supply  becomes  low  and  impure.  The  average  horse  will  con- 
sume from  four  to  twelve  gallons  of  water  per  day,  and  neglect 
to  provide  it  pure  and  abundant  entails  on  him  great  suffering, 
and  consequent  loss  to  the  owner. 

Grooming  for  Health. — Because  of  the  importance  of 
the  function  of  respiration,  nature  has  made  the  animal  so  if  the 
process  is  impeded  on  the  outside  by  closing  of  the  pores,  by 
changes  of  weather,  or  by  filth,  then  the  mucous  membrane  that 
lines  the  throat  and  lungs  and  stomach  and  intestines  must  do 
the  work.  Nutrition  may  stop  by  the  food  being  withheld  for 
a  long  time,  and  the  animal  survive,  but  we  have  before  shown 
that  depuration  or  the  throwing  off  of  impurities  must  go  on  or 
death  soon  follows.  If  breathing  can  not  go  on  by  the  way  of 
the  nostrils  it  must  go  by  way  of  the  mouth ;  so  if  respiration 
can  not  proceed  by  way  of  the  outer  pores  in  the  skin,  then  it 
must  go  by  the  inner  pores  of  the  mucous  membrane.  So  nature 
has  provided  two  ways  of  doing  that  which  must  be  done  or 
the  animal  speedily  dies.  The  mucous  membrane  is  the  relief- 
pump  to  act  when  the  pores  of  the  skin  are  impeded. 

It  is  difficult  to  have  the  unintelligent  horseman  appreciate 
the  importance  of  cleanliness  of  the  coat  of  all  animals,  and  to 
have  the  masses  appreciate  the  healthful  influences  of  bathing 
and  cleanly  habits.  Every  part  of  the  skin  of  animals  exudes 
either  sensible  or  insensible  perspiration,  which  is  ever  unload- 
ing a  supply  of  waste  matter,  which,  in  the  case  of  the  horse, 
can  best  be  removed  by  the  brush  or  wisp  of  straw.  If  not  re- 
moved the  internal  organs  are  more  liable  to  congestion.  The 
groom  has  the  incentive  to  clean  well  and  often  his  favorite 
animal  because  he  has  learned  that  the  coat  looks  better. 
Nature  rewards  us  by  supplying  at  the  root  of  the  hair  a  finer 
oil  than  chemistry  has  yet  compounded.  It  is  ready  to  dress 
every  hair  of  the  animal  as  soon  as  by  cleanliness  and  friction 
the  obstructions  are  removed  from  the  pores.  The  careful  and 
observing  horseman  has  learned  that  it  is  best  to  clean  his 


670  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

horse  after  his  day's  work.  The  cleaning,  then,  is  better  than  in 
the  morning,  if  either  is  to  be  neglected. 

The  reader  sees  the  philosophy  of  this  keeping  the  skin 
clean,  that  there  may  be  a  healthy  action  of  the  tens  of  thou- 
sands of  pores  that  may  be  called  the  sewers  of  the  animal  sys- 
tem. If  the  mouth  of  the  sewer  becomes  stopped,  disease,  pes- 
tilence, and  death  sooner  or  later  must  follow.  We  have  not 
the  space  here  to  tell  how  to  groom  a  horse.  Every  stable-boy 
knows;  and  every  farmer  should  see  to  it  that  his  horses  have 
well-cleaned  coats  if  he  would  see  them  healthy  and  strong  to 
labor.  There  is  an  old  saying  that  "  grooming  is  half  the  feed." 
It  has  philosophy  and  truth  in  it.  Johnson,  in  his  Elements  of 
Chemistry,  says  even  pigs  need  their  coats  cleaned  to  induce 
greatest  thrift.  "  Six  pigs  were  put  in  a  pen  together  for  seven 
weeks.  Three  were  currycombed  and  cared  for  and  the  other 
three  left  uncleaned.  The  former  three  consumed  five  bushels 
of  peas  less  and  had  gained  two  stones  and  four  pounds  more 
than  the  uncurried  three."  Proper  cleaning  of  the  horse,  cow, 
steer,  and  pig  tends  to  health  and  profit. 

Condition  Powders. — There  are  various  vile  and  decep- 
tive combinations  offered  to  stable-men  and  farmers  under  the 
name  of  condition  powders.  They  are,  in  the  hands  of  the  igno- 
rant groom,  as  much  to  be  dreaded  as  the  soothing-syrup  for 
babes  in  the  hands  of  an  ignorant  nurse.  They  are  both 
sources  of  danger  and  suffering.  We  are  told  by  the  stable- 
boys  the  horse  is  "  out  of  condition,"  and  he  needs  some  pow- 
ders. Such  drugs  are  in  the  stable ;  they  are  administered  at 
random,  without  counsel  or  advice  of  owner  or  veterinary.  In 
this  way  they  are  an  abomination. 

"  Out  of  condition  "  is  a  term  applied  to  very  different  states 
of  the  system.  The  more  common  is  where  the  horse  has  been 
liberally  fed  and  is  fat.  He  becomes  capricious  about  his  feed, 
his  appetite  varies,  his  eye  lacks  fire,  he  seems  dull.  The 
bowels  are  bound,  dung  too  dry,  and  there  is  a  general  lack  of 
snap  or  tone.  The  trouble  is  plethora.  He  has  had  more  rich 
feed  and  less  exercise  and  air  than  is  prudent.  No  medicine 
whatever  is  needed.  The  diet  should  be  changed  to  a  more 


THE  HORSE— HYGIENE  AND  SANITARY  CONDITIONS.        671 

laxative  and  mild  one.  A  few  days  at  grass  will  correct  all,  or, 
if  that  be  not  possible,  sweet  bran-mashes,  gentle  exercise,  and 
good  grooming  will  give  relief. 

The  other  case  of  "  out  of  condition  "  may  arise  from  over- 
work and  under-feeding.  Here  rest  and  grass,  or  rest  and  richer 
feed  with  a  bran-mash  twice  a  week  will  do  more  than  "  con- 
dition powders."  The  trouble  may  be  a  form  of  indigestion. 
This  will  not  be  relieved  by  "  condition  powders."  Let  the  se- 
cretory organs  be  aided  by  good  grooming,  the  kidneys  aroused 
by  a  mash  with  niter  or  saltpeter  in  it  in  small  quantity,  fol- 
lowed by  regular  feeding  of  easily  digested  food. 

It  is  a  good  rule  when  the  farm-horse  is  sick  and  you  do  n't 
know  what  to  do,  then  do  nothing  unless  you  turn  him  into  a 
comfortable  grass-lot  to  rest.  There  are  ten  horses  killed  to 
one  cured  by  heavy  dosing  by  blunderers  who  can  not  diagnose 
a  case,  yet  keep  physicking,  hoping  to  find  something  that 
will  reach  the  case.  Better,  far,  give  nature  a  chance  and  stop 
the  groping  in  the  dark.  If  we  do  not  know  enough  to  add  to 
the  comfort  of  the  horse,  let  us  be  kind  enough  not  to  add  to 
his  troubles.  Tonics  may  be  of  great  value  where  properly  ad- 
ministered. They  should  not  be  often  repeated.  Such  a  course 
will  surely  be  followed  by  obstinate  dyspeptic  troubles,  which 
are  forerunners  of  declining  health. 

Hospital. — Every  farm  should  have  some  place  where  the 
sick  of  every  flock  or  herd  can  be  made  comfortable  and  treated 
apart  from  the  other  animals.  This  is  especially  important  in 
cases  of  contagion.  The  barn  is  not  complete  without  a  roomy 
box-stall,  where  a  sick  horse  can  find  comfort.  It  should  be 
well-lighted,  roomy,  well-ventilated,  cool  in  summer  and  warm 
in  winter.  Such  a  place  will  find  use  many  times  in  the  year 
where  much  stock  is  kept.  The  mares  at  foaling-time,  cows  at 
calving-time,  will  find  protection  and  comfort  here  for  themselves 
and  helpless  young.  In  this  age  of  hog-cholera  the  swine- 
breeder  can  not  safely  allow  a  sick  pig  to  remain  in  his  herd. 
It  is  a  wise  and  safe  rule  to  remove  at  once  from  the  herd  or 
litter  any  pig  that  is  sick.  The  facility  with  which  diseases 
spread  among  swine  makes  this  precaution  imperative. 


672  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

The  Horse-blanket. — The  horse-blanket  is  a  thing  of 
comfort  that,  wisely  used,  will  pay  to  keep.  Every  horse  needs 
one  at  times,  as  surely  as  the  owner  at  times  needs  an  extra 
coat.  The  farm  team  used  for  slow  work  does  not  in  general 
need  to  be  blanketed  when  standing,  but  when  driven  from  home, 
and  having  to  stand  in  a  cold  wind,  prudence  and  kindness  demand 
that,  while  standing,  they  be  blanketed.  The  road  horse,  that  is 
warmed  up  by  a  few  miles  drive,  is  in  condition  to  take  severe 
cold,  unless  promptly  blanketed  as  soon  as  he  comes  to  rest. 
There  should  be  especial  care  in  the  spring  time,  when  the  winds 
are  chilly  and  damp,  and  the  horses  are  shedding  their  coats. 
The  system  is  not  then  in  condition  to  resist  such  a  shock  as 
comes  with  cooling  suddenly  in  a  cold  wind.  A  blanket  is  a 
necessity  for  every  horse  that  is  driven  off  of  a  walk,  or  has  to 
stand  after  severe  labor,  in  a  cold  wind.  It  is  cruelty  and 
wanton  carelessness  to  drive  a  horse  until  heated,  and  then 
hitch  him  to  a  post  to  shiver  in  the  cold.  The  old  theory,  that 
exposure  makes  animals  hardy,  is  merely  an  apology  for  care- 
lessness, cruelty,  and  meanness. 


THE  ASS  AND  MULE.  673 


VI. 

THE    ASS    AND    MULE. 

THE  Ass. — The  ass  is  the  humblest  member  of  the  horse 
family,  and  is  designated  equus  asinus.  He  was  probably 
the  first  subjugated  by  man;  is  the  most  patient,  sure-footed,  and 
hardy.  He  was  well  known  to  the  ancient  Hebrews,  as  we 
know  from  the  four  Hebrew  words  used  in  speaking  of  the  ass. 
From  these  four  words  it  has  been  erroneously  asserted  th;it 
there  are  "four  different  races  of  the  ass  family." 

Chamor  is  the  Hebrew  general  name  for  the  male  ass,  tame 
or  wild.  Like  the  Spanish  word,  burro,  it  signifies  reddish  in 
color.  'Air  signifies  a  young  male  ass.  Arod  is  the  wild  ass 
mentioned  by  Job.  Pere  is  the  wild  ass  of  Asia,  formerly 
found  in  Syria,  and  still  found  in  Arabia  and  Persia. 

From  the  time  Abraham  went  down  into  Egypt,  and  Pha- 
roah  took  his  wife,  Sarah,  the  mention  of  asses  as  beasts  of 
burden  is  constant  and  uninterrupted  to  the  end  of  sacred 
history,  while  the  horse  was  never  spoken  of  until  after  sev- 
eral generations,  when  Joseph  gave  the  Egyptians  corn  "in  ex- 
change for  horses,  and  for  flocks,  and  for  the  cattle  of  the 
herds,  and  for  the  asses."  Xenophon  describes  the  chase  of  the 
wild  asses  by  the  soldiers  of  the  army  of  Cyrus.  Martial  calls 
it  the  pulcher  onager — the  beautiful  wild  ass.  Oppian  describes 
its  beauty,  fleetness,  and  untameableness.  The  fleetness  of  the 
wild  ass  was  so  remarkable  that  the  Persian  monarchs  took  de- 
light in  their  chase.  Nadir  Shah  considered  the  running  down 
of  one  with  his  grey-hound  as  great  a  feat  as  winning  a  bat- 
tle. Their  flesh  was  esteemed  as  the  most  exquisite  of  venison. 

It  is  not  likely  these  were  the  progenitors  of  the  ass  of 
Spain  and  Malta,  since  speed  is  not  a  thing  to  degenerate  so 


674  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

greatly  by  domestication.  The  tamed  horse,  with  his  rider  on 
his  back,  can  run  down  his  wild  congener,  while  the  tamed  ass 
only  excels  his  untamed  fellow  in  docility  and  patience  and  en- 
durance under  hardship.  For  ages  he  has  been  the  beast  of 
burden,  and  the  companion  of  poverty.  Prior  to  that,  and  be- 
fore the  horse  became  the  favorite  with  kings  and  potentates 
for  show  and  parade,  the  ass  had  been  esteemed  and  bred  for 
that  purpose.  Deborah,  in  her  song,  apostrophizes  the  great 
and  powerful  of  the  land  as  "Ye  that  ride  on  white  asses." 

Colonel  Smith,  in  his  study  of  the  equine  races,  found,  near 
Bassorah,  a  breed  of  white  asses  remarkable  for  their  excel- 
lence, and  as  ancient  as  the  time  of  the  kings  of  Judah.  In 
"Blame's  Encyclopedia  of  Rural  Sports,"  we  are  informed  that 
the  asses  in  Guinea  are  large,  and  excel  even  the  native  horses 
in  shape.  The  same  authority  says,  "  The  asses  of  Arabia  are 
perhaps  the  handsomest  animals  in  the  world.  Their  coat  is 
smooth  and  clean;  they  carry  the  head  elevated;  have  fine, 
well-formed  legs,  which  they  throw  out  gracefully  in  walking 
and  galloping.  In  Persia,  also,  they  are  well  formed,  some  being 
even  stately,  and  much  used  in  draught  and  carrying  burdens, 
while  others  are  light  proportioned  and  used  for  the  saddle  by 
persons  of  quality,  frequently  fetching  the  large  sum  of  four 
hundred  livres ;  and,  being  taught  a  kind  of  easy,  ambling  pace, 
are  richly  caparisoned  and  used  only  by  the  rich  and  luxurious 
nobles." 

There  are  many  passages  of  Scripture  which  show  that  the 
princes  and  rulers,  of  Israel  especially,  rode  on  asses.  Jaer,  of 
Gilead,  had  thirty  sons,  who  rode  on  as  many  asses,  and  com- 
manded in  thirty  cities.  It  is  not  probable  that  our  Savior's 
riding  into  Jerusalem  was  made  on  the  ass's  colt  as  an  emblem 
of  humility;  but  he  mounted  on  the  animal  that  from  time  im- 
memorial had  been  used  by  the  kings  of  the  Jews,  and  his  ac- 
tion may  as  well  be  construed  into  the  triumphal  entry  of 
Israel's  greatest  King  into  the  capital  city. 

The  superstition  that  the  mark  across  the  shoulders  and 
along  the  back  of  the  ass  that  the  Savior  rode,  has  appeared 
ever  since  on  asses  and  their  descendants,  the  mule,  does  not 


THE  ASS  AND  MULE.  675 

harmonize  with  the  fact  that  all  its  ancestors,  tame  and  wild, 
with  its  kinsmen,  the  quagga  and  zebra,  have  like  markings. 

The  usual  color  of  the  ass  is  gray,  mouse-color,  or  black; 
but  bays,  duns,  and  chestnuts  have  been  found.  The  dental 
system  of  the  ass  is  similar  to  that  of  the  horse,  and  his  age 
can  be  recognized  by  the  growth  of  the  teeth. 

At  two  years,  the  male  ass  is  capable  of  propagating  his 
kind.  The  female  breeds  even  younger.  The  potency  of 
the  ass  is  remarkable,  which,  on  the  laws  of  breeding  recog- 
nized, may  explain  the  fact  that  the  offspring  of  the  ass  and 
mare  is,  in  organization,  temper,  style,  appearance,  and  qual- 
ity, more  like  the  eyiius  axinus  than  the  cquus  caballux.  The  mule 
is  an  ass  modified  by  the  horse,  rather  than  a  horse  modified 
by  the  ass. 

The  ass  and  his  progeny,  the  mule,  are  capable,  under  kind 
treatment,  of  great  improvement  in  form,  style,  size,  and  quality. 
He  has  no  equal  in  patience  and  power  to  endure  labor  and  hard- 
ship. He  has  qualities  which  will  well  repay  all  efforts  to  im- 
prove by  careful  selection  and  judicious,  liberal  keep.  In  Spain, 
Italy,  and  Malta,  the  ass  has  been  more  carefully  bred,  and  there 
are  found  the  largest  and  best  formed  of  the  race.  They  are 
susceptible  to  improvement,  and  can  be  bred  for  the  draft  or 
saddle.  Darwin  states  that  in  Syria  there  are  four  distinct 
breeds :  "A  light  and  graceful  animal,  with  agreeable  gait,  used 
by  ladies;  an  Arab  breed,  reserved  exclusively  for  the  saddle; 
a  stouter  animal,  used  for  plowing  and  various  purposes,  and  the 
large  Damascus  breed,  with  peculiarly  long  body  and  ears." 

In  the  blue-grass  regions  of  Kentucky,  Illinois,  and  Mis- 
souri, where  mule  breeding  has  been  pursued  for  years,  asses 
have  been  bred  for  size  and  strength,  until  in  this  congenial 
climate  and  on  liberal  feed  they  are  found  to  grow  to  be  sixteen 
hands  high,  although  sired  by  Spanish  jacks  that  were  not  over 
fourteen  hands  high.  We  know  of  no  better  illustration  in  all 
the  range  of  improved  animals  to  show  what  can  be  done  by 
the  intelligent  breeder  of  live-stock  who  will  select  and  feed  for 
a  given  end.  The  Poitou  ass  is  another  illustration  of  what 
liberality  of  feed,  adaptability  of  soil  and  climate,  coupled  with 


676  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

judicious  breeding  for  a  specific  purpose,  may  do  in  improving 
even  an  ass. 

Though  the  ass  has  for  centuries  been  subjected  to  hardships, 
and  since  the  general  use  of  the  horse  by  the  wealthier  classes 
has  relegated  the  ass  to  the  conditions  of  poverty,  nevertheless  the 
vigor  and  stamina  of  the  race  are  so  remarkable  that  its  quick 
response  to  careful  breeding  and  liberal  feed,  has  given  Poitou  a 
race  of  jacks  that  often  exceed  sixteen  hands.  The  feed,  cli- 
mate, soil,  and  handling,  which  have  produced  the  noble  French 
draft-horse,  have  there  given  like  development  to  the  jacks  of 
Poitou. 

The  Mule. — The  mule  is  the  offspring  of  the  mare  served 
by  an  ass.  They  are  as  ancient  as  written  history,  and  have 
been  noted  for  their  longevity,  sure-footedness,  power  to  endure 
hardships,  patience  under  abuse,  and  ability  to  resist  heat. 
Like  hybrids  generally,  they  do  not  reproduce  their  kind.  Oc- 
casionally a  mule  has  produced  foals,  but  this  is  exceedingly  rare. 

They  were  prized  by  the  Romans,  and  according  to  Pliny 
great  attention  was  given  to  breeding  mules.  Quintius  Axius, 
a  Roman  Senator,  paid  400,000  sesterces,  more  than  $13,000, 
for  a  jack  to  use  in  his  stud.  When  male  asses  brought  such 
sums  of  money,  it  is  not  strange  that  well-bred  and  well-formed 
female  asses  should  be  prized  at  prices  which  at  this  day 
would  seem  fabulous.  The  prices  then  paid,  in  comparison  with 
money  values  of  this  day,  exceed  the  prices  now  paid  for  our 
best-bred  trotting  stallions.  They  were  so  steady  and  reliable 
and  had  so  great  endurance,  that  mules  of  the  fifth  century 
before  Christ  were  used  in  the  chariot  races  of  the  seventieth 
Olympiad. 

The  Mule  in  America. — General  Washington  has  the 
honor  of  being  the  first  to  appreciate  the  mule  as  an  animal 
suited  to  the  plantation  work  of  the  Southern  States.  He  is 
the  first  successful  breeder  of  mules  in  the  United  States. 
From  the  beginning  made  by  him  on  his  farm  in  Virginia, 
mules  have  been  introduced  into  every  State  in  the  Union,  until 
the  census  of  1880  shows  1,812,808  mules  and  asses,  against 
10,357,488  horses  in  use. 


THE  ASS  AND  MULE.  677 

The  Southern  planters  found  the  mules  a  great  blessing,  be- 
cause they  are  longer  lived,  less  liable  to  disease  or  injury  than 
the  horse  in  the  hands  of  careless  and  ignorant  drivers.  They 
also  live  on  rougher  feed,  and  endure  heat  better.  They  frighten 
less,  and  when  they  run  away  they  seldom  do  themselves  in- 
jury. North  of  forty  degrees  they  are  much  less  used,  and  in 
the  New  England  States  and  North-west  they  are  rarely  found 
among  the  farmers.  The  jack  is  impatient  of  cold,  and  his  off- 
spring can  not  endure  the  cold  as  well  as  the  horse. 

Mr.  Custis  says  that  the  king  of  Spain  presented  Washing- 
ton with  a  jack  from  his  royal  stud  in  1787.  The  animal  was 
large,  ill-shapen,  near  sixteen  hands  high,  with  a  very  large  head 
and  clumsy  limbs,  and  to  all  appearance  little  calculated  for  active 
service.  He  was  of  a  gray  color,  probably  not  young  when  im- 
ported, and  died  at  Mount  Vernon,  but  little  valued  for  his 
mules,  which  were  unwieldy  and  dull.  He  was  named  Royal 
Gift.  With  him  came  a  jennet,  which  was  bred  to  a  jack  called 
Knight  of  Malta,  a  present  from  General  Lafayette.  He  was 
of  moderate  size,  clean  limbed,  of  great  activity,  with  the  fire 
and  ferocity  of  a  tiger.  He  was  a  dark  brown,  very  nearly 
black,  with  belly  and  muzzle  white.  He  lived  to  a  great  age, 
and  died  about  1802  or  1803,  at  New  Kent.  His  mules  were 
active,  spirited,  and  serviceable,  and  from  stout  mares  attained 
considerable  size. 

He  got  from  the  Spanish  jennet  Washington's  favorite  jack, 
named  Compound.  This  cross  of  the  Spanish  and  Maltese  blood 
was  the  beginning  of  success  in  mule  breeding  at  Mount  Vernon. 
Compound  was  a  very  superior  animal,  very  long  bodied,  well  set, 
with  all  the  qualities  of  the  Knight,  and  the  weight  of  the  Spanish. 

His  mules  were  active  and  well-formed.     Bred  to  the  best  coach- 

» 

mares,  his  get  brought  extraordinary  prices.  The  experience  of 
Washington  has  been  that  of  all  his  successors  in  breeding 
mules,  that  the  value  of  the  mule  bears  a  just  proportion  to  that 
of  the  mare.  In  accordance  with  this  view.  Washington  bred 
his  best  pair  of  coach-mares  to  the  Knight  of  Malta  and  to  Com- 
pound, and  produced  such  superb  mules  that  the  country  was 
aroused  to  breed  some  of  the  same  sort. 


678  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

The  principal  mule-market  in  the  United  States  is  St.  Louis, 
where  they  are  brought  from  Missouri,  Kentucky,  Tennessee, 
and  Illinois,  and  shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  Southern  States,  to 
Cuba,  and  recently  a  European  trade  has  sprung  up. 

Breeding  and  Breaking  Mules. — In  breeding  mules  the 
same  laws  govern  that  lead  to  success  in  breeding  horses.  At- 
tention must  be  had  to  the  use  for  which  they  are  intended. 
Pack-mules  for  use  on  mountains  and  rough  lands,  sire  bred  from 
fine,  active,  compact  Spanish  jacks.  These  mules  are  agile  and 
sure-footed.  The  plantation  mules  must  be  of  medium  size. 
They  are  bred  from  ordinary  mares  by  good  jacks  of  good  size. 
Team  and  truck-mules,  sought  for  city  and  farm  use  in  the  middle 
States,  come  from  large,  roomy  mares  and  the  largest  and 
strongest  jacks.  They  are  liberally  fed  and  ready  to  sell  at 
three  years  old,  when  a  smooth,  large,  well-matched  pair  will 
sell  for  POO  to  $600. 

The  mares  and  foals  are  to  be  handled  as  described  in  our 
chapter  on  brood-mares  and  colts.  The  mule  responds  to  kind 
treatment  and  liberal  feed  as  promptly  as  a  young  horse.  At 
two  years  old  the  mule  may  be  broken  to  work.  Care  should 
be  taken  at  first,  not  to  frighten  them  with  the  harness.  They 
will  not  likely  injure  themselves  by  strains  or  over-work,  as  will 
a  spirited  young  horse,  but  their  work  should  be  light  until 
they  are  four  years  old,  when  they  may  safely  be  put  to  full 
work.  Their  very  meek  appearance  and  patience  under  abuse, 
seem  to  lead  rough  men  to  treat  them  cruelly.  The  mule  is  not 
naturally  vicious,  yet  he  never  forgets  an  injury,  and  when  sub- 
jected to  a  long  course  of  ill-usage  is  likely  to  resent  abuse. 
He  is  resentful  of  injury,  yet  no  other  animal  excels  him  in 
faithfulness  to  a  kind  master. 

It  is  found  that  in  breeding  mules  there  is  constant  care 
needed  to  guard  against  a  sluggish,  heavy  nature.  The  best 
mules  come  from  high-bred  mares  and  spirited  jacks  which  are 
from  fifteen  and  a  half  to  sixteen  hands  high.  The  better  the 
mare  the  better  the  mule,  is  a  common  belief  among  breeders. 

Experience  in  Breeding. — E.  F.  Spencer,  of  Kentucky, 
has  had  large  experience  in  breeding  mules,  and  we  give  the 


THE  ASS  AND  MULE.  679 

substance  of  his  remarks  on  this  subject.  During  the  breeding 
season,  beginning  here  in  March,  the  jack  should  have  a  lot 
large  enough  to  give  him  grass  during  the  night,  but  in  the 
day-time  he  should  be  kept  in  a  tight  stable.  No  horse-stock 
should  be  allowed  to  come  near  the  fence,  lest  the  jack  become 
fretful  and  vicious,  and  then  will  bite  the  horses  and  fret  so 
as  to  become  thin  in  flesh  and  unserviceable. 

If  permitted  to  run  in  the  lot  during  the  day,  feed  three 
times  a  day  four  to  six  ears  of  sound  corn,  two  bundles  of  sheaf- 
oats  cut  up  to  the  band.  He  commends  this  as  a  better  plan. 
If  the  breeder  has  no  grass-lot,  he  advises  a  feed  composed  of 
oats  cut  up  and  corn-meal  ground  fine;  mix,  and  put  in  a  little 
salt.  Feed  little  at  first  to  avoid  founder  and  colic.  He  may 
go  to  one  or  two  mares  at  two  years  of  age,  but  must  not  be 
bred  to  jennets  before  he  has  served  at  least  a  dozen  mares. 
He  can  serve  one  mare  in  the  morning  and  one  in  the  evening, 
and  should  be  limited  to  forty  or  sixty  at  most,  the  first  year. 

During  the  season  the  jack  must  be  securely  haltered 
through  the  day,  for,  though  seemingly  docile,  he  has  known 
them  to  seize  the  groom  with  bull-dog  ferocity.  Give  him  no 
chance  to  do  mischief.  "  The  application  of  a  good  hickory 
will  soon  cure  his  viciousness." 

A  jennet  will  carry  her  foal  twelve  to  thirteen  months.  The 
young  foals  are  more  likely  to  be  smothered  than  horse-foals, 
and  the  owner  should  be  present  when  the  jennet  foals.  The 
young,  healthy  jack  will  get  his  best  foals  the  first  season.  If 
the  jack  is  fifteen  to  fifteen  and  one  half  hands  high,  and  has  size 
by  inheritance,  one  can,  from  mares  of  good  size,  confidently  ex- 
pect good-sized  inules.  The  well-bred  mule,  if  well  cared  for, 
will  grow  six  inches  the  first  year  and  three  the  second,  and 
will  have  attained  his  full  height  at  two  years  if  well  kept.  If 
poorly  fed  he  will  not  mature  until  three  years  old.  The  stunt- 
ing business  does  not  pay,  as  it  costs  an  extra  year's  keep. 

Breaking  and  Managing  Mules. — The  nature  of  the 
mule  is  not  so  different  from  that  of  its  mother  as  to  justify  the 
common  view,  that  breaking  a  mule  is  simply  force  work.  The 
mule  and  even  the  ass  are  susceptible  to  training,  and  are  more 


680  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA 

easily  taught  by  kind  management  than  by  blows  and  rough  usage. 
Students  of  natural  history  inform  us  that  the  ass  and  mule  are 
like  the  elephant  in  their  remembering  and  resenting  an  injury. 

Mules  are  so  patient,  and  so  much  less  nervous  than  are 
horses,  that  they  are  generally  used  by  planters,  farmers,  and 
contractors  and  manufacturers,  who  commit  their  teams  to  hired 
men.  This  class  of  teamsters  and  drivers  are  as  a  general  thing 
lacking  in  skill  and  kindness,  hence  their  methods  of  handling 
mules  have  given  the  impression  that  the  mule  is  stubborn, 
treacherous,  and  can  only  be  controlled  by  severe  bits  and  heavy 
blows.  On  the  other  hand  the  testimony  of  owners,  who  treat 
their  mules  as  they  do  young  horses,  and  teach  them  kindly 
and  by  degrees  how  to  work,  and  to  know  the  meaning  of  the 
word  of  command,  is  always  to  the  effect  that  there  is  no  more 
faithful,  reliable,  and  willing  beast  of  burden  than  the  mule. 

Hon.  J.  B.  Smith,  of  Pennsylvania,  says  he  had  the  pleasure 
once  of  owning  a  pair  of  mules :  "  I  bought  them  when  they 
were  two  years  old,  and  made  up  my  mind  that  they  could  be 
broken  the  same  as  a  horse,  if  treated  in  the  same  way.  I  got 
a  friend  to  assist,  and  we  went  to  work  and  broke  them  the 
same  as  colts,  using  them  kindly ;  and  a  better  pair  of  mules 
never  were  used.  Any  one  could  drive  them.  I  could  hitch 
them  to  a  buggy  and  they  would  go  well ;  all  I  would  have  to 
say  was  'go.'  I  believe  the  mule  should  have  the  same  treat- 
ment as  the  horse,  and  then  he  will  have  as  kind  a  disposition. 
If  you  whip  and  scold  him  every  time  he  does  any  thing  wrong, 
and  make  a  scape-goat  of  him  generally,  in  course  of  time  he 
will  not  mind  any  body,  not  even  yourself.  But  if  you  treat 
him  right,  he  will  do  right  in  return."  Anothe'r  gentleman,  of 
large  experience  with  mules,  says,  "  They  have  a  very  affectionate 
disposition,  but  one  peculiarity  of  theirs  (and  this  same  trait  is 
peculiar  to  the  elephant)  is  that  of  remembering  and  resenting 
an  injury ;  therefore,  the  more  quietly  we  go  about  handling 
and  breaking  them,  the  less  trouble  we  will  have  with  them, 
and  the  less  disposition  they  will  ever  possess  to  kick  any  one. 
A  showman  once  announced  whilst  performing  his  bear,  that 
he  'broke  him  with  kindness,'  adding,  'and  a  club.'  The  mule 


THE  ASS  AND  MULE.  681 

driver  should  use  the  kindness,  and  under  no  circumstances  use 
a  club."  He  says  many  a  mule  is  spoiled  by  ignorant  and 
thoughtless  persons  seizing  it  by  the  ear,  and  holding  on  to  that 
sensitive  organ,  until  the  mule  becomes  so  much  afraid  that  it 
is  almost  impossible  to  bridle  it.  Some  can  never  be  entirely 
cured  of  the  timidity  thus  produced. 

The  writer  has  had  in  his  employ  a  negro  who  never  spoke 
in  loud  or  harsh  tones  to  the  mules,  and  could  always  get  better 
work  and  more  of  it  out  of  his  team  than  any  other  driver. 
Other  drivers  would  stall  their  teams,  and  beat,  and  curse  the 
mules,  and  have  to  call  on  John  to  help  them  out  with  the  load. 
Sometimes  he  would  hitch  his  team  to  theirs  and  pull  them  out; 
other  times  he  would  tell  the  driver,  "  If  you  will  go  away  out 
of  sight  of  the  mules,  I  will  drive  them  out."  After  a  few 
minutes  of  rest  and  a  kind  word  of  assurance,  he  never 
failed  in  getting  the  mules  to  pull.  He  never  called  on  them 
to  do  impossibilities,  yet  he  took  pride  in  having  his  mules  pull 
heavier  loads  than  any  other  team.  John's  secret  was  kindness 
and  self-control. 

Will-power  and  Stubbornness. — There  are  some  phys- 
iologists who  teach  that  the  secret  of  great  strength  is  not  so 
much  in  the  muscle  as  in  the  will.  Some  men,  of  light  muscle 
and  slender  frame,  can  outlift  men  of  greater  size  of  muscle 
and  frame,  simply  because  they  have  the  will-power.  A  small 
man  with  a  resolute  purpose,  amounting  to  stubbornness,  is  more 
difficult  to  overcome  in  a  contest  of  strength  than  a  larger  man 
of  weaker  purpose.  The  term,  "  as  stubborn  as  a  mule,"  tells  of 
the  extraordinary  will-power  of  this  wonderful  bundle  of  muscle. 
It  is  proverbial,  that  a  mule  team  can  outpull  any  team  of 
horses  of  equal  weight,  and  generally  a  team  of  mules  of  1.600 
pounds  weight  can  pull  as  much  as  a  team  of  horses  weighing 
one-fourth  to  one-half  more.  Muscle  and  make  of  bone  can  not 
account  for  this.  The  patient,  indomitable  will  of  the  mule  is 
the  secret  of  his  power  to  do  more  work  than  his  half  brother, 
of  greater  weight  and  less  will. 

The  secret  of  getting  work  out  of  man  or  boy,  horse  or 
mule,  is  not  to  antagonize  his  will.  When  mule-drivers  learn 


682  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

to  act  on  this  principle,  we  shall  hear  less  concerning  the  vicious- 
ness  and  stubbornness  of  the  patient,  useful  mule. 

Economy  of  Mule  Power. — The  first  cost  of  the  mule 
is  less  than  that  of  the  horse.  He  is  able  to  earn  his  living  at 
two  years  old,  and  has  eaten  less  than  the  colt  of  same  age. 
But,  as  the  horse  is  not  put  to  work  until  three  or  four  years 
old,  the  odds  are  largely  in  favor  of  his  half-brother,  whose  an- 
cestors, on  the  sire's  side,  have  always  lived  on  simple  fare, 
and  could  make  a  meal  on  thistles,  while  the  horse  could  not 
labor  without  his  grain  and  fodder. 

The  ass  family  has  been  noted  for  centuries  for  longevity 
and  hardiness.  The  mule  will  not  eat  as  much  as  the  horse;  is 
not  so  liable  to  disease.  His  frugal  living,  and  that  of  his  an- 
cestors, may  have  something  to  do  with  that,  and  also  with  the 
other  fact  that  the  mule  is  not  so  nervous  as  the  horse,  and 
not  so  liable  to  run  away  and  damage  himself  and  smash  up 
things  generally.  The  mule  can  not  do  as  many  kinds  of  work 
as  well  as  the  horse.  It  never  can  be  as  pleasant  a  roadster  or 
saddle-nag.  For  drudgery  and  heavy  work,  the  hardiness  and 
patient  power  of  the  mule  has  no  equal,  in  the  hands  of  the 
average  teamster. 

Judge  Hinckley,  of  Massachusetts,  once  a  breeder  of  mules, 
and  for  fifty  years  an  owner  of  mules  and  horses,  gives  his 
preference  to  the  mules  for  the  drudgery  of  farm  work.  One 
pair,  thirty  years  old,  were  particularly  serviceable,  having  out- 
lived three  generations  of  work-horses,  and  while  the  latter 
were  often  lame,  or  out  of  condition,  and  sick,  these  mules 
never  were. 

Another  gentleman,  who  used  mules  thirty  years,  testifies 
that  a  large-sized  mule  will  not  consume  more  than  three-fifths 
to  two-thirds  as  much  food  to  keep  him  in  good  order  as  will 
be  necessary  for  a  horse  performing  the  same  labor.  The  ex- 
pense of  shoeing  a  mule,  the  year  round,  does  not  exceed  one- 
third  that  of  the  horse — his  hoofs  being  harder  and  more  horny, 
and  so  slow  in  growth,  the  shoes  do  not  require  so  frequent  re- 
moval, and  from  the  lightness  of  the  animal,  the  wear  is  much  less. 
He  thinks  it  probable  that  a  farmer  may  work  his  team  of  mules 


THE  ASS  AND  MULE.  683 

twenty  years  without  a  farrier's  bill  coming  in.  He  has  used 
mules  in  all  work,  and  never  had  an  accident  from  running 
away  or  fright,  while  horses,  in  that  time,  had  caused  maiming 
and  death  to  themselves  and  human  beings.  The  mule  is  more 
steady  at  a  draught,  and  less  likely  to  waste  strength  than  the 
horse.  In  plowing  among  crops,  the  mule's  feet  being  small,  it 
seldom  treads  on  the  crop.  The  mule  will  obey  implicitly,  as 
he  has  plowed  two  tandem  without  lines,  and  done  better  plow- 
ing than  it  was  possible  to  do  with  horses. 

Mr.  Elicott,  of  Patuxent  Furnaces,  testifies  in  the  American 
Farmer  that  out  of  one  hundred  mules  at  the  works,  they  have 
not  lost  on  an  average  one  in  two  years,  and  never  had  one 
that  was  wind-broken.  They  are  tougher  in  the  hoof,  and  shoe- 
ing is  less  expensive.  Their  skin  is  tougher,  and  they  are  not 
annoyed  so  much  with  flies  and  do  not  suffer  so  much  with  heat 
in  summer. 

We  might  multiply  similar  testimony  as  to  the  economy  in 
using  mules  on  the  farm  and  at  heavy  work  rather  than  horses 
and  cattle,  but  enough  has  been  said  to  show  their  exceeding 
great  value  and  that  the  prejudice  against  the  mule  is  not 
founded  in  fact. 

The  Longevity  of  the  Mule. — It  was  a  common  say- 
ing during  the  late  war,  "that  mules  never  died."  One  mule 
has  been  in  the  service  of  the  United  States  over  twenty-five 
years,  and  at  the  recommendation  of  General  Sherman  has  been 
retired  and  pensioned.  Pliny  gives  an  account  of  one  that 
Grecian  history  made  eighty  years  old,  and  though  no  longer 
used  for  labor,  followed  others  that  were  carrying  materials  to 
build  the  Temple  of  Minerva,  at  Athens,  and  seemed  to  wish  to 
assist  them.  The  people  were  so  pleased  with  his  conduct, 
that  they  ordered  for  him  free  egress  to  the  public  grain 
market. 

Dr.  Rees  mentions  two  mules  in  England  that  were  seventy 
years  old.  Another  writer  states  that  he  saw  a  mule  in  the 
West  Indies  performing  his  task  in  a  cane-mill  that  his  owner 
said  was  forty  years  old.  He  adds  that  he  owns  a  mare  mule, 
twenty-five  years  old,  that  he  has  had  in  constant  work  for 


684  THE  PEOPLE1  S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

twenty-one  years,  and  he  could  see  no  diminution  of  her  pow- 
ers. Another  mule  is  reported  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Mary- 
land "  to  be  thirty-five  years  old,  and  yet  as  capable  of  labor  as 
at  any  former  period." 

Winter  Care  of  Mules. — We  must  not  lose  sight  of  the 
fact  that  the  ass  is  not  able  to  endure  cold,  as  can  the  horse. 
The  history  of  the  mule  in  America  shows  that  it  succeeds 
best  in  the  milder  latitudes.  The  business  of  rearing  mules  be- 
gan with  much  spirit  in  the  New  England  States  soon  after  the 
Revolutionary  war.  They  were  bred  for  shipment  to  the  West 
Indies  and  the  South,  for  work  on  sugar  and  cotton  plantations. 
Though  this  trade  was  profitable  for  many  years,  it  was  soon 
evident  that  the  cost  of  wintering  and  feeding  was  so  much  less 
in  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  Missouri,  where  feed  is  cheaper  and 
winters  shorter,  that  the  New  England  farmer  must  give  the 
business  over  to  the  farmers  of  the  West  and  South-west. 

The  breeding  of  mules  in  New  England  did  not  lead  to  in- 
crease of  size.  The  cold  weather,  and  the  long  winters,  that 
kept  the  animals  from  grass  and  exercise  for  several  months, 
had  an  influence  to  check  growth,  which  the  farmer's  care  did 
not  counteract.  Another  element  in  keeping  down  the  size 
was  the  fact  that  any  thing  of  the  mule  kind  could  be  sold  for 
the  Southern  laborer. 

The  inferior  class  of  mules  at  first  produced  a  prejudice 
against  the  race,  and  the  ready  sale  of  inferior  mules  did  not 
lead  to  great  improvement.  It  was  not  many  years,  however, 
after  mule  raising  in  Kentucky  and  Illinois,  where  grass  and 
grain  were  fed  liberally  and  mules  had  range  and  exercise 
abundant,  until  their  greatly  increased  size  and  quality  brought 
the  high  prices  which  stimulated  good  breeding.  These  possi- 
bilities of  better  growth  and  better  prices  led  to  the  use  of 
better  mares  and  high-priced  jacks.  Soon  large,  active  mules, 
handsomely  matched,  found  fancy  buyers  among  the  merchants 
and  business  men  of  cities,  for  trucks  and  delivery  wagons. 
Their  excellence  for  such  uses  has  kept  a  market  for  them 
which  has  not  yet  been  over-done. 

Mule-raising  promises  to  be  a  more  profitable  business  than 


THE  ASS  AND  MULE.  685 

raising  common  horses,  since  a  pair  of  good  mules  will  readily 
bring  more  money,  and  will  cost  less  to  raise,  and  be  ready  for 
sale  at  an  earlier  age  than  horses.  They  are  seldom  blemished, 
and  cost  nothing  to  break  to  work. 

The  Hinny. — The  hinny  is  another  hybrid,  the  produce 
of  a  she  ass  bred  to  a  horse.  Like  the  mule  it  resembles  its 
sire  more  than  its  dam.  It  is  handsome,  round-bodied  like  the 
horse,  but  is  very  small,  and  slow  in  motion.  The  hinny  neighs 
like  the  horse,  and  the  mule  brays  similarly  to  the  ass. 
Though  the  hinny  is  hardier,  more  patient,  and  can  endure  more 
scanty  fare,  and  greater  privation  than  the  horse  it  is  inferior  in 
all  these  respects  to  the  ass  and  mule. 

Herbert  argues  from  the   results  of  breeding  the  hinny  and 

.  the   mule,  that    they    furnish   strong   arguments    why   breeders 

should   invariably  seek  to  have  the  qualities  of  blood,  temper, 

courage,  and  spirit  on  the   side   of  the  sire,  and  those  of  form 

and  size  on  that  of  the  dam. 

The  breeder  of  animals  will  have  noticed  the  fact  that  the 
ass  is  more  prepotent  than  the  horse,  as  the  form  and  organiza- 
tion of  both  the  mule  and  hinny  prove.  This  may  be  accounted 
for  on  the  principle  of  the  long  line  of  in-breeding  of  the  ass, 
extending  as  it  does  many  centuries  back  of  the  origin  of  the 
English  thoroughbred. 

The  prepotency  of  the  quagga  and  zebra  are  greater  than 
that  of  the  horse  or  even  the  ass,  on  the  same  principle. 


OF  HORSES. 


687 


INDEX  TO  DISEASES  OR  HORSES. 


PAGE. 

ABSCESSES, 723 

Ammoniacal  Liniment  (see  cattle  chap- 
ter, page  930). 

Anaemia  (see  cattle  chapter,  page  900). 
Azoturia, 732 

BATHING  (see   cattle  chapter,  page 
926). 

Big-leg, 707 

Bilious  Erysipelas, 707 

Biniodide  of  Mercury  Blister,  .   .    .  736 

Blistering, 734 

Bots, 737 

Bruises, 723 

Bursal  Enlargements, 716 

CAKED  BAG  (see  cattle  chapter,  page 

917). 

Cantharides  Blister, 735 

Carbolic   Lotion  (see  cattle    chapter, 

page  930). 

Catarrh,  Nasal  (see  also  page  692)  .    690 
Choking    (see    cattle    chapter,   page 

902). 

Coffin-joint  Lameness 720 

Colic  Flatulent, 727 

Colic  Spasmodic, 725 

Collar  Galls, 712 

Condition  Powders  (see  cattle  chapter, 

page  928.) 

Congestion  of  the  Lungs, 691 

Conjunctivitis, 708 

Corns, 721 

Cracked  Heels, 701 

Curb, 717 

DlAKKIKEA, 729 

Distemper, 700 

Dose  for  Young  Animals   (see  cattle 
chapter,  page  928). 

ECZEMA, 704 

Elephantiasis, 708 


PAGE. 

Enteritis, 730 

Epizootic  Cellulitis, 699 

FISTULA  OP  THE  WITHKBS 714 

Foaling  (see  cattle  chapter,  page  908). 

Founder, 718 

French  Stiffs 732 

GARGET  (see  cattle  chapter,  page  917). 

Grease, 703 

Grease-heel, 703 

HUMID  TETTER, 704 

INDIGESTION, 724 

Inflammation  of  the  Bowels,  .   .    .  730 

Inflammation  of  the  Eye 708 

Inflammation  of  the   Conjunctiva,  .  708 

Inflammation  of  the  Lungs,  ....  694 

Inflammation  of  the  Pleura, ....  696 

Inflammation   of  the  Lymphatics,  .  707 

Inflammatory  CEdema, 707 

Influenza, 897 

Inversion  of  the  Uterus    (see   cattle 
chapter,  page  913). 

Iodine  Ointment, 73? 

Itch, 705 

KIDNEY  DISEASE, 732 

LAMPAS, 724 

Laminitis  (see  also  page  720),  .    .    .  718 

Lungs,  Congestion  of, 691 

Lungs,  Inflammation  of, 694 

Lung  Fever, 694 

Lymphangitis, 707 

MAMMITIS  (see  cattle  chapter,  page 

917). 

Mange, 705 

Milk  Fever  (see  cattle  chapter,  page 

916). 
Monday  Morning  Fever, 707 


688 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


PAGE. 

Muco-enteritis, 699 

Mud  Fever, 702 

NASAL  GLEET, 692 

Navicular  Disease, 720 

Navicularthritis, 720 

Nettle-rash 705 

OPHTHALMIA, 708 

Ozsena, 692 

PARTIAL  PARALYSIS, 732 

Parturition  (see  foaling). 
Parturient  Fever  (see  cattle  chapter, 

page  916). 

Pink-eye, 699 

Pleurisy, 696 

Pleuritis, 696 

Pneumonia, 694 

Poll  Evil, 713 

Puns, 716 

Pulsation,  etc.  (see  cattle  chapter, 

page  899). 

Punctures, 722 

RINGBONE, 710 

Rheumatic  Influenza, 699 

Rheumatism    (see    cattle    chapter, 
page  926). 


PAGE. 

SCABIES, 705 

Saddle-galls 713 

Scratches, 701 

Shot  of  Grease, 707 

Shoulderslip, 715 

Sidebones, 711 

Sore  Eyes, 708 

Spavin,  Blood, 717 

Spavin,  Bog, 716 

Spavin,  Bone, 711 

Splints, 709 

Strangles, 700 

Surfeit, 705 

Sweeny, 715 

THOROUGHPIN, 717 

URTICARIA, 705 

WATER  FARCY, 707 

Weed 707 

White  Lotion   (see   cattle  chapter, 

page  929). 

Wind-galls, 716 

Wolf  Teeth, 724 

Worms, 728 

Wounds  (see  cattle  chapter,  page 

920). 


DISEASES  OF  HOUSES.  68(J 


VII. 

DISEASES    OR    HORSES.* 

IT  is  the  purpose  of  the  present  chapter  to  furnish  to  the  own- 
ers of  horses  and  cattle  a  plain,  practical,  thorough,  and  re- 
liable treatise  on  the  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment  of  the 
diseases  to  which  those  animals  are  subject.  It  is  intended  to 
make  each  case  so  clear  that  any  person  of  ordinary  intelli- 
gence may  be  able  to  detect  and  treat  each  disease  with  certainty 
and  success.  It  is  not  intended  to  convert  all  stock-raisers 
into  veterinary  surgeons.  The  necessity  will  still  remain  as  be- 
fore for  the  practiced  and  qualified  surgeon ;  but  it  does  not  fol- 
low, any  more  than  in  the  case  of  the  diseases  to  which  human 
beings  are  subject,  that  the  skillful  physician  is  to  take  the 
place  of  a  general  knowledge  of  the  causes,  nature,  and  cure  of 
the  ills  to  which  all  flesh  is  heir.  It  is  hoped  that  without  any 
arrogance  of  assumption,  and  in  consideration  of  a  long  and 
carefully  conducted  education,  it  may  be  modestly  and  yet 
confidently  asserted  that  the  current  chapter  presents  the  very 
best  that  is  known  with  reference  to  the  diseases  of  horses  and 
cattle,  and  of  the  agencies  to  be  employed  in  the  prevention 
and  cure  of  all  such  ailments.  It  is  only  necessary  to  add  in 
this  opening  paragraph  a  single  general  remark,  and  that  is 


•The  veterinary  department  of  this  volume  has  been  very  carefully  compiled 
and  edited  by  R  W.  STKXVART,  D.  V.  S.,  from  stenographic  notes  of  lectures  deliv- 
ered at  the  veterinary  colleges  of  Toronto  and  New  York  city,  by  the  most  eminent 
veterinary  surpeons  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  To  his  extensive  and  pro- 
found theoretical  education  the  author  has  also  added  many  years  of  careful  obser- 
vation and  practical  experience  in  the  professional  treatment  of  animals.  What  he 
has  produced  in  the  present  work,  therefore,  may  be  relied  upon  as  the  most  valu- 
able and  authentic  treatise  on  the  subject  ever  offered  to  the  farmers  and  stock- 
raisers  of  our  country. — TUB  PUBLISIIEKS. 

44 


690  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

with  reference  to  the  treatment  of  those  diseases  which  are 
common  to  both  cattle  and  horses.  The  principle,  as  it  relates 
to  the  administration  of  medicine  to  these  two  species  of  ani- 
mals, is  simply  this  :  The  cow  requires  the  larger  dose  by  about 
one-third  of  the  amount  given  to  the  horse.  In  the  prescriptions, 
therefore,  if  the  dose  named  is  prescribed  for  a  horse,  and  ref- 
erence is  made  to  it  from  the  cattle  chapter,  about  one-third 
of  the  dose  given  for  the  horse  should  be  added  to  get  the 
proper  dose  for  a  cow.  On  the  contrary  if  the  treatment  for  a 
cow  is  taken,  from  which  reference  is  made  for  the  treatment 
of  a  horse,  only  about  three-fourths  of  the  prescribed  quantity 
should  be  given.  An  observance  of  this  general  rule  is  all  that 
is  required  in  order  to  enable  the  farmer  or  stock-raiser  to  pre- 
scribe intelligently  to  either  class  of  animals  from  the  table  of 
recipes  prepared  for  the  other  class. 

Nasal  Catarrh. — Nasal  Catarrh  means  a  running  or  dis- 
charge from  the  lining — mucous  membrane — of  the  nose,  and 
sinuses  of  the  head.  It  is  an  inflammation  of  this  membrane. 

CAUSES. — Exposure  to  the  cold;  sudden  changes  of  tempera- 
ture; standing  in  a  draft  of  cold  air;  ill  ventilated  stables,  and 
being  exerted  when  in  a  weakened  or  debilitated  condition. 

SYMPTOMS. — At  first  there  is  slight  dullness;  the  appetite 
may  be  poor;  then  the  hair  becomes  rough;  the  throat  more  or 
less  sore,  but  the  pulse  and  breathing  are  but  little  affected  as 
a  rule,  and  there  is  a  discharge  from  the  nose.  The  dis- 
charge at  first  will  be  thin  and  watery ;  then  it  becomes  whit- 
ish and  then  yellowish ;  varying  according  to  the  severity  of 
the  attack.  This  discharge  may  be  very  great,  but  it  is  not  an 
unfavorable  sign.  A  small  amount  of  urine  is  usually  passed. 

TREATMENT. — Place  the  animal  in  a  comfortable,  well  venti- 
lated place,  and  if  the  weather  is  cold,  use  blankets  to  make 
him  comfortable,  and  if  the  bowels  are  costive,  a  small  dose  of 
physic  may  be  given  (but  physics  should  be  used  sparingly  in 
catarrh). 

Take — Barbadoes    Aloes,       ......     4  drams. 

Water,  boiling,        ......          1  pint. 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES.  691 

Mix,  and  when  cool  give,  as  a  drench,  at  one  dose.  After 
three  or  four  hours, 

Take — Sweet  Spirits  of  Niter 2  ounces. 

Laudanum,         .......     1  ounce. 

Water,  \  pint. 

Mix  and  give  at  one  dose.  If  this  is  done  in  the  beginning, 
it  may  arrest  the  attack.  Give  nitrate  of  potash,  four  drams, 
three  times  a  day,  in  the  food,  drink,  or  in  a  drench  of  cold 
water;  and  bathe  the  nostrils  with  warm  water,  or  cause  steam 
to  be  breathed,  but  not  too  hot.  If  there  is  a  cough,  bathe  the 
throat  with  the  ammonical  liniment  (see  index),  or 

Take — Mustard,  powdered,        .....         3  ounces. 
Water,  hot, 1  quart. 

Mix  and  bathe  the  throat  with  it.  Give  loosening  food.  If 
the  discharge  from  the  nose  continues  too  long,  give  sulphate 
of  iron,  two  drams,  twice  a  day;  or  chlorate  of  potash,  two 
drams  three  times  a  day ;  or  sulphate  of  copper,  one  dram, 
three  times  a  day,  and  after  giving  any  one  of  these  for  a  week, 
it  is  best  to  change  to  some  other. 

Congestion  of  the  Lungs. — This  consists  of  an  increased 
amount  of  blood  in  the  lungs,  which  interferes  with  the  breath- 
ing. It  is  the  most  common  disease  of  the  lungs,  and  goes  be- 
fore inflammation  of  the  lungs. 

CAUSES. — Driving  an  animal  fast,  when  in  a  weakened  con- 
dition, is  the  most  common  cause.  It  follows  influenza  and 
catarrh,  and  is  sometimes  caused  by  breathing  impure  air,  and 
possibly  by  a  draft  of  cold  air.  A  bloated  condition  of  the 
bowels  which  greatly  interferes  with  the  breathing  may  cause  it. 

SYMPTOMS. — If  it  is  caused  by  over  exertion,  the  animal  will 
be  sluggish,  will  tremble — especially  in  the  flanks — and  will 
breathe  with  difficulty.  The  nostrils  will  be  wide  spread ;  the 
pulse  quick  and  labored,  and  sometimes  indistinct;  the  mem- 
brane lining  the  nose  and  eyes  will  be  red,  and  a  peculiar  gur- 
gling noise  can  be  heard  by  placing  your  ear  to  the  side  of  the 
chest.  His  ears  and  legs  will  be  cold ;  he  persists  in  standing, 
but  may,  in  some  cases,  lie  down,  but  soon  jumps  up  again. 
It  is  sometimes  produced  very  suddenly. 


692  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

TREATMENT. — In  this  and  in  all  similar  diseases,  first  see 
that  plenty  of  fresh,  pure  air  can  be  obtained  without  a  draft 
of  wind — the  animal  would  be  better  in  the  open  air  than  in  a 
close,  poorly  ventilated  stable — keep  him  well  blanketed,  and 

Take — Carbonate  of  Ammonia,  ....         2  drams. 

Water,        ........     8  ounces. 

Mix,  and  when  dissolved,  add  either  of  the  following : 

Take — Sulphuric  Ether,      ......  1  ounce. 

Laudanum,          .......  J  ounce. 

Or — Sweet  Spirits  of  Niter, 1  ounce. 

Laudanum,          .......  J  ounce. 

Mix  and  give  as  one  dose,  and  repeat  every  two  hours  until 
relieved.  Rub  the  body  well,  bandage  the  legs,  and  keep  him 
warm;  or  bathe  the  legs  with  warm  water  and  then  bandage. 
Give  injections  of  warm  soap-suds,  and  when  he  seems  relieved 
do  not  give  more  medicine  as  above,  but  give  nitrate  of  potash, 
three  drachms  three  times  a  day.  But  if  no  relief  is  soon  afforded 
by  the  medicines  prescribed,  apply  to  the  sides  blankets  wrung 
from  hot  water  and  covered  with  dry  ones.  If  other  symptoms 
are  relieved,  and  the  pulse  still  runs  high,  give  tincture  of  ac- 
onite-root, ten  drops  well  diluted  in  water,  and,  if  necessary,  it 
may  be  repeated  once  or  twice  at  intervals  of  two  hours,  but 
aconite  should  be  used  very  cautiously  in  this  disease.  When 
an  animal  is  recovering,  he  should  be  used  very  carefully  for  a 
long  time.  Very  moderate,  but  regular,  exercise  is  needed,  and 
he  should  not  be  exposed  to  the  cold.  Tonics  are  necessary. 
Give  gentian  powders,  one-half  ounce  three  times  a  day,  or  give 
the  condition  powders  as  recommended  for  colic.  (See  Index.) 
If  he  is  worked  before  he  is  in  a  healthy  condition,  he  will  be 
very  liable  to  have  it  again. 

Chronic  Catarrh. — Also  called  Nasal  Gleet,  Ozcena,  etc. 
It  is  a  chronic  inflammation  of  lining  membrane  of  the  nose  and 
sinuses  of  the  head. 

CAUSES. — Neglected  catarrh  ;  exposure  and  lack  of  food ;  an 
injury  to  the  bones  of  the  face,  sufficient  either  to  fracture  the 
bones  or  to  injure  the  blood  vessels  inside,  or  a  rotten  tooth. 
Chronic  catarrh  is  a  symptom  of  bad  teeth.  It  may  be  caused 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES.  693 

by  a  tumor,  or  by  some  foreign  substance  getting  into  the  nose 
from  the  throat.  This  last  cause  is  frequent  from  an  animal 
choking  and  coughing,  which  throws  the  food  into  the  nose. 

SYMPTOMS. — There  will  be  a  discharge  from  the  nose  either 
whitish  or  yellowish  in  color,  which  may  be  retained  in  the  nose 
for  some  time,  and  then  expelled  in  large  quantities.  The 
lining  membrane  of  the  nose  may  either  be  reddened  or  of  a 
lead  color ;  but  there  are  no  ulcerated  patches,  as  in  glanders. 
There  may  be  swelling  of  the  glands  of  the  throat,  especially 
if  it  is  caused  by  a  diseased  tooth.  Sometimes  catarrh  can  be  de- 
tected by  tapping  upon  the  face  with  the  fingers.  If  the  linings 
are  diseased  and  swollen,  tapping  does  not  give  the  hollow 
sound  as  heard  in  a  healthy  animal.  An  animal  having  catarrh 
becomes  thin  in  flesh,  and  "  hide-bound,"  as  it  is  called.  After 
the  disease  has  run  on  for  a  long  time,  the  discharge  is  exceed- 
ingly offensive,  especially  if  caused  by  a  diseased  tooth.  The 
discharge  of  glanders  is  not  so  offensive,  and  its  color  is  more 
of  a  greenish  tint.  In  making  an  examination,  always  examine 
the  teeth. 

TREATMENT. — As  a  rule,  no  physic  is  needed.  Feed  the  ani- 
mal well ;  allow  plenty  of  fresh  air  and  some  exercise  ;  wash 
the  nostrils  thoroughly  clean  two  or  three  times  a  day  and  give 

Sulphate  of  Iron,      .......         2  drams. 

Or   Iodide  of  Potash,  .         .         .         .         .         .3  drams. 

Or  Sulphate  of  Copper,  .....         li  drams. 

Give  either  of  the  above  twice  a  day.  Or  balsam  of  copaiba 
may  be  given  instead,  in  three  dram  doses  three  times  a  day. 
The  best  preparation  of  iron  is  the  iodide  of  iron,  given  in  two 
drachm  doses  twice  a  day,  but  it  is  more  expensive  than  the  sul- 
phate of  iron.  In  many  cases  a  blister  over  the  parts  does 
great  good. 

In  some  cases  it  is  also  necessary  to  make  an  opening  through 
the  bones  of  the  face  in  order  to  let  the  matter  escape.  This 
operation  is  called  trephining,  and  should  be  performed  with  an 
instrument  called  a  trephine;  but  it  has  been  performed  with  an 
ordinary  brace  and  a  three-fourth  inch  bit.  When  this  has  been 
done  the  hole  should  be  kept  open  and  syringed  once  a  day 


694  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

with  the  carbolic  lotion.    (See  Index.)     If  there  are  any  rotten 
teeth,  remove  them. 

Another  convenient  mode  of  treating  this  disease  is, 

Take — Sulphate  of  Copper,     .         .         .         .         .         2  drams. 
Cautharides,  powdered,     .         .         .         .         .5  grains. 
Or — Sulphate  of  Iron,          .....         1  dram. 

Arsenic,  3  grains. 

Strychnine,  ......         2  grains. 

Mix  either  of  these  into  one  pill  with  flour,  molasses,  etc., 
and  give  one  such  pill  in  the  morning  and  another  at  night ;  or, 

Take — lodoform,     .......         2  drams. 

Nitrate  of  Bismuth,          .         .         .         .         .1  ounce. 

Powder,  and  mix  thoroughly,  and  blow  the  powder  in  the 
nose  twice  a  day  with  a  powder-blower,  or 

Take — lodoform,         .......     1  dram. 

Sulphuric  Ether,          .....          1  ounce. 

Mix,  and  use  in  the  nose  with  a  spray  syringe. 
Pneumonia. — Also,  Inflammation  of  the  Lungs,  Lung  Fever, 
etc.  This  disease  may  occur  either  in  an  acute  or  a  chronic 
form,  may  effect  a  part  or  the  whole  of  one  or  both  lungs.  It 
is  often  connected  with  pleurisy  and  other  diseases.  When  it 
occurs  in  connection  with  pleurisy,  it  is  called  pleuro-pneumonia. 

CAUSES. — Improperly  ventilated  stables  ;  sudden  changes  of 
temperature ;  exposure  to  cold  ;  over-driving,  etc.  It  may  also 
occur  from  a  case  of  neglected  catarrh.  Breathing  impure  air 
or  smoke,  or  taking  strong  medicines  without  being  well  diluted, 
may  cause  first  bronchitis  and  then  pneumonia.  Young  animals 
are  most  liable  to  it. 

SYMPTOMS. — It  usually  begins  with  a  chill,  after  which  the 
body  becomes  hot ;  the  ears  and  legs  become  hot  and  then  cold ; 
the  mouth  hot  and  sticky,  and  the  breathing  slightly  affected 
at  first ;  the  pulse  will  be  quick  and  may  be  full ;  the  animal 
hangs  the  head  and  continues  standing;  the  eyes  have  a  glassy 
look,  and  the  lining  of  the  nose  and  eyes  is  redder  than  natural; 
and  there  will  be  a  peculiar  flapping  of  the  nostrils,  and  a  heavy, 
sighing  breathing.  A  symptom,  which  often  misleads,  is  cos- 
tiveness  of  the  bowels,  and  the  dung  dropped  will  be  covered 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES.  695 

with  slime.  By  placing  your  head  to  the  side  of  the  chest,  a 
sound  something  like  that  heard  by  rubbing  your  hair  near  your 
ear  between  the  thumb  and  finger  can  be  heard.  If  the  animal 
is  turned  loose  in  a  stable  with  an  opening  near,  he  usually 
will  stand  with  the  head  to  the  hole,  which  shows  a  desire  for 
pure  air.  He  should  be  permitted  to  have  plenty  of  pure  air, 
yet  no  draft  should  be  allowed  to  blow  upon  him. 

In  the  last  stage  of  the  disease,  the  pulse  may  run  as  high 
as  one  hundred  beats  per  minute.  The  difficulty  in  breathing 
and  flapping  of  the  nostrils  also  increases;  and  there  will  be  a 
discharge  of  a  reddish-brown  color  from  the  nose ;  the  breath 
will  stink,  and  nothing  will  be  eaten.  The  animal  stands ;  he 
notices  nothing,  his  mouth  is  cold,  and  the  pulse  becomes  indis- 
tinct. In  such  a  case  death  will  soon  give  relief. 

TREATMENT. — Clothe  the  animal,  sufficiently  to  make  him 
comfortable,  and  if  he  is  a  strong,  otherwise  healthy  animal, 
and  there  is  very  high  fever  and  a  quick  pulse,  give  ten  drops 
of  the  tincture  of  aconite-root,  largely  diluted  in  water,  repeated 
in  two  hours,  if  necessary,  until  the  fever  is  reduced  or  the  pulse 
made  slower  or  weaker.  But  if  the  animal  is  in  poor  condition 
and  the  above  symptoms  are  present,  give  four  drams  of  nitrate 
of  potash  three  times  a  day  instead  of  aconite;  and  relieve  any 
violent  symptoms  in  either  case  by  giving  half  ounce  doses  of 
laudanum,  repeated  every  one  or  two  hours  as  thought  necessary. 
Always  encourage  the  animal  to  eat.  A  bran  mash  is  good, 
but  if  that  will  not  be  eaten,  then  give  any  thing  that  will  be 
eaten;  but  in  no  case  should  food  be  forced  upon  him.  After 
the  aconite  or  opium  has  given  some  relief, 

Take — Sweet  Spirits  of  Niter,         ....  2  ounces. 

Cold  Water,     .......      1  pint. 

Or  whisky  may  be  given  in  four  ounce  doses  instead  of  the 
spirits  of  niter ;  repeat  every  three  or  four  hours ;  place  hot- 
water  cloths  on  the  sides  and  cover  these  with  dry  ones.  Or, 

Take — Mustard, 2i  ounces. 

Water,  hot,         ......  1  quart. 

Rub  this  over  the  sides  very  quickly,  and  promptly  cover  the 
parts  with  papers,  oil  cloth,  or  blankets,  to  prevent  the  air  from 


696  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

getting  to  it.  When  the  animal  begins  to  get  better,  give  loosen- 
ing food  or  flaxseed-meal  to  bring  the  bowels  into  action.  If 
the  cough  is  troublesome, 

Take — Tincture  of  Digitalis,       .         .         .         .         .     \  dram. 

Laudanum, 2  drams. 

Water 2  ounces. 

Mix;  give  as  one  dose  three  times  a  day. 

Pleurisy. — Also  called,  Pleuritis,  Inflammation  of  the  Pleura, 
etc.  The  membrane  which  lines  the  chest  cavity,  and  also  covers 
the  diaphragm  and  lungs,  is  called  the  pleura.  And  an  inflam- 
mation of  this  is  called  pleurisy,  etc. 

CAUSES. — Sudden  changes  of  the  weather ;  exposure  to  the 
cold;  driving  an  animal  until  heated,  and  then  standing  him  in 
the  wind,  or  in  a  cold  damp  stall  without  blanketing  him.  Any 
injury  over  the  ribs  sufficient  to  injure  the  lining  will  cause  it. 

SYMPTOMS. — It  usually  begins  with  a  chill,  followed  by  fever 
and  a  rapid  pulse;  pressing  between  the  ribs  or  tapping  against 
them  causes  pain  ;  turning  the  animal  quickly  causes  pain,  often 
causing  the  animal  to  grunt  or  groan.  There  can  also  be  seen 
a  hollow  line  running  along  the  lower  ends  of  the  ribs  and 
extending  back  to  the  flank.  If  the  ear  is  placed  over  the  seat 
of  the  disease  in  the  early  stage,  a  sound  like  rasping  to  and 
fro  can  be  heard.  The  ears  and  legs  are  cold,  or  alternately  hot 
and  cold.  If  but  one  side  is  affected,  the  affected  side  will  be 
held  as  nearly  still  as  possible,  which  tends  to  cause  the  other 
side  to  do  more  than  its  natural  amount  of  work;  this  fact 
causes  an  increased  motion  on  the  sound  side,  and  a  decreased 
action  on  the  affected  side ;  this  is  more  noticeable  in  cases  where 
water  has  collected  in  the  chest  on  one  side  only.  When  water 
has  collected  to  any  great  extent  in  the  chest,  the  breathing 
becomes  quick,  shallow,  and  painful,  the  muscles  of  the  belly 
doing  a  large  amount  of  the  work.  There  is  also  present  a  pain- 
ful hacking  cough,  and  a  grunt  is  given  every  time  air  is 
expelled  from  the  lungs.  The  animal  may  lie  down,  which  he 
seldom  does  in  lung  fever. 

TREATMENT. — Give  the  very  greatest  attention  possible  to  the 
comfort  of  the  animal;  keep  the  stable  well  cleaned  and  well  venti- 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES.  697 

• 

lated,  yet  allow  no  draft  of  air  to  enter.  If  the  weather  is  cold, 
keep  the  patient  warm  with  blankets.  If  the  weather  is  warm, 
apply  over  the  chest  a  blanket  wrung  from  hot  water,  cover  with 
a  dry  blanket  or  oil  cloth,  and,  as  soon  as  it  cools,  apply  another. 
But  if  the  weather  will  not  admit  of  this,  a  blanket  may  be 
placed  over  the  chest,  a  piece  of  heated  sheet-iron  placed  next 
this  and  covered  with  another  blanket.  If  the  fever  runs  high, 
give  the  tincture  of  aconite-root,  20  drops  every  two  hours  until 
relieved.  (In  giving  this  remedy  alone,  always  dilute  it  largely 
with  water.)  If  the  kidneys  are  not  active,  give  powdered  col- 
chicum,  30  grains  three  times  a  day  until  they  do  act.  If  the 
foregoing  are  not  needed,  or  if  needed  and  have  acted, 

Take — Liquor  Acetate  of  Ammonia,  .  .3  ounces. 

Gentiau,  powdered,      .....          4  drams. 

Epsom  Salts,  .....  .3  ounces. 

Water,        .......           1  pint. 

Mix,  and  give  at  one  dose ;  or  you  may  use  sweet  spirits  of 
niter  instead  of  the  ammonia  as  above.  Repeat  this  dose 
(omitting  the  salts)  every  three  hours  as  long  as  needed.  If 
there  is  great  pain,  also  give  powdered  opium,  one  dram  every 
two  hours  until  the  pain  is  partly  relieved,  as  it  would  require 
too  much  opium  to  relieve  it  entirely. 

Influenza. — This  disease  is  caused  by  some  poison  in  the 
blood,  by  some  atmospheric  influence  which  can  not  be  precisely 
ascertained.  There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  whether 
it  is  either  infectious,  or  contagious,  or  not;  hence  it  is  safest 
to  keep  affected  animals  away  from  healthy  ones.  It  occurs 
more  or  less  every  year,  and  in  some  years  it  occurs  as  an  epi- 
zootic. It  may  attack  any  of  the  internal  organs,  but  the  re- 
spiratory system  is  the  one  most  frequently  attacked.  It  oc- 
curs most  frequently  in  poorly  kept  horses  in  crowded  stables, 
but  it  may  and  does  attack  all  kinds  of  horses,  in  all  conditions 
and  surroundings. 

CAUSES. — As  stated  at  the  beginning,  the  causes  are  not  very 
definite.  But  there  are  some  things  that  help  to  cause  it;  as  poorly- 
ventilated,  crowded,  or  underground  stubles,  a  deficient  supply 
of  food,  either  in  quantity  or  quality,  and  irregular  exercise. 


698  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

• 

SYMPTOMS. — The  early  symptoms  are,  a  dull,  languid  appear- 
ance and  a  poor  appetite,  a  sweating  freely  from  slight  exertion, 
the  hair  stands  on  end  and  presents  a  dirty  appearance,  the 
mouth  is  hot  and  dry,  and  there  may  be  a  cough.  Later  the 
symptoms  become  more  plain,  the  bowels  are  usually  costive 
and  the  dung  is  passed  in  small,  dry  lumps;  the  pulse  weak 
and  quick,  varying  from  sixty  to  eighty  beats  per  minute,  and 
there  seems  to  be  intense  headache.  When  caused  to  move, 
the  patient  seems  so  weak  that  a  little  push  might  throw  him 
over.  Sometimes  the  breathing  is  greatly  interrupted,  which, 
in  most  cases,  is  best  seen  at  the  nostrils.  The  throat  sore  and 
the  bronchial  tubes  become  partly  closed,  and  a  peculiar  noise 
can  be  heard  by  placing  the  ear  to  the  chest.  To  describe  these 
sounds  is  very  difficult,  practically  impossible;  hence,  to  dis- 
tinguish healthy  from  unhealthy  sounds,  first  listen  to  a  healthy 
and  then  to  a  diseased  animal.  The  legs  and  ears  mny  be  hot, 
and  in  an  hour,  normal,  or  even  cold,  while  the  general  temper- 
ature may  be  regularly  increased.  (The  eyes  sometimes  become 
reddened  and  swollen,  and  from  this  condition  of  the  eyes,  this 
variety  of  influenza  takes  the  name  of  pink-eye.)  A  yellowish- 
white  discharge  from  the  nose  is  a  favorable  sign,  but  if  it  is  of 
a  reddish,  brown,  or  rusty  color,  it  is  a  bad  symptom.  In  cases 
in  which  the  breathing  is  troubled,  blood  may  be  discharged 
from  the  nose,  which  is  also  an  unfavorable  sign.  It  may  ter- 
minate in  inflammation  of  the  bowels.  If  the  liver  is  greatly 
affected,  the  eyes  and  the  lining  of  the  nose  will  be  yellowish 
in  color,  and  the  bowels  will  at  one  time  be  costive,  and  at 
another  time  there  will  be  diarrhea.  Sometimes  the  legs,  sheath 
or  udder,  and  belly  swell,  and  if  the  swelling  takes  place  in  the 
first  stage  of  the  disease,  and  is  slight,  and  confined  to  the  legs, 
it  is  a  favorable  sign.  If  it  takes  place  in  the  latter  stages, 
and  extends  to  the  belly,  sheath  or  udder,  etc.,  it  is  an  unfa- 
vorable sign.  When  the  lungs  are  the  seat  of  the  disease, 
the  symptoms  are  similar  to  those  in  the  advanced  stage  of 
lung  fever. 

TREATMENT. — Plenty  of  pure  air,  without  any  draft  of  air  on 
the  animal,  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  If  necessary  to  keep 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES.  609 

him  warm,  use  two  or  more  blankets,  bandage  and  hand-rub  the 
legs,  and  use  such  means  as  will  make  the  animal  most  comfort- 
able. It  is  a  disease  which  will  run  its  course  in  spite  of  medi- 
cines, hence  it  becomes  necessary  to  support  the  system  until 
nature  throws  off  the  disease.  If  the  fever  is  severe,  give 
nitrate  of  potash,  three  drams,  three  times  a  day.  If  there  is 
but  little  fever,  give  chlorate  of  potash,  one  dram,  three  times 
a  day,  instead  of  the  nitrate.  Feed  well  on  good,  nourishing 
food,  being  careful  not  to  over-feed  him.  If  the  animal  appears 
weak, 

Take — Liquor  Acetate  of  Ammonia,          ...         2  ounces. 
Sweet  Spirits  of  Niter,        .         .         .         .         .1  ounce. 
Water, 6  ounces. 

Mix;  give  as  one  dose  three  times  a  day.  Or  ale,  beer, 
whisky,  or  milk  may  be  given.  Endeavor  to  get  the  bowels  to 
act  by  giving  injections,  and  in  rare  cases,  when  injections  do 
no  good,  a  half-pint  of  raw  flaxseed-oil  may  be  given,  which  is 
preferable  to  aloes,  but  aloes  may  be  given,  in  doses  of  two  to 
four  drams,  but  not  repeated.  If  there  is  great  difficulty  in 
breathing,  give  tincture  of  digitalis,  one  dram,  repeated  night 
and  morning.  When  there  are  signs  of  recovery,  and  the  eye 
has  its  natural,  clear  appearance,  and  the  appetite  becomes  good, 
give  sulphate  of  iron,  one  dram,  three  times  a  day;  or,  if  the 
legs  are  much  swollen,  give  iodide  of  potassium,  two  drains, 
three  times  a  day ;  or,  if  the  nerves  are  much  affected,  give 
bromide  of  potassium,  two  drams,  three  times  a  day,  or  mix 
vomica,  powdered,  thirty  grains,  twice  a  day. 

Pink-eye. — This  disease  is  a  variety  of  influenza,  and  is 
called  Rheumatic  Influenza,  Muco-Enteritis,  Epizootic  Cdlulitis,  etc. 
The  distinguishing  symptoms  of  this  disease  are  the  swelling  of 
the  eyes  and  legs,  and  soreness  of  the  joints.  The  dung  passed 
is  often  dry  and  hard,  and  is  covered  with  a  kind  of  mucus. 
For  a  more  extensive  description,  see  influenza. 

TREATMENT. — In  general  the  treatment  of  influenza  and  pink- 
eye are  just  the  same;  but  in  pink-eye,  some  recommend  giving 
muriate  of  ammonia,  two  drams,  three  times  a  day,  given  in  a 
pint  of  water,  or  give  liquor  ammonia  acetas,  two  ounces,  three 


700  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

times  a  day  in  a  half  pint  of  water.  A  physic  would  not  be  ad- 
visable. If  there  is  fever  give  nitrate  of  potash,  three  drams, 
three  times  a  day,  in  the  drinking  water.  Give  good  food,  and 
when  recovery  commences,  give  quinine,  fifty  grains,  three  times 
a  day,  or  nux  vomica,  thirty  grains,  twice  a  day,  made  into  a 
paste  with  flour  and  molasses,  and  placed  back  on  the  root  of 
the  tongue,  or  give  in  any  other  way  which  is  more  convenient. 

Strangles — Distemper. — This  disease  usually  attacks 
young  horses.  Some  say  it  is  a  contagious  disease;  others  say 
it  is  not.  Some  say  it  attacks  the  same  animal  but  once;  yet 
some  cases  show  that  it  may  be  taken  a  second  time. 

SYMPTOMS. — At  first  the  animal  is  dull  and  stupid,  and  is 
easily  fatigued;  the  disease  progresses  slowly  until  a  swelling 
appears  under  the  jaw;  then  the  head  will  be  held  in  a  very  pe- 
culiar position ;  the  slobbers  will  fall  from  the  mouth ;  the  pulse 
will  be  slightly  affected;  the  bowels  will  be  costive;  and  the 
hair  will  stand  on  end.  It  is  difficult  to  say  whether  it  is 
strangles  or  an  inflammation  of  the  throat  until  the  swelling 
appears.  The  swelling  may  be  such  that  it  will  greatly  inter- 
fere with  the  breathing.  There  will  generally  be  a  discharge 
from  the  nose.  The  disease  usually  runs  its  course  in  from  six 
to  twelve  days;  and  the  horse  is  often  well  in  twenty  days. 
In  some  cases,  all  these  symptoms  are  presented,  except  the 
tumor  at  the  throat,  and,  instead  of  forming  on  the  throat,  it 
will  form  on  the  shoulder,  in  the  groin,  or  elsewhere.  If  the 
tumor  comes  on  the  point  of  the  shoulder,  near  the  wind-pipe,  it 
should  be  watched  carefully,  opened  on  the  outside,  and  not  al- 
lowed to  burst  inside.  If  these  tumors  form  internally,  as  they 
sometimes  do,  they  usually  kill  the  animal. 

TREATMENT. — Allow  the  disease  to  run  its  course,  as  checking 
it  often  proves  fatal.  Blanket  well,  if  the  weather  is  cold ;  and 
if  the  breathing  is  interfered  with,  put  him  where  pure  air  can 
be  freely  breathed  (this  is  always  necessary);  feed  soft,  easily 
digested  food — boiled  food  is  best;  but  if  this  will  not  be  taken, 
feed  any  thing  that  will  be  taken.  In  the  first  stages,  chlorate 
of  potash,  in  dram  doses,  may  be  given  three  times  a  day, 
or  nitrate  of  potash,  three  drams  three  times  a  day.  If  the 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES.  701 

breathing  is  much  troubled,  it  may  be  necessary  to  apply  the 
ammoniacal  liniment.  (See  Index.)  If  in  the  summer,  a  poultice 
will  be  needed.  If  it  is  a  mild  case,  the  abscess  should  be  al- 
lowed to  form  thoroughly  before  opening  it.  After  the  tumor 
has  been  cut  open,  give  sulphate  of  iron,  one  dram,  three  times  a 
day  for  a  few  days,  and  bathe  the  wound  with  tepid  water.  In 
some  more  tardy  cases  the  abscess  does  not  form  or  point  soon 
enough,  and  at  the  same  time  it  greatly  interferes  with  the 
breathing;  poultice,  if  in  warm  weather,  but  if  in  cold  weather, 
apply  heated  wool  to  the  part  to  keep  it  warm ;  also  causing 
the  animal  to  breathe  steam,  not  too  hot  or  too  much  of  it,  is 
beneficial.  In  such  a  case  it  may  be  necessary  to  open  the  ab- 
scess much  sooner  than  in  a  milder  case.  And  it  is  also  some- 
times necessary  to  perform  tracheotomy,  which  is  cutting  into  the 
wind-pipe,  about  half  way  down  the  neck,  and  inserting  a  tube 
through  which  the  animal  may  breathe  until  the  tumor  de- 
creases in  size,  so  that  the  animal  may  again  breathe  naturally. 
This  operation  will  not  here  be  described,  as  a  surgeon  should 
be  called  at  once.  The  pus  of  strangles  may  be  absorbed  into 
the  circulation,  and  cause  blood-poisoning,  and  abscess  in  any 
part  of  the  body.  This  may  occur  from  a  wound  also.  In  some 
cases  in  which  the  bowels  are  costive,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
give  a  slight  dose  of  physic,  as  four  or  five  drams  of  aloes  first 
dissolved  in  hot  water  and  given  when  cool,  yet  this  is  seldom 
necessary.  Always  give  injections  of  warm  soap-suds,  which  in 
most  cases  is  all  that  is  necessary  to  cause  the  bowels  to  act. 

Scratches — Cracked  Heels. — This  is  at  first  confined  to 
the  outside  layer  of  the  skin,  but  if  not  checked  it  will  impli- 
cate the  deeper  structures. 

CAUSES. — Permitting  the  legs  to  remain  wet  or  muddy. 
When  the  legs  are  wet  and  muddy  they  should  be  dried  and 
bandaged. 

SYMPTOMS. — More  or  less  swelling  about  the  heels.  The 
animal  travels  stiffly  when  first  taken  from  the  stable,  but  soon 
gets  better.  In  some  cases  the  foot  will  be  lifted,  like  string- 
halt.  Blood  may  ooze  through  the  skin.  If  this  disease  is  not 
checked  it  will  often  terminate  in  grease. 


702  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

TREATMENT. — Give  bran-mashes  for  a  day  or  two,  and  then 
dissolve  six  drams  of  Barbadoes  aloes  in  boiling  water  and 
give  when  cool.  Wash  the  dirt  from  the  legs  with  warm 
water,  and,  if  there  is  much  heat  and  tenderness,  apply  a 
slight  poultice  of  flaxseed-meal,  after  which  use  the  white 
lotion.  (See  Index.) 

Or  take — Carbolic  Acid,  pure,     .....         1  dram. 

Alcohol, 1     " 

Water, 1  pint. 

Mix,  and  bathe  the  heels  with  it  two  or  three  times  a  day. 
If  the  heels  become  hardened,  bathe  them  with 

Iodide  of  Potassium,          .  2  drams. 

Iodine  Crystals,      .         .         .         .         .         .         .     4       " 

Water, 12  ounces. 

Use  as  the  foregoing;  or  if  unhealthy  granulations,  proud 
flesh,  spring  up,  rub  a  stick  of  nitrate  of  silver  over  them  once 
every  one  or  two  days,  and  give 

Saltpeter,      ........      2  drams. 

Eosin, 2 

Mix,  and  give  at  one  dose,  once  a  day  for  three  or  four 
days.  But  never  use  hot  liniments,  or  you  may  cause  it  to 
terminate  in  mud  fever. 

Mud  Fever. — Mud  fever  is  an  inflammation  of  the  skin. 
It  is  caused  by  wet  and  mud  on  the  legs,  and  is  aggravated  by 
washing  and  not  drying  the  legs. 

SYMPTOMS. — The  legs  will  be  swollen,  stiff,  and  extremely 
hot  and  tender;  the  hair  comes  off  pretty  easily;  and,  if  it  is 
allowed  to  run  too  long,  it  may  prove  a  serious  trouble. 

TREATMENT. — It  is  best,  in  most  cases,  to  give  a  small  dose 
of  from  four  to  six  drams  of  aloes  dissolved  in  hot  water,  and 
given  when  cool.  Give  bran-mashes  and  other  cooling  food.  If 
the  legs  are  greatly  swollen,  bathe  in  warm  water,  cleanse  them 
nicely,  and  then  dry  them  well;  but  do  not  rub  them  hard. 
When  it  begins  to  get  better,  and  the  swelling  partly  disappears, 
some  moderate  exercise  is  useful;  but  do  not  allow  the  legs 
to  get  wet  or  dirty.  Sometimes  abcesses  form  from  this,  as 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES.  703 

high  up  as  the  groin.  They  should  be  opened  and  the  matter 
let  out. 

Take — Sulphate  of  Zinc 

Sugar  of  Lead,    ....... 

Water, 

Mix,  and  bathe  the  legs  with  it  once  a  day.     Or, 

Take — Carbolic  Acid,  .....         6  drams. 

Water,        ........     1  pint. 

Mix,  and  use  as  above. 

Grease  —  Grease-heel.  —  This    results    from    neglected 

c 

scratches.  It  is  not  contagious;  nor  are  parasites  present,  un- 
less they  occur  merely  by  accident.  If  grease  is  allowed  to 
run  on,  without  being  checked  in  its  progress,  it  takes  on  a  kind 
of  fungoid  growth.  It  then  presents  an  appearance  something 
like  a  bunch  of  grapes.  This  is  called  tl}e  grapy  stage,  in 
which  there  is  a  very  offensive  smell. 

CAUSES. — Sudden  changes  in  temperature;  washing  and  not- 
drying  the  legs;  standing  in  filthy  stalls;  high  feeding  with- 
out exercise;  allowing  a  blister  to  affect  the  hollow  of  the 
heel,  just  under  the  fetlock;  getting  the  foot  over  a  halter- 
strap,  etc. 

SYMPTOMS. — At  first  a  slight  swelling,  and  (if  in  a  white 
horse)  redness  around  the  heels;  the  hair  stands  out;  the  heels 
are  hot  and  tender ;  fissures  or  cracks  appear  in  the  heels,  in 
some  cases  extending  up  to  the  fetlock.  There  is  a  discharge 
of  matter,  also,  and  the  horse  walks  stiffly,  almost  lame. 

TREATMENT. — If  it  has  attained  the  grapy  stage,  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  cure  it.  If  the  animal  is  healthy  and  fat,  give  bran- 
mashes  for  a  day  or  two,  and  then  dissolve  seven  drams  of 
aloes  in  hot  water,  and  give  when  cool.  If  the  hair  stands  out 
much,  clip  it  off,  and  apply  a  poultice  of  flaxseed  meal,  with  a 
little  carbolic  acid  added,  to  destroy  the  bad  smell.  Then  bathe 
two  or  three  times  a  day  with 

Sugar  of  Lead,  .......     40  grains. 

Water,    ........         1  ounce. 

Or — Chloride  of  Zinc,        ......     40  grains. 

Water, 1  ounce. 


704  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Or,  apply  the  following  twice  a  day: 

Take — Sulphur, 1  ounce. 

Bicarbonate  of  Soda,     .....  4  ounces. 

Carbolic  Acid  (pure),        .....       2  drams. 

Olive  Oil, 16  ounces. 

Lard,         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .16  ounces. 

But,  if  it  has  attained  the  grapy  stage,  it  is  sometimes  nec- 
essary to  dust  the  parts  with  powdered  blue  vitriol;  or,  rub 
them  with  a  stick  of  nitrate  of  silver,  or  even  sear  them  with  a 
red-hot  iron,  and  then  treat  as  above. 

Simple  Eczema — Humid  Tetter. — This  is  a  skin  dis- 
ease ;  is  not  contagious,  and  is  not  caused  by  parasites.  Mange 
is  contagious,  and  is  caused  by  parasites ;  yet  eczema  is  often 
mistaken  for  mange.  It  is  more  liable  to  attack  horses  that  are 
well  fed ;  mange  attacks  horses  in  poor  condition  more  readily. 

SYMPTOMS. — At*first  there  is  a  slight  dryness  about  the  head, 
neck,  ears,  and  tail ;  then  little  pimples  appear.  The  animal 
scratches  until  the  places  become  sore.  The  only  way  to  be 
positively  certain  whether  it  is  eczema  or  mange  is  to  examine 
some  of  the  scabs  with  a  microscope,  and  if  parasites  are  found 
it  is  surely  mange ;  if  parasites  are  absent  it  is  not  mange. 

TREATMENT. — It  is  difficult  to  effect  an  entire  cure ;  for, 
although  seemingly  cured,  it  will  frequently  return  during  the 
following  summer.  To  relieve  the  itching  and  irritation, 

Take — Corrosive  Sublimate,       .....  2  drams. 

Alcohol,     ........  4  drams. 

"Water, 1  pint. 

Or — Carbolic  Acid  (pure.) 1  ounce. 

Water, 1  pint. 

Or — Iodine  Crystals,  ......  1  ounce. 

Iodide  of  Potash, £  ounce. 

Water,       ........  8  ounces. 

None  of  these  should  be  used  on  too  great  an  area  of  the 
body  at  one  time ;  but  use  on  one  part  one  day,  and  another 
part  the  next  day,  and  so  on.  Also  give,  internally, 

Iodide  of  Potosh, 3  drams. 

Or — Nitrate  of  Potash,        ......     4  drams. 

Or — Hyposulphite  of  Soda, 3  drams, 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES.  705 

Three  times  a  day,  for  two  or  three  days.     Professor  Williams 
gives  the  following  as  his  favorite  internal  medicine  : 

Take — Arsenic,        .......  1  dram. 

Bicarbonate  of  Soda,          .....       1  dram. 

Water, 12  ounces. 

Mix,  and  heat  slowly,  until  the  arsenic  is  dissolved ;  then 
strain  through  a  cloth,  and  give  a  half  ounce  at  a  dose  twice  a 
day.  If  the  swelling  remains  in  the  legs  after  the  soreness  has 
subsided,  a  bandage  applied,  to  give  slight  pressure,  is  very 
useful. 

Surfeit. — Also  called  Nettle-rash  and  Urticaria. 

CAUSES. — Any  thing  that  will  irritate  the  skin:  stings  of 
insects,  sudden  changes  of  temperature  or  diet,  disorders  ac- 
companying pregnancy,  disorders  of  the  digestive  system,  or 
any  defective  action  of  the  kidneys. 

SYMPTOMS. — There  are  small  elevations  or  lumps  called 
wheals.  These  wheals  vary  in  size,  from  that  of  a  pea  to  that 
of  a  chestnut,  or  larger,  in  rare  cases,  and  appear  suddenly  on 
any  part  of  the  body,  and  are  liable  to  disappear  as  suddenly  as 
they  came,  and  again  reappear  on  the  same  or  some  other  part 
of  the  body.  They  are  elastic,  and  give  way  to  pressure.  They 
are  filled  with  a  fluid  which  is  sometimes  discharged  by  the 
bursting  of  the  enlargement. 

TREATMENT. — Give  six  drams  of  Barbadoes  aloes,  and,  in  six 
or  eight  hours, 

Take — Nitrate  of  Potash,  ......         2  drams. 

Camphor  Gum,  .......      1  dram. 

Oil  of  Juniper,         ......          1  dram. 

Mix.  Give  at  one  dose,  three  times  a  day,  until  the  lumps 
disappear,  Or, 

Take— Iodide  of  Potash, 2  drams. 

Colchicum  (powdered),  .....         20  grains. 

Mix.     Give  as  one  dose,  three  times  a  day,  as  above. 

Mange — Scabies — Itch. — This  is  a  skin  disease  caused 
by  parasites.  It  occurs  in  the  horse,  ox,  sheep,  dog,  and  man, 
and  can  be  transmitted  from  one  to  another.  Animals  in  poor 
condition,  with  long,  dirty  hair  are  most  liable  to  have  it,  but 

45 


706  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

none  are  exempt.  It  can  be  carried  on  the  harness,  saddles, 
bridles,  brushes,  combs,  etc. 

SYMPTOMS. — The  parasites  cause  an  irritation,  which  termi- 
nates in  pimples ;  sometimes  the  hair  falls  off  or  is  easily  pulled 
out.  The  itching  is  extremely  severe,  but  to  be  certain  about 
the  disease,  the  only  method  is  to  use  a  microscope,  and  if 
there  are  parasites  present,  it  is  mange ;  if  not,  it  is  not  mange. 
The  itching  generally  begins  about  the  mane  or  tail.  The 
symptoms  of  eczema  are  much  the  same,  but  eczema  is  more 
severe,  and  spreads  more  rapidly  than  mange.  Sometimes  the 
parasites  of  mange  can  be  seen  without  the  aid  of  a  microscope, 
by  placing  some  of  the  scales  on  a  piece  of  white  paper  in 
bright  sunlight. 

TREATMENT. — If  it  is  in  the  summer,  clip  the  hair  off, 
and  then 

Take — Carbolic  Acid,         ......          1  ounce. 

Water,        ........      1  pint. 

Mix  and  apply  with  a  brush  ;  or  mercurial  ointment,  which  is 
kept  by  druggists  is  a  good  remedy ;  or 

Take — Tar, 4  ounces. 

Sulphur,     .....  .     4       " 

Flaxseed  Oil, 4      " 

Mix  and  apply  ;  but  this  makes  the  animal  very  dirty.  The 
iodide  of  sulphur  is  also  very  good,  and  is  also  very  dirty. 
Another : 

Take — Creosote, 1  dram. 

Sweet  Oil,          .......     4  ounces. 

Mix  and  apply  once  a  day;  or, 

Take— Wood  Tar, \  pound. 

Soft  Soap,   ........   1  pound. 

Water  enough  to  dissolve  these  sufficiently  to  apply  with  a 
sponge  or  brush. 

It  is  often  necessary  to  change  from  one  remedy  to  another, 
every  few  days.  And  none  of  these  remedies  should  be  applied 
to  a  very  large  surface  of  skin  at  one  time ;  but  apply  to  one 
part  one  day,  wash  this  off  the  next,  and  apply  the  remedy  to 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES.  707 

another  part,  and  so  on.  Also  before  applying  any  of  these 
medicines,  the  parts  should  be  thoroughly  washed  with  soap  and 
water,  to  which  some  common  soda  may  be  added.  The  animal 
should  be  well  fed,  and  if  it  is  in  poor  condition, 

Take — Arsenic,      .         .  .  ...     2  grains. 

Sulphate  of  Iron,    ......         2  drams. 

Powder  and  mix,  and  give  as  one  dose,  twice  a  day.  Thoroughly 
cleanse  the  harness,  saddles,  brushes,  stalls,  etc.,  and  sponge 
them  with  the  carbolic  acid  and  water,  as  just  given. 

Lymphangitis. — This  disease  is  known  by  a  number  of 
names,  as  :  Inflammation  of  the  Lymphatics,  Weed,  Water-farcy, 
Monday  morning  Fever,  Inflammatory  Odema,  Big-leg,  Bilious  Ery- 
sipelas, Shot  of  Grease,  etc.  It  usually  attacks  only  one  hind-leg, 
but  may  attack  both ;  and  sometimes  it  attacks  one  or  both  fore- 
legs. It  is  an  inflammation,  first  of  the  lymphatic  glands,  and 
then  extends  to  the  lymphatic  vessels.  Heavy  horses  are  most 
liable  to  it. 

CAUSES. — Keeping  a  working  horse  in  the  stable  for  a  day  or 
two,  and  giving  the  same  amount  of  food  as  when  the  horse  was 
working.  It  is  thus  often  seen  in  stables  on  Monday  mornings, 
hence  one  of  its  names.  Any  injury  to  the  part,  a  nail  or  prick 
in  the  foot,  and  a  debilitated  condition  of  the  blood,  all  tend  to 
cause  it. 

SYMPTOMS. — It  often  comes  with  a  chill,  but  this  is  seldom 
noticed;  then  there  will  be  high  fever,  the  horse  becomes  very 
lame,  and  the  affected  leg  or  legs  greatly  swollen.  The  swelling 
usually  begins  on  the  inside  of  the  leg  near  the  body,  and  ex- 
tends down  the  leg  in  a  kind  of  hard  cord.  Pressure  on  the 
swollen  part  causes  great  pain.  The  swelling  may  extend  en- 
tirely around  the  leg.  If  so,  it  will  be  very  difficult  for  the 
horse  to  bring  the  leg  forward  in  walking.  The  pulse  will  be 
about  fifty  or  sixty  beats  per  minute,  and  full  and  bounding. 
The  breathing  will  be  quickened,  the  bowels  costive,  the  urine 
high  colored,  and  the  animal  often  sweats  some.  The  appetite  is 
often  impaired,  but  the  thirst  will  be  very  great.  As  a  rule  the 
animal  will  continue  standing,  but  he  may  lie  down  ;  and  if 
once  down,  he  has  trouble  in  getting  up.  He  will  often  look  at 


708  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

the  sides  as  in   colic.     This  disease  tends  to  leave   the  leg  en- 
larged.    It  is  then  called  elephantiasis. 

TREATMENT. — If  the  horse  is  in  good  condition  and  in  good 
flesh,  dissolve  eight  drams  of  aloes  in  hot  water  and  give  when 
cool.  Or,  Finley  Dun  gives  as  a  physic : 

"Take — Calomel, 1  dram. 

Aloes, 5  drams." 

Mix.  Shake  up  in  warm  water  and  give  when  cool.  And  give 
tincture  of  aconite-root,  ten  drops,  in  a  tablespoonful  of  water 
every  two  hours  until  the  fever  is  relieved ;  then  give  nitrate 
of  potash,  three  drams,  three  times  a  day.  Injections  of  warm 
soap  suds  should  be  given  until  the  physic  begins  to  operate. 
Bathe  swollen  parts  with  warm  water;  keep  up  the  bathing  for 
three  or  four  hours.  A  hay  rope  made  of  soft  hay  and  wrapped 
around  the  leg,  from  the  foot  up,  is  a  very  good  way  to  apply 
T.nd  retain  heat  and  moisture,  but  care  must  be  exercised  in  ap- 
plying it,  or  it  will  get  too  tight  and  do  harm.  After  bathing 
with  water,  tincture  of  camphor  may  be  applied ;  or,  when  there 
is  great  pain, 

Take — Fluid  extract  of  Belladonna,        ....     1  dram. 
Water,    ........          1  ounce. 

Mix,  and  bathe  the  leg  after  using  warm  water,  or 

Take — Tincture  of  Opium, 2  drams. 

Water,    ........          1  ounce. 

Mix,  and  use  as  the  belladonna. 

Elephantiasis. — This  is  a  chronic  enlargement  of  the  leg, 
caused  by  repeated  attacks  of  lymphangitis  or  grease,  especially 
if  strong  or  hot  liniments  are  used.  When  this  disease  is  of 
long  standing  it  is  incurable,  but  gentle  exercise,  hand-rubbing 
well,  restricting  the  diet,  and  applying  a  rubber  bandage  loosely 
for  a  long  time,  may  reduce  it  some. 

Conjunctivitis — Sore  Eyes. — Also  called  Simple  Oph- 
thalmia, Traumatic  Ophthalmia,  Inflammation  of  the  Conjunctiva, 
etc.  It  is  an  inflammation  of  the  lining  membrane  of  the  eye- 
lids and  the  covering  of  the  eye-ball. 

CAUSES. — Any  injury.  Striking  the  eye  with  a  whip;  get- 
ting sand  and  dirt  into  the  eyes ;  keeping  an  animal  in  extremely 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES.  709 

dark,  or  extremely  foul  stables;  very  hot  weather  or  very 
bright  sunlight  may  cause  it.  But  it  generally  comes  from 
some  injury. 

SYMPTOMS. — The  eye  is  partly  or  entirely  closed.  Tears  run 
down  the  face.  There  is  generally  supposed  to  be  a  film  over 
the  eye,  but  this  is  a  mistake,  it  is  only  an  exudation  between 
the  layers  of  the  cornea.  The  eye  also  seems  to  be  sunken  in 
its  socket. 

TREATMENT. — If  caused  by  dirt,  hay-seed,  etc.,  remove  it  with 
a  feather,  or  camel's-hair  brush ;  and  apply  warm  water  to  the 
eye  for  a  long  time  each  day,  for  a  day  or  two ;  keep  the  animal  in 
a  dark  place,  and  if  there  is  great  pain,  use  one  of  the  following : 

Take — Laudanum,       .......      10  drops. 

Sulphate  of  Zinc,          .....  2  grains. 

Water,     ........         1  ounce. 

Mix,  and  apply  with  a  camel's-hair  brush  or  a  small  syringe ;  or, 

Take — Atropine  Sulphate,     ......  2  grains. 

Distilled  Water,      ......  1  ounce. 

Or — Sulphate  of  Copper,     ......  5  grains. 

Water,     ........  1  ouuce. 

Apply  as  above.  If  the  white  or  cloudy  appearance  re- 
mains, use 

Nitrate  of  Silver, 5  grains. 

Distilled  Water,         ......  1  ounce. 

Or — Iodide  of  Potash,  ......       5  grains. 

Water,       ........          1  ounce. 

Use  any  of  the  above  washes,  two  or  three  times  a  day, 
applying  with  a  camel's-hair  brush  or  fine  feather. 

Splints  are  bony  enlargements,  usually  on  the  inside  of  the 
fore-leg  below  the  knee,  but  they  sometimes  occur  on  the  out- 
side of  the  leg.  They  are  rarely  seen  on  the  hind-leg.  They  are 
usually  seen  on  young  horses,  but  they  may  be  seen  on  old  ones. 

CAUSES. — Irregular  or  hard  work ;  shoeing  with  heavy  shoes, 
which  bring  the  feet  to  the  ground  with  great  force.  Horses 
that  are  driven  on  hard  roads  are  more  subject  to  splints  than 
race  horses,  although  the  latter  are  more  violently  driven,  but 
on  soft  roads. 


710  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

SYMPTOMS. — If  the  growth  has  attained  sufficient  size,  it  is 
easily  seen  or  felt.  It  often  attains  a  considerable  size  without 
any  lameness,  while  in  other  cases  the  lameness  is  severe  with 
but  a  very  small  growth.  An  animal  with  a  splint  may  walk 
without  any  lameness,  but  if  watched  closely,  the  affected  leg- 
can  be  seen  carried  forward  less  bent  than  the  sound  one.  When 
he  is  trotted  the  lameness  is  very  plain;  he  drops  the  body 
when  the  weight  is  thrown  on  the  sound  leg,  and  elevates  the 
body  when  the  weight  is  thrown  on  the  affected  leg.  By  rub- 
bing the  leg  with  the  hand,  an  enlargement  may  be  felt,  and 
pressure  on  the  enlargement  causes  pain.  Or,  if  you  can  not 
feel  it,  you  may  detect  the  tenderness  by  gently  tapping  the  leg 
with  a  small  stick. 

TREATMENT. — Rest  the  animal,  and  apply  cold  water  for  an 
hour  at  a  time,  three  or  four  times  a  day,  for  two  or  three  days, 
and  then  blister  with  biniodide  of  mercury.  (See  Index.)  A 
splint  seldom  does  harm,  unless  it  is  close  to  the  joint. 

Ringbone  is  a  bony  growth  or  enlargement  near  the  pastern- 
joint.  If  it  does  not  affect  the  joint,  it  is  not  a  serious  trouble. 
But  if  it  does,  a  complete  stiffening  of  the  joint  often  results. 

CAUSES. — Breeding  colts  from  parents  that  have  ringbones ; 
hard  or  fast  work ;  or  any  injury  to  one  leg  causing  the  other 
to  bear  the  weight  intended  to  be  borne  by  both ;  this  will  pro- 
duce ringbone  on  the  sound  limb.  Another  prolific  source  of 
ringbones  is  allowing  sucking  colts  to  follow  their  mothers  when 
at  work. 

SYMPTOMS. — Lameness,  which  in  most  cases  precedes  the  en- 
largement. Sometimes  heat  and  tenderness  can  be  detected 
just  above  the  hoof;  and  bending  the  pastern-joint  may  cause 
pain.  If  it  affects  the  ospedis — the  bone  inside  of  the  hoof — 
the  weight  will  be  thrown  on  the  heel  as  in  laminitis,  and  in 
this  last  case  the  hoof  tends  to  grow  in  rings,  and  become  long 
at  the  toe. 

TREATMENT. — If  the  foot  has  grown  out  of  shape,  get  it  into 
shape  by  properly  trimming  it ;  then  bathe  in  hot  or  cold  water 
until  the  heat  and  tenderness  partly  subside ;  then  blister  with 
biniodide  of  mercury.  (See  Blistering.) 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES.  711 

Side-bones. — This  is  a  state  in  which  the  cartilages  of  the 

o 

heel — lateral  cartilages — change  from  cartilage  to  bone — ossify — 
and  also  become  enlarged.  This  is  more  serious  in  a  fast  than 
a  heavy  horse,  as  it  interferes  with  traveling ;  but  it  interferes 
much  less  with  slow  work. 

TREATMENT. — Cut  the  lower  part  of  the  hoof  away  just  under 
the  cartilages ;  bathe,  or  poultice  for  a  few  days  ;  then  blister 
around  the  top  of  the  hoof  with  biniodide  of  mercury.  (See 
Index  for  Blistering.) 

Bone-spavin  is  a  bony  growth  on  the  lower,  inner  part 
of  the  hock-joint.  There  are  two  kinds  of  spavin.  One  is  on 
the  surface  of  the  joint,  and  the  other  is  more  deeply  situated, 
and  is  often  so  hidden  that  the  eye  can  not  detect  any  enlarge- 
ment. A  blister  will  generally  relieve  the  former,  while  it  will 
not  relieve  the  latter.  A  spavin  high  up  on  the  joint  is  much 
more  serious  than  one  low  down. 

CAUSES. — Breeding  colts  from  spavined  parents.  Horses  with 
narrow  hocks  from  front  back,  and  having  a  long  point  to  the 
hock-joint,  are  more  liable  to  spavin  than  those  with  well-formed 
hocks.  Other  causes  are  :  hard,  or  fast  work,  especially  if 
worked  on  hard  roads ;  a  severe  sprain ;  or  an  injury  to  one 
hind-leg,  causing  the  sound  leg  to  maintain  the  weight  intended 
for  both,  often  causes  it  on  the  sound  leg.  High  heeled  shoos 
sometimes  cause  it. 

SYMPTOMS. — If  there  is  an  enlargement  on  the  joint  it  is 
easily  seen.  The  lameness  is  most  readily  detected  when  the 
animal  is  first  brought  from  the  stable,  for  the  lameness  often 
partly  or  entirely  disappears  after  slight  exercise.  There  are 
also  some  cases  that  show  no  enlargement  whatever,  and  others 
that  manifest  lameness  before  the  enlargement  appears.  In 
examining,  always  compare  the  two  legs;  look  at  them  from  be- 
hind, and  from  between  the  fore-legs ;  stand  a  little  to  one  side 
of  the  horse  near  his  head  and  look  at  the  leg  on  that  side,  then 
change  over  and  in  the  same  way  look  at  the  other  leg.  Rub 
the  legs  with  the  hand  and  compare  their  relative  size  and 
shape,  and  see  if  there  is  heat  in  either  leg.  Some  severe  cases 
affect  the  entire  leg,  and  cause  a  wasting  of  the  hip.  This  last 


712  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

misleads  many.  Notice  the  foot  or  shoe,  the  greatest  wear  will 
be  at  the  toe.  Turn  him  from  side  to  side,  and  notice  the  action 
of  the  two  hocks,  for  in  slight  cases  you  will  have  to  judge  to 
a  great  extent  by  the  action.  When  the  animal  rests  he  will 
bend  the  limb  some.  Take  hold  of  the  foot  and  forcibly  bend 
the  hock-joint,  and  then  trot  him  some,  and  notice  whether 
it  increases  the  lameness ;  if  it  does,  it  is  a  symptom  of  spavin. 

TREATMENT. — The  joint  can  not  be  restored  to  its  natural 
condition,  and  there  is  no  certainty  about  relieving  the  lameness. 
The  best  method  of  procedure  is  to  allow  rest ;  and  if  the  feet 
are  out  of  shape,  trim  them  and  get  them  as  nearly  their 
natural  shape  as  possible.  It  is  best  to  turn  the  animal  loose 
in  a  large  stall;  it  is  even  better  than  at  pasture.  If  there  is 
much  heat  and  soreness  in  the  part,  bathe  well  with  hot  or  cold 
water  until  the  soreness  subsides,  and  then  apply  the  biniodide 
of  mercury  blister.  (See  Blisters.)  Or,  burn  it  with  a  firing  iron 
at  a  white  heat,  and  blister  in  about  eight  days  after  firing. 
Firing  is  said  to  be  the  most  potent  remedy,  but  unless  it  is 
carefully  used  it  is  liable  to  blemish. 

Collar-galls. — Collar-galls  are  caused  by  pressure  of  the 
collar.  Similar  sores  may  be  caused  on  other  parts  of  the  body 
by  pressure  of  the  harness,  saddle,  etc. 

TREATMENT. — Remove  the  pressure,  bathe  well  with  water, 
and  then  apply  the  white  lotion.  (See  Index.)  Or, 

Take — Vaseline, 1  ounce. 

lodoform, 5  grains. 

Fluid  Extract  of  Geranium,      .         .         .         .10  drops. 
Carbolic  Acid,  pure 15  grains. 

Mix  thoroughly,  and  apply  as  an  ointment  two  or  three 
times  a  day. 

When  an  abscess  forms  from  such  an  injury,  it  should  be 
opened  and  treated  as  an  abscess.  If  a  hard  tumor  forms,  the 
quickest  way  of  curing  it  is  to  cut  it  out,  but  it  may  be  reduced 
or  removed  by  applying  the  iodine  ointment  or  a  biniodide  of 
mercury  blister.  (See  Index.)  Sometimes  such  injuries  termi- 
nate in  sitfasts,  which  consist  of  small  portions  of  skin,  which 
adhere  to  the  flesh  in  their  centers,  but  their  edges  are  detached 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES.  713 

and  surrounded  by  an  angry-looking  sore.  The  treatment  is  to 
cut  these  pieces  of  skin  out  with  a  knife  and  then  treat  with 
the  white  lotion  or  the  ointment  already  given. 

Saddle-galls. — TREATMENT. — Remove  the  cause  ;  bathe  the 
part  in  warm  water,  or  poultice  until  thoroughly  softened  and 
cleansed,  and  use  the  white  lotion  two  or  three  times  a  day. 
(See  White  Lotion.)  Or, 

Take — Corrosive  Sublimate,          .         .         .         .         .12  grains. 
Water,          ....  .  4  ounces. 

Or — Sulphate  of  Copper      .         .         .         .         .         .15  grains. 

Water,    ........  1  ounce. 

Use  either  of  these  the  same  as  the  white  lotion. 

Saddle-galls  may  terminate  in  a  sitfast,  which  is  a  scab  loose 
around  its  edges,  and  firmly  adherent  in  the  center.  Cut  it  out 
with  a  knife  and  then  treat  as  above. 

Poll  Evil — Is  an  abscess  on  the  top  of  the  neck  near  the 
head. 

CAUSES. — It  is  usually  caused  by  some  injury,  as  striking  the 
head  against  something,  tight  reining,  wearing  a  yoke  or  heavy 
halter,  or  any  cut  or  other  injury  to  the  part. 

SYMPTOMS. — More  or  less  swelling.     The  animal  carries  the 
nose  out,  the  top  of  the  neck  is  hot,  and  pressing  on  it  causes 
pain.     If  it  has  been  present  for  any   length  of  time,  pipes- 
sinuses — form.     These  sinuses  may  extend  in  any  or  in  many 
directions. 

TREATMENT. — If  it  is  noticed  before  pus  is  formed,  treat  it 
just  as  an  ordinary  abscess.  (See  Abscesses.)  Keep  the  ani- 
mal's head  tied  up,  and  feed  him  from  a  trough  and  manger 
which  are  high,  so  the  muscles  of  the  neck  will  not  have  to 
move  much.  If  the  heat  and  soreness  disappear,  and  the  skin 
remains  thick  and  hard, 

Take — Iodine, 2  drams. 

Iodide  of  Potash,    .......     2  drams. 

Lard, 1  ounce. 

Mix,  and  apply  once  or  twice  a  day.  When  pus  is  formed 
a  free  opening  should  be  made,  and  if  it  is  opened  early,  sinuses 
will  seldom  form.  After  it  is  opened  it  should  be  thoroughly 


714  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

syringed  with  tepid  water  or  the   carbolic  lotion  (see  Index), 
and  then 

Take — Water, 1  ounce. 

Corrosive  Sublimate,       .         .         .         .         .         .     5  grains. 

Mix,  and  use  as  a  wash  two  or  three  times  a  day.  But 
when  sinuses  are  ortce  formed  the  case  becomes  more  difficult, 
yet  it  may  be  cured  by  rolling  five  or  six  grains  of  corrosive 
sublimate  in  tissue  paper,  and  pushing  it  down  into  the  sinuses, 
which  will  cause  sloughing  in  six  or  eight  days.  Or  a  crystal 
of  nitrate  of  silver,  five  or  six  grains  in  weight,  may  be  used 
instead  of  the  above,  with  similar  results.  But  the  most  certain 
and  most  satisfactory  treatment  is,  to  use  a  knife  and  carefully 
follow  and  cut  these  sinuses  to  their  bottoms,  and  then  syringe 
with  the  corrosive  sublimate  and  water,  as  already  given  ;  or 

Take — Chloride  of  Zinc, 40  grains. 

Water,  .........    1  ounce. 

Mix,  and  use  with  a  syringe  two  or  three  times  a  day.  If 
water  can  be  so  placed  that  it  will  run  upon  the  part  for  an  hour 
or  two  each  day,  it  will  be  of  great  benefit.  If  this  can  not  be 
done,  the  sore  should  be  thoroughly  cleansed  with  water  two  or 
three  times  a  day.  If  the  animal  is  weak,  or  if  the  legs  swell, 

Take — Sulphate  of  Iron,         ......        1  ounce. 

Gentian  Root,  powdered,          .         .         .         .         .2  ounces. 

Cinchona  Bark,  powdered,  ....         1  ounce. 

Mix;  make  into  eight  powders,  and  give  a  powder  three 
times  a  day.  Give  plenty  of  good,  easily  digested  food. 

Fistula  of  the  Withers. — This  is  an  abscess  on  the  withers, 
which,  if  allowed  to  progress,  forms  sinuses  or  pipes,  and  until 
these  form  it  is  not  really  a  fistula. 

CAUSES. — Any  injury  to  the  parts.  The  most  frequent  cause 
is  a  misfitting  saddle. 

SYMPTOMS. — Heat,  pain,  and  swelling,  as  in  an  abscess,  and 
if  it  is  treated  as  an  abscess  in  the  start,  sinuses  may  be  pre- 
vented. After  sinuses  are  formed  there  is  a  continual  flow  of 
pus,  and  if  any  bones  are  affected  the  pus  has  a  very  peculiarly 
offensive  smell. 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES.  715 

TREATMENT. — Just  the  same  as  for  poll  evil  (which  sec). 
Use  the  knife  pretty  freely.  Caustics  and  blisters  will  some- 
times relieve  a  mild  case;  but  the  knife  is  safer  and  more  cer- 
tain, less  severe,  and  causes  the  sore  to  heal  much  more  quickly 
than  when  caustics  are  used.  If,  when  cutting,  you  can  make 
your  opening  at  the  lowest  part,  it  is  much  better,  but  if  it 
passes  down  inside  of  the  shoulder-blade  this  is  very  hard  to 
accomplish.  After  opening,  the  parts  should  be  thoroughly 
cleansed,  and  then  syringed  with 

Corrosive  Sublimate,       ......       15  grains. 

Water 1  ounce. 

Or — Carbolic  Acid,  pure,         ....  .2  drains. 

Water,         .........    1  pint. 

Or — Chloride  of  Zinc,     .......       40  grains. 

Water,         .........    1  ounce. 

Use  any  of  the  above  two  or  three  times  a  day,  after  cleans- 
ing thoroughly  each  time.  And  be  sure  to  keep  the  outside 
opening  from  closing  or  healing  up,  until  the  inside  has  healed. 

Sweeny — Shoulderslip. — This  is  a  strain  of  the  muscles 
of  the  shoulder,  and  from  a  very  peculiar  bulging  of  the 
shoulder-joint  when  the  animal  walks,  it  is  called  shoulderslip. 

CAUSES. — It  is  most  common  in  young  animals,  when  first 
worked  to  a  plow  or  harrow,  the  jerking  and  jarring  causing 
sweeny.  Sometimes  it  is  caused  by  a  wagon  striking  a  stone 
or  other  obstacle,  and  causing  a  jar.  Or  it  may  be  caused  by 
jumping,  slipping,  or  even  by  rolling  in  a  stall. 

SYMPTOMS. — Usually  the  first  thing  noticed  is  wasting  of  the 
muscles  of  the  shoulder,  or  an  impaired  action,  which  action 
does  not  amount  to  lameness.  In  six  or  eight  days  it  shows 
plainly.  The  joint  bulges  when  weight  is  thrown  on  it  until 
you  might  almost  think  the  shoulder  was  partially  dislocated. 

TREATMENT. — Rest  the  animal  for  three  or  four  weeks,  turn 
him  loose  in  a  large  box-stall;  this  is  better  than  turning  him 
out  to  pasture.  When  first  injured  bathe  for  three  or  four 
days  with  warm  water,  and  then 

Take — Tincture  of  Camphor, 2  ounces. 

Tincture  of  Opium,         ......     2  ounces. 

Tincture  Aruica, 2  ounces. 


716  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Mix,  and  bathe  the  parts  with  it  two  or  three  times  a  day. 
And  blister  about  once  every  two  weeks  with 

Cantharides,  powdered,         .         .         .         .         .         .1  ounce. 

Lard,      .........       8  ounces. 

Mix,  and  in  preparing  this  it  must  not  be  heated  hot,  but 
just  warm  enough  to  melt  the  lard.  (See  Blistering.)  After 
the  shoulder  begins  to  fill  up,  light  saddle  or  buggy  work  is  of 
benefit,  but  the  animal  should  not  be  put  to  the  plow,  harrow, 
or  wagon. 

Puffs,  also  known  as  Windgatts  and  Bursal  Enlargements. 
These  are  puffy  tumors  or  enlargements  near  any  joint,  but  are 
called  windgalls  only  when  situated  on  or  near  the  fetlock-joint. 
They  sometimes  become  cartilaginous,  or  bony.  If  they  are 
soft,  without  heat  or  pain,  they  seldom  do  any  harm. 

TREATMENT. — If  they  are  of  long  standing  they  are  incurable, 
but  if  treated  in  the  early  stage  they  may  be  reduced.  If  they 
are  suddenly  produced  in  a  healthy,  fat  animal,  give  five  drams 
of  pulverized  aloes  and  apply  cold  water  to  the  parts  for  an 
hour  at  a  time,  three  or  four  times  a  day,  for  a  day  or  two, 
and,  after  bathing,  each  time,  place  some  tow  or  cotton  on  the 
puff,  and  then  bandage,  causing  the  tow  to  press  upon  the  puff, 
and  then  keep  the  bandage  wet.  It  is  not  advisable  to  open 
them. 

Bog-spavin  is  a  distension  of  the  capsular  ligament  of  the 
hock-joint  with  synovia,  commonly  called  joint-oil  or  joint-water. 
This  capsular  ligament,  which  is  a  little  sack,  naturally  holds 
about  two  tea-spoonfuls  of  fluid,  but  in  a  bog-spavin  it  may  con- 
tain ten  or  fifteen  times  as  much.  A  bog-spavin  seldom  inter- 
feres with  the  action  of  the  animal. 

CAUSES. — Want  of  regular  exercise,  working  too  hard,  or 
driving  too  fast;  any  sprain  or  other  injury.  It  may  come  on 
a  leg  very  suddenly. 

SYMPTOMS. — There  is  a  puff  or  enlargement  on  the  inner  front 
part  of  the  hock-joint.  If  it  is  suddenly  caused,  by  a  sprain  or 
other  injury,  there  will  be  heat  and  tenderness,  and  the  animal 
will  be  lame. 

TREATMENT. — If  it  is  suddenly   produced  in  a  young,  fleshy 


DISEASES  OF   HORSES.  717 

horse,  it  is  best  to  reduce  his  weight  by  limiting  the  food; 
bathe  well  with  cold  water  for  two  or  three  hours,  and  then  ban- 
dage the  joint,  leaving  the  point  of  the  hock  free,  or  use  a  bog- 
spavin  truss,  and  apply  a  high-heeled  shoe.  If  it  has  been 
present  for  some  time,  the  same  treatment  may  be  tried,  but  in 
addition  thereto  a  cantharides  blister  may  be  used  occasionally. 
(See  index.)  A  bog  spavin  should  not  be  cut  open. 

Blood  Spavin. — Is  an  enlargement  or  rupture  of  the 
vein — vena  saphena — which  passes  directly  over  the  seat  of  a 
bog  spavin. 

TREATMENT. — Consists  in  applying  continued  pressure  to  the 
part  by  means  of  a  bandage  or  a  truss. 

Thoroughpin. — This  is  a  puffy  tumor  on  the  lower,  back 
part  of  the  thigh,  just  above  the  hock-joint ;  it  can  be  pushed 
through  from  side  to  side. 

CAUSES. — Over-exertion  or  some  irritation  caused  by  a  bog 
spavin  may  cause  a  thoroughpin,  but  a  thoroughpin  can  not 
cause  a  bog  spavin. 

TREATMENT. — Rest  the  animal,  and  apply  cold  water  to  the 
joint  for  a  few  days ;  and  then  use  a  bandage  in  such  a  way  as 
to  press  upon  the  enlargement;  or  use  a  thoroughpin  truss,  apply 
a  high-heeled  shoe,  and  apply  the  iodine  ointment  (see  index), 
and  an  occasional  blister  of  cantharides.  (See  index.) 

Curb — Is  an  enlargement,  on  the  back  part  of  the  hind-leg, 
just  below  the  hock  joint. 

CAUSES. — Sprain  or  rupture  of  the  calcaneo-cuboid  ligament ; 
hard  or  fast  work ;  working  in  deep  snow  or  deep  mud ;  forcibly 
backing  a  heavy  load ;  rearing ;  jumping,  or  any  thing  which 
brings  a  strain  upon  the  part. 

SYMPTOMS. — An  enlargement  which  is  easily  seen  from  the 
side  of  the  animal.  Curb  usually  causes  lameness,  but  the 
lameness  will  get  well  itself  if  rest  is  given.  It  seldom  occurs 
in  old  animals.  The  enlargement  at  first  is  very  hot  and  painful. 
It  takes  a  long  time  for  complete  recovery,  and  treatment  is  of 
little  use. 

TREATMENT. — Give  rest,  and  if  there  is  pain  and  heat  in  the 
part,  bathe  with  warm  water,  in  which,  for  each  pint  of  water, 


718  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

use  an  ounce  of  laudanum.     After  the  soreness  begins  to  disap- 
pear, clip  the  hair  off  and  apply  the  cantharides  blister. 

Take — Cantharides,  powdered,         .....         1  dram. 
Lard,      .........     6  drams. 

Mix,  but  do  not  heat  more  than  just  sufficiently  to  melt  the 
lard ;  if  it  is  heated  to  boiling  it  will  not  act.  For  directions  for 
applying  see  Blistering. 

Laminitis,  Acute. —  Also  known  as  Inflammation  of  the 
Sensitive  Laminae  and  Founder.  It  is  an  inflammation  of  the 
sensitive  laminae,  but  there  are  other  structures  also  affected. 

CAUSES. — Some  feet  are  predisposed  to  this  disease,  but  it 
may  be  produced  in  any  kind  of  a  foot,  and  when  caused  sud- 
denly in  a  very  good  foot,  it  is  more  severe  than  when  in  a 
poor  foot.  Hard  work  and  fast  driving  are  common  causes.  It 
is  most  common  in  hot  weather.  Shoeing  is  said  to  be  a  cause, 
and  perhaps  it  is,  in  some  cases.  Food  sometimes  causes  it.  A 
small  amount  of  wheat  is  often  sufficient ;  any  kind  of  food,  or 
any  thing  that  will  irritate  the  intestines.  Foaling  sometimes 
causes  it  by  the  irritation  thus  caused.  It  can  be  readily  pro- 
duced by  driving  a  horse  in  hot  weather  until  sweating,  and 
then  allowing  him  to  stand  where  the  wind  will  blow  on  him 
and  cool  him  too  quickly. 

SYMPTOMS. — There  will  be  fever  and  a  full,  strong  pulse,  fifty 
or  sixty  beats  per  minute,  sometimes  seventy,  and  the  entire 
body  may  be  bedewed  with  sweat.  The  animal  is  stiff  and 
moves  with  the  greatest  difficulty,  and  shows  some  symptoms 
of  some  disease  of  the  internal  organs.  He  usually  persists  in 
standing,  but  sometimes  lies  down.  When  forced  to  back,  he 
throws  the  weight  of  the  body  on  his  heels,  and  will  even  drag 
the  feet.  Around  the  hoof  there  will  be  great  heat,  and  the  ar- 
teries near  the  hoof  can  be  felt  pulsating.  If  only  the  fore-feet 
are  affected,  which  is  usually  the  case,  he  puts  the  hind-feet 
forward  under  the  body,  to  take  the  weight  from  the  sore  feet, 
and  when  compelled  to  move,  he  goes  in  a  kind  of  jumping 
manner,  trying  to  keep  the  weight  on  the  frogs  of  the  feet. 
But  when  all  four  of  the  feet  are  affected,  the  symptoms  will  be 
different;  yet  he  stands  with  the  hind-feet  pretty  well  forward, 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES.  719 

and  keeps  the  fore  feet  close  together,  and  when  weight  is 
thrown  on  one  foot,  it  is  suddenly  jerked  up,  almost  as  in 
string-halt  or  other  nervous  troubles.  When  it  occurs  in  one 
foot  only,  it  can  usually  be  traced  to  some  injury ;  as,  one  leg 
being  disabled  and  the  sound  one  being  compelled  to  bear  too 
much  weight,  causes  it  in  the  sound  foot.  If  it  occurs  in  botli 
hind-feet  it  can  often  be  traced  to  having  been  driven  on  hard 
roads,  without  shoes.  But  when  it  is  caused  by  some  derange- 
ment of  the  stomach,  it  either  attacks  both  fore-feet  or  all  four 
of  the  feet.  Sometimes  the  bones  of  the  feet  descend  and  make 
the  bottoms  of  the  feet  convex,  and  thus  cause  what  is  called 
"  Pumiced  Foot,"  or,  in  more  severe  cases,  the  bone  descends 
right  through  the  sole  of  the  foot.  In  such  cases  the  hoof 
grows  in  a  very  bad,  almost  shapeless  mass.  If  an  attack  is 
mild  and  allowed  to  continue,  all  these  conditions  may  occur. 

TREATMENT. — Remove  the  shoes,  rasp  the  horn  of  the  hoof 
away  until  it  is  considerably  thinned,  and  then  poultice  the 
whole  foot  by  making  a  sack  of  strong  cloth  or  leather,  large- 
enough  to  pass  over  the  foot,  then  fill  up  with  a  warm  poultice 
and  secure  the  sack  around  the  leg,  but  not  too  tightly.  Then, 
if  the  attack  is  not  caused  by  an  overdose  of  physic  or  diarrhea, 
give  eight  drams  of  aloes ;  and  if  the  pain  is  very  severe,  give 
with  the  aloes  one  dram  of  powdered  opium,  and  give  injections 
of  soap  and  warm  water  freely.  If  the  fever  is  great,  give 
tincture  of  aconite-root,  twenty  drops,  largely  diluted  in  water, 
every  two  hours,  until  relieved.  Bleeding  is  good  in  many 
cases,  and  if  blood  is  taken,  do  not  give  so  much  physic.  In 
all  cases  nitrate  of  potash  should  be  given,  in  four  dram  doses, 
three  times  a  day,  in  the  feed,  drinking  water,  or  in  a  drench 
of  cold  water ;  always  allowing  plenty  of  cold  water,  in  small 
quantities  at  a  time,  until  the  physic  begins  to  operate,  after 
which  it  should  be  given  sparingly  for  awhile.  When  these 
remedies  do  no  good,  it  is  probable  matter  is  forming  in  one  or 
more  of  the  feet,  and,  in  some  cases,  it  becomes  necessary  to 
make  an  opening  at  the  toe  by  cutting  away  the  hoof,  allowing 
the  matter  to  run  out;  and  if  this  is  done  in  time,  it  may  pre- 
vent the  descent  of  the  bone  as  already  described.  When  the 


720  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

medicines  take  effect  and  give  relief/  the  animal  should  be  mod- 
erately exercised  in  three  or  four  days,  if  it  does  not  cause  too 
much  pain. 

Laminitis,  Chronic. — This  disease  is  more  liable  to  attack 
aged  horses,  but  it  may  attack  any  horse. 

CAUSES. — The  causes  are  similar  to  those  in  Acute  Lam- 
initis. 

SYMPTOMS. — The  symptoms  are  somewhat  similar  to  those  of 
an  acute  attack,  but  they  are  more  obscure.  There  will  be  heat 
in  the  feet,  and  the  horse,  when  walking,  goes  in  a  kind  of 
stumbling  gait,  and  endeavors  to  throw  the  weight  on  the  heels, 
and  in  attempting  to  do  this  the  toe  is  thrown  up  and  the  heel 
is  thrown  down,  which  gives  the  animal  a  very  peculiar  and 
awkward  appearance.  Although  there  may  not  be  much  pain, 
and  the  animal  may  work  pretty  well  all  the  time,  yet  the 
muscles  of  the  chest  waste  away  (if  it  is  in  the  fore-feet),  and 
give  rise  to  what  is  called  chest  founder,  or  it  may  terminate  in 
pumiced  foot.  However,  there  is  no  such  a  disease  as  chest 
founder. 

TREATMENT. — Treating  this  disease  is  very  tedious,  and  not 
very  successful.  Dissolve  four  to  six  drams  of  aloes  in  hot 
water  and  give  when  cool.  In  most  cases  the  shoe  should  be 
taken  off.  and  the  outside  of  the  hoof,  at  the  heels,  should  be 
rasped  off;  then  poultice  the  feet,  or  stand  them  in  a  tub  of 
water,  or  it  will  do  to  stand  the  feet  in  wet  clay.  If  clay  is 
used  it  should  be  pure  and  clean,  and  renewed  when  it  becomes 
filthy.  After  the  heat  and  tenderness  subside,  apply  a  bar  shoe, 
which  should  be  thinner  at  the  heel  than  at  the  toe ;  but  if  the 
soreness  continues,  apply  a  cantharides  blister  around  the  top 
of  the  hoof,  but  not  in  the  hollow  of  the  heel.  (See  Blisters.) 
If  it  is  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  turning  him  on  a  wet  pasture 
is  of  great  benefit. 

Navicular  Disease. — Also  called  Navicularthritis  and  Coffin 
Joint  Lameness.  This  disease  is  situated  in  the  joint  inside  of 
the  hoof. 

CAUSES. — Hard  and  fast  work.  A  very  upright  pastern  is 
more  liable  to  it  than  the  opposite,  especially  if  the  animal  has 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES.  721 

a  short,  stubby  gait,  or  very  high  action,  the  latter  causing  the 
feet  to  strike  the  ground  too  forcibly  ;  allowing  the  toes  to 
grow  too  long,  or  cutting  the  heels  too  much  when  shoeing ;  or 
any  injury  to  the  back  part  of  the  foot. 

SYMPTOMS. — Lameness,  in  some  cases  sudden  and  severe,  in 
others  gradual  and  slight,  sometimes  continuous,  and  sometimes 
periodic.  Sometimes  an  animal  goes  lame  when  first  taken  from 
the  stable,  but  soon  goes  sound  when  exercised.  When  the  dis- 
ease is  firmly  established,  and  in  but  one  foot,  the  diseased  foot 
is  rested  in  front  of  the  sound  one.  If  both  are  affected,  he 
throws  the  weight  from  one  foot  to  the  other,  and  when  first 
taken  from  the  stable  he  goes  with  a  kind  of  stilty  action,  and 
from  this  action  it  has  been  called  grogginess.  The  muscles  of 
the  shoulder  waste,  and  from  this  fact  it  is  often  called  sweeny. 
There  is  also  contraction  of  the  foot,  which  is  easily  seen  if  but 
one  foot  is  diseased.  Pressure  in  the  hollow  of  the  heel  against 
the  tendon  causes  pain.  The  foot  is  usually  greatly  worn  at 
the  toe,  and  the  front  of  the  hoof  is  more  rounded  than 
natural. 

TREATMENT. — If  it  is  severe  and  of  long  standing,  it  is  in- 
curable, but  if  recent  and  mild,  a  cure  may  be  effected.  Take 
off  the  shoe,  rasp  down  the  toe  and  also  the  wall  of  the  hoof, 
and  in  some  cases  even  thin  the  bottom  of  the  hoof  some ;  then 
use  poultices  or  bathe  well  with  water,  or  keep  him  standing 
with  the  foot  in  water  three  or  four  hours  a  day,  and  when  the 
heat  and  pain  seem  better,  blister  around  the  top  of  the  hoof 
with  the  biniodide  of  mercury-blister.  (See  Blistering.)  If  it 
is  in  the  spring  of  the  year  when  the  ground  is  wet,  turn  the 
animal  on  pasture.  If  remedies  fail,  and  the  horse  becomes  use- 
less, the  only  relief  then  is  to  divide  the  nerves  which  give  sen- 
sation to  the-  foot;  and  as  such  an  operation  would  require  a 
practical  veterinary  surgeon,  it  will  not  be  described  here. 

Corns. — These  are  simply  bruises  caused  by  pressure  from 
the  shoe.  There  are  hard,  soft,  and  suppurating  corns,  but 
these  are  only  different  stages  of  the  same  disease. 

SYMPTOMS. — More  or  less  lameness ;  and  if  only  one  foot  is 
affected  it  will  be  rested  in  front  of  the  sound  foot.  If  both 


722  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

feet  are  affected,  the  weight  will  be  frequently  shifted  from  one 
foot  to  the  other.  The  animal  travels  better  on  soft  ground, 
and  a  rider  or  other  weight  on  his  back  increases  the  pain.  He 
sometimes  knuckles  at  the  fetlock ;  this  misleads  many.  When 
the  shoe  is  removed  and  the  foot  pared  at  the  heel,  redness  can 
sometimes  be  seen,  but  sometimes  there  is  lameness  without 
redness. 

TREATMENT. — Remove  the  shoe,  cut  down  the  heel,  and  toe 
too,  if  necessary,  in  order  to  put  the  foot  into  proper  shape. 
Do  not  cut  to  the  quick  unless  matter  is  present,  but  cut  just 
enough  to  relieve  the  pressure,  and  replace  the  shoe  in  such  a 
manner  that  it  will  not  press  upon  the  bruised  place.  If  there 
is  much  soreness  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  poultice  the  foot, 
or  keep  it  standing  in  water.  If  matter  is  formed,  cut  down  to 
it,  and  let  it  out.  If  it  is  not  let  out  it  will  work  its  way  out 
at  the  top  of  the  hoof. 

Punctures. — By  this  is  meant  any  injury  from  nails,  snags, 
etc.,  passing  through  the  bottom  of  the  foot.  If  it  is  in  the 
frog  it  is  more  liable  to  become  serious  than  if  nearer  the  toe. 

SYMPTOMS. — If  the  injury  can  not  be  seen,  the  action  of  the 
animal  must  be  a  guide.  If  it  is  in  a  hind-foot  the  fetlock  will 
knuckle  when  he  is  first  started,  after  a  rest.  If  it  is  in  a  fore 
foot,  the  affected  foot  will  be  rested  in  front  of  the  sound  one ; 
and  in  either  case,  when  weight  is  thrown  on  the  sore  foot,  it 
is  suddenly  shifted  back  to  the  sound  one.  In  examining,  take 
up  the  foot  and  tap  it  with  a  light  hammer,  and  when  the  sore 
part  is  struck  he  will  flinch.  Pare  the  bottom  of  the  foot  down 
until  all  dirt  and  old  horn  is  removed,  and  the  point  of  injury 
may  then  be  seen. 

TREATMENT. — First,  satisfy  yourself  that  no  piece  of  the  of- 
fending body  remains  in  the  foot.  Rest  the  animal,  and  if  the 
hole  be  too  small  to  allow  the  blood  and  matter  to  escape,  cut 
the  hoof  away  until  you  make  a  free  opening.  Then,  by 
means  of  a  sack  large  enough  to  admit  the  foot,  apply  a  poultice — 
bran,  hops,  or  flax-seed  meal  is  good — and  tie  the  sack  around 
the  leg.  Sometimes  the  entire  frog  comes  loose ;  it  then  becomes 
necessary  to  cut  it  away  and  allow  a  new  one  to  grow  in. 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES.  723 

Sometimes,  in  such  a  case,  there  appears  an  unnatural  growth 
which  must  be  removed,  either  with  a  knife,  a  hot  iron,  or  with 
caustics.  If  caustics  are  preferred,  take  a  stick  of  nitrate  of 
silver,  and  rub  it  thoroughly  over  the  growth,  or  dust  the 
growth  with  powdered  blue  vitriol,  or  pure  carbolic  acid.  Apply 
any  of  these  once  or  twice  a  day,  until  the  growth  is  subdued. 
Then  use 

Carbolic  Acid,  pure,         ......        3  drams. 

Water, 1  pint 

Bathe  with  this  three  or  four  times  a  day. 

The  above  treatment  applies  to  gravel  in  the  feet  also. 

Bruises. — SYMPTOMS. — Heat,  pain,  and  swelling  in  the  parts. 

TREATMENT. — Just  the  same  as  for  abscesses;  first  prevent 
the  formation  of  matter  in  the  part,  and,  failing  in  this,  hasten 
its  formation,  open  and  let  it  out.  (See  Abscesses.) 

Abscesses. — An  abscess  is  a  gathering  or  boil.  It  may 
come  from  some  recognizable  cause,  or  seemingly  without  a  cause. 
As  a  rule,  an  abscess  is  easily  detected,  but  in  some  cases  when 
near  a  joint,  it  is  difficult  to  say  whether  it  is  an  abscess,  a 
puff,  or  bursal  enlargement. 

SYMPTOMS. — There  will  be  heat,  pain,  and  swelling,  with  a 
throbbing  or  beating  in  the  part.  After  awhile  the  hitherto 
hard,  unyielding  tumor  becomes  soft  near  the  center,  the  hair 
falls  off  and  leaves  a  bare  spot ;  and  by  placing  the  fingers  of  one 
hand  on  the  lowest  part  of  this  soft  portion,  and  tapping  above 
them  with  the  fingers  of  the  other  hand,  a  sensation  is  commu- 
nicated to  the  fingers  like  that  from  so  tapping  a  bladder  filled 
with  a  fluid.  An  aneurism  (which  is  a  tumor  caused  by  the 
walls  of  an  artery  becoming  enlarged  or  ruptured),  has  been 
mistaken  for  an  abscess.  When  any  doubt  exists,  it  is  best  to 
use  an  aspirator  needle  (which  is  a  small  tube  made  sharp  so  as 
to  cut  through  the  flesh).  Introduce  this  needle,  and  if  pus 
is  drawn  out,  it  is  surely  an  abscess  and  should  be  freely  opened. 

TREATMENT. — If  you  think  an  abscess  is  about  to  form, 
remove  any  splinters  or  other  causes,  and  apply  cold  water  to 
the  part  to  prevent  if  possible  the  formation  of  matter.  But  if 
you  fail  in  preventing  its  formation,  use  just  the  opposite  treat- 


724  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

ment,  viz  :  hot  water,  hot  poultices,  etc.,  to  hasten  its  formation, 
and  then  open  it  at  the  lowest  point.  The  direction  of  the  cut 
should  usually  be  made  in  the  direction  of  the  folds  of  the  skin, 
unless  you  are  to  cut  deep  enough  to  injure  a  muscle,  in  which 
case  cut  lengthwise  with  the  muscle.  But  never  cut  across 
arteries,  veins,  or  nerves,  unless  it  is  absolutely  impossible  to  avoid 
it.  In  opening  an  abscess  on  an  animal's  belly,  always  think  of  a 
rupture,  as  it  is  easy  to  mistake  the  one  for  the  other,  and  open- 
ing a  rupture  would  be  a  very  serious  matter.  After  an  abscess 
has  been  freely  opened,  keep  it  open  and  syringe  it  thoroughly 
with  the  carbolic  or  white  lotion.  (See  Index.)  Wash  it  thus, 
once  oj  twice  a  day. 

Lampas. — This  is  very  common  in  young  horses ;  and  it  is 
called  a  disease,  but  it  is  not  certain  whether  it  should  be  called 
a  disease  or  not.  Sometimes  the  gums  become  so  swollen  as  to 
be  level  with,  or  even  extend  above,  the  teeth.  In  such  a  case  it 
may  be  necessary  to  make  two  or  three  cuts  in  the  gums,  being 
careful  that  you  do  not  cut  above  the  third  bar,  or  you  will  have 
profuse  hemorrhage.  Then  feed  soft  food  for  a  few  days.  Wash- 
ing the  mouth  with 

Alum,          .         .   '  .         .         .         .         4  drams. 

Water,    ........     1  pint. 

three  or  four  times  a  day  is  beneficial.  The  brutal  practice 
which  was  and  is  still  sometimes  resorted  to  of  using  a  hot 
iron,  is  entirely  unnecessary,  and  should  always  be  condemned ; 
and  cutting  with  a  knife  is  very  seldom  necessary. 

Wolf-teeth. — These  teeth  occur  just  in  front  of  the  first 
grinders.  In  some  rare  cases  they  cause  trouble ;  yet  it  is  not 
determined  that  such  teeth  have  any  thing  whatever  to  do  with 
causing  eye  troubles.  Such  teeth  are  of  no  use,  and  may  be 
removed  with  a  pair  of  forceps ;  or  a  punch  or  large  nail  may 
be  placed  against  the  tooth,  strike  the  nail  or  punch  with  a  light 
piece  of  wood,  and  thus  knock  it  out.  The  forceps  are  best,  as 
knocking  them,  often  breaks  them  off.  A  heavy  piece  of  wood  or  a 
hammer  should  not  be  used,  or  the  first  grinder  may  be  injured. 

General  Indigestion. — This  is  a  very  common  trouble; 
and  the  animal  affected  likely  eats  well ;  but  his  food  does  him 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES.  725 

no  good ;  or  he  will  eat  well  at  times,  and  refuse  food  at  other 
times.  Or  he  may  have  a  depraved  appetite,  eat  his  bedding  or 
lick  the  white-wash  from  the  walls,  if  any  is  in  reach. 

SYMPTOMS. — The  skin  is  drawn  tight  over  the  body,  and  the 
hair  stands  on  end.  There  are  symptoms  of  general  weak- 
ness. Sometimes  there  is  a  diarrhea,  at  other  times  costiveness. 
The  eyes  present  a  dull  appearance,  the  lining  of  nose,  mouth, 
and  eyes,  is  of  a  pale  or  whitish  color.  There  is  an  offensive 
smell  from  the  mouth,  and  also  from  the  dung.  The  animal  is 
easily  fatigued;  and  if  he  is  greatly  weakened,  the  limbs,  and 
even  the  belly  will  swell.  The  heat  of  the  body,  the  pulse,  and 
the  breathing,  are  natural,  or  nearly  so. 

TREATMENT. — Feed  on  easily  digested,  but  nourishing  food; 
and  give  a  variety  of  foods.  And 

Take — Bicarbonate  of  Soda,  .....  2  drams. 
Gentian,  powdered,  .  .  .  .  .4  drams. 
Nux  Vomica,  powdered,  \  dram. 

Mix,  and  give  at  one  dose  twice  a  day.  Give  in  the  food 
if  it  will  be  so  taken;  if  not,  give  in  any  way  you  think  best. 
If  the  animal  is  greatly  weakened,  and  the  pulse  weak,  give  the 
foregoing  for  two  days ;  and  then 

Take — Gentian, 6  ounces. 

Sulphate  of  Iron,          .....  1^  ounces. 

Nux  Vomica,      .     .         .         .         .         .         •  1^  ounces. 

Digitalis  Leaves,  .....  \  ounce. 

Powder  all,  mix,  and  give  one  tablespoonful  at  night  in  the 
food,  or  any  way  most  convenient.  If  these  do  not  benefit, 
then  give  nitric-acid,  one-half  fluid  dram  in  the  water,  three 
times  a  day. 

Spasmodic  Colic  is  a  spasmodic  contraction  of  any  part 
of  the  intestines. 

CAUSES. — Same  as  in  flatulent  colic. 

SYMPTOMS. — It  comes  on  very  suddenly.  The  animal  begins  to 
paw,  looks  at  the  sides,  and  throws  himself  violently  to  the 
ground.  (In  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  he  lies  down  more 
carefully.)  He  tries  to  lie  on  the  back ;  gets  up ;  may  shake 
himself  and  appear  well  for  a  short  time;  may  even  eat  some- 


726  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

thing;  and  again  be  seized  with  pains  as  bad  as  before,  or 
worse.  In  some  cases  the  body  is  wet  with  sweat.  Small 
lumps  of  dung  may  be  passed;  attempts  are  frequently  made 
to  pass  water;  and  it  is  a  good  sign  to  see  him  pass  water 
freely.  The  pulse,  during  the  pain,  may  be  as  fast  as  sixty 
beats  per  minute,  and  fall  to  forty-five  during  the  periods  of 
ease.  (In  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  the  pulse  begins  at  about 
forty-five  and  gradually  increases.)  Pressing  on  the  bowels 
causes  pain  in  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  and  gives  relief 
in  colic.  Colic  usually  runs  its  course  in  from  eight  to  twelve 
hours;  but  a  mild  case  may  last  longer. 

TREATMENT. — As  almost   every  veterinary   surgeon   has   his 
favorite  prescription  for  this  disease,  I  will  give  several: 

Take — Sweet  Spirits  of  Niter,  ....  2  ounces. 
Fluid  Extract  of  Belladonna,  ....  2  drams. 
.Water,  .......  2  ounces. 

Or — Sweet  Spirits  of  Niter,     .....       2  ounces. 

Laudanum,  .......  2  ounces. 

Water, 8  ounces. 

Or — Aqua  Ammonia,   ......  4  drams. 

Turpentine,      .......       2  ounces. 

Raw  Flaxseed  Oil, 1  pint. 

Or — Sulphuric  Ether,      ......  1^  ounces. 

Laudanum,  .......  1^  ounces. 

Fluid  Extract  of  Belladonna,    ....       1  dram. 

Spirits  Camphor, £  ounce. 

Raw  Flaxseed  Oil, \  pint. 

Mix.  Give  any  one  of  the  foregoing  at  one  dose,  and  if  no 
relief  is  given  in  a  half  hour, 

Take — Barbadoes  Aloes,  powdered 6  drams. 

Sulphuric  Ether, 1  ounce. 

Laudanum,    .......         1  ounce. 

Mix,  and  shake  for  a  few  minutes,  and  then  add  six  ounces 
of  raw  flaxseed  oil,  and  give  at  one  dose.  If  still  no  relief  in 
a  half  hour  more,  repeat  any  of  the  foregoing  in  one-half  the 
amounts  given,  leaving  out  the  oil  and  aloes,  and  give  in  water. 
Give  every  half  hour  until  relieved.  Give  injections  of  warm 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES.  727 

water,  and  apply  blankets  wrung  from  hot  water  to  the  bowels. 
Rubbing  the  belly  well  with  the  hand  is  beneficial.  A  little 
walking  exercise  is  also  beneficial,  but  trotting  or  running  ex- 
ercise is  highly  injurious. 

Flatulent  Colic  is  a  distention  of  the  intestines  with 
gases. 

CAUSES. — Poor  food,  green  food,  green  or  partly  dried  clover 
hay,  changing  from  one  kind  of  food  to  another  too  suddenly, 
feeding  too  soon  after  being  over-heated,  etc,  or  after  severe  and 
protracted  exertion. 

SYMPTOMS. — The  pain  is  constant  but  less  severe  than  that  in 
spasmodic  colic.  The  belly  is  more  or  less  swollen,  and  gives  a 
drum-like  sound  when  struck.  The  head  is  turned  to  the  side. 
The  animal  paws,  rolls,  and  lies  down;  and  may  lie  still  for  a 
short  time;  tries  to  roll  upon  the  back;  sometimes  backs  into  a 
corner  and  remains  there  for  awhile.  He  moves  and  lies  down 
more  cautiously  than  in  spasmodic  colic.  The  breathing  is 
quickened;  and,  in  a  case  that  is  likely  to  prove  fatal,  there  is 
an  anxious  look,  the  pulse  becomes  weak  and  irregular,  and  the 
lips  are  drawn  back,  showing  the  teeth. 

TREATMENT. — Give  injections  freely. 

Take— Warm  Water, £  gallon. 

Turpentine,          .......     1  ounce. 

Common  Salt,  ......         1  ounce. 

Or,  if  a  syringe  can  not  be  obtained,  remove  the  dung  as  far 
as  you  can  reach  with  the  hand. 

Take — Laudanum,     .......         2  ounces. 

Aromatic  Spirits  of  Ammonia,    ....     1  ounce. 

Flaxseed  Oil,  raw, ^  pint. 

Mix,  and  give  at  one  dose. 

Or,  take — Turpentine,       .......  2  ounces. 

Laudanum,    .......  1  ounce. 

Fluid  Extract  Belladonna,         ....  1  dram. 

Raw  Flaxseed  Oil, ^  pint 

Mix,  and  give  at  one  dose.  If  there  is  no  relief  in  a  half 
hour,  repeat  the  dose. 


728  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

If  no  relief  is  experienced  in  another  half  hour, 

Take — Boiling  Water 1  pint. 

Aloes,  powdered,        ....          .         .     4  drams. 

Mix,  and  when  cool,  add 

Laudanum, 1  ounce. 

Aromatic  Spirits  Ammonia,         ....     1  ounce. 

and  give  at  one  dose.  If  these  fail,  any  of  the  doses  given 
may  be  repeated.  If  the  last  is  given  again,  leave  out  the 
aloes. 

When  the  above  remedies  fail,  the  only  thing  that  can  be 
done  is  to  puncture  and  let  the  gases  escape.  For  this  opera- 
tion a  common  trochar  and  canula,  about  four  inches  in  length, 
should  be  used.  Puncture  in  the  right  side,  at  an  equal  dis- 
tance from  the  haunch-bone,  the  last  rib,  and  the  projections 
from  the  back-bone,  directing  the  instrument  a  little  downward 
and  a  little  backward;  draw  out  the  trochar  and  leave  the  can- 
ula in  until  the  gases  cease  to  flow.  If  the  tube  should  get 
stopped,  it  can  be  opened  with  the  trochar.  The  instrument 
named  above  can  be  bought  through  your  druggist,  or  from  any 
surgical-instrument  maker.  When  such  an  animal  begins  to  re- 
cover, he  should  be  carefully  used  for  some  time,  and  fed  such 
food  as  is  easily  digested.  And  give  the  following  powders  for 
a  few  days : 

Take — Bicarbonate  of  Soda,       .....         1  ounce. 

Fenugreek,  powdered,         .         .         .         .         .1  ounce. 

Gentian,   powdered,         .....         1  ounce. 

Ginger,  powdered,       ......     1  ounce. 

Rhubarb,  powdered,        .....         1  ounce. 

Mix,  and  make  into  six  powders,  and  give  one  three  times 
a  day. 

Worms. — As  space  will  not  permit,  we  can  not  trace  the 
causes  of  worms  here. 

SYMPTOMS. — The  best  and  only  unmistakable  symptom  to  be 
Been  is  the  worms  in  the  dung.  But  there  are  other  signs. 
The  small  needle,  whip,  or  rectum  worms,  which  infest  the  last 
part  of  the  intestine,  cause  the  animal  to  scratch  and  rub  the 
tail.  And  by  raising  the  tail,  you  can  see  a  yellowish-white 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES.  729 

substance  adhering  around  the  anus.  This  is  the  eggs  of  the 
worms,  but  can  only  be  positively  identified  by  the  use  of  a 
microscope. 

TREATMENT. — The  simplest,  and  often  the  most  successful 
treatment  for  rectum  worms,  is  frequently  repeated  injections  of 
a  strong  tea,  made  by  boiling  equal  parts  of  quassia  chips  and 
gentian  root,  in  water,  and  inject  it  when  cool.  If  this  should 
fail,  then  give  medicines  as  for  the  large  worms,  as  follows : 

Lumbrici  are  large  worms,  which  resemble  common  earth- 
worms in  size  and  shape.  These  are  found  in  the  small  intes- 
tines, and  sometimes  in  the  stomach.  If  but  few  are  present, 
they  do  little  or  no  harm,  but  if  great  numbers  are  present, 
they  sometimes  cause  uneasiness  and  pains  similar  to  colic. 
When  any  of  these  worms  are  passed,  it  is  time  to  attend  to 
the  animal. 

TREATMENT. — Feed  but  little  for  a  day,  and  then  give  one 
of  the  following,  which  are  compiled  and  arranged  from  Finley 
Dun's  Veterinary  Medicine : 

Take — Barbadoes  Aloes,  powdered,  £  ounce. 

Assafcetida,         .......     J  ounce. 

Boiling  Water 1  pint 

And  when  cool,  add 

Sulphuric  Ether,         ......     1  ounce. 

Turpentine,     .......          1  ounce. 

Give  at  one  dose,  and  repeat  every  morning  for  three  or 
four  days. 

Or,  take — Assafcetida,  .......  2  drams. 

Calomel,    .......  1^  drams. 

Savin,  .         .         .         .         .         .         .  \\  drams. 

Oil  of  Male-shield  Fern,     ....  30  drops. 

This  can  be  made  into  a  paste  with  molasses  and  linseed- 
meal.  Give  at  night  at  one  dose,  and  the  next  morning 

Take — Barbadoes  Aloes,    ......         4  drams. 

Boiling  Water,  .......     1  pint 

Mix,  and  give  at  one  dose,  when  cool. 
Diarrhea — Scours. — CAUSES. — Too  much  food,  food  which 
is  too  rich  or  too  watery ;  frozen  turnips,  beets,  cabbage,  etc. ; 


730  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

impure  water ;  or  any  irritant  in  the  food,  as  irritating  vegetables, 
or  sand  on  the  grass  or  hay.  If  diarrhea  is  not  checked  in  time, 
it  may  terminate  in  inflammation  of  the  bowels. 

TREATMENT. — All  that  is  required  in  many  cases,  is  to  change 
the  food ;  but  medicine  is  sometimes  necessary.  First  ascertain 
the  cause,  if  possible,  and  remove  it.  If  the  cause  should  be 
sand  or  clay,  giving  a  medicine  to  stop  the  diarrhea  would  be 
very  injurious  until  such  foreign  matters  are  removed  from  the 
bowels.  In  such  a  case,  first  give  a  slight  physic,  as, 

Take — Raw  Linseed  Oil, 1  pint. 

Laudanum,    .......      ^  ounce. 

Mix,  and  give  at  one  dose.     Or 

Take — Aloes,  powdered,         .....  2  drams. 

Gentian,  powdered,         .....       2  drams. 
Ginger,  powdered,      .....  2  drams. 

Mix,  and  give  at  one  dose  in  a  pint  of  warm  water.  But 
after  the  diarrhea  has  continued  of  itself  for  some  time,  the  above 
may  not  be  necessary ;  and  when  the  bowels  have  acted  pretty 
freely,  either  with  or  without  physic,  it  becomes  necessary  to 
check  it. 

Take — Catechu,  powdered,         .....       4  drams. 
Gentian,  powdered,    .....  2  drams. 

Ginger,  powdered,          .....       2  drams. 

Mix,  and  give  at  one  dose  in  tepid  water.  If  not  relieved 
in  twelve  hours,  repeat  the  dose.  Or,  instead  of  the  above,  you 
may  use  this : 

Take — Turpentine,        ......  1  ounce. 

Opium,  powdered,          .....       1  dram. 

Mix  with  three  eggs  and  give  at  one  dose.  Wheat-flour  will 
cure  some  mild  cases.  If  it  is  caused  by  an  over-dose  of 
physic,  give — opium,  powdered,  1  dram  in  tepid  water,  and  re- 
peat in  four  or  five  hours.  Never  resort  to  strong  medicines  at 
first,  always  give  time  for  any  irritants  to  be  passed  from  the 
bowels,  and  then  resort  to  treatment. 

Enteritis — Inflammation  of  the  Bowels. — This  is  a 
very  fatal  disease.  It  is  an  inflammation  of  the  intestines  ; 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES.  731 

• 

usually  of  the  mucous  or  lining  coat ;  but  sometimes  all  the 
coats  are  affected.  It  often  causes  death  in  six  or  eight  hours, 
and  seldom  lasts  longer  than  twelve  hours. 

CAUSES. — Colic  sometimes  terminates  in  enteritis,  although 
some  say  it  never  does.  Other  causes  are,  too  much  food,  or 
some  food  the  animal  is  not  accustomed  to  eating ;  in  short, 
any  thing  that  will  irritate  the  intestines.  Sometimes  a  dose  of 
physic  will  cause  it.  Stagnant  water  may  cause  it.  Driving  an 
animal  until  exhausted  and  standing  him  in  the  cold  may  cause  it. 
It  may  be  brought  on  by  any  thing  which  causes  great  weakness. 

SYMPTOMS. — These  are  something  like  those  of  colic  and 
other  painful  bowel  troubles.  In  inflammation  of  the  bowels 
there  is  generally  a  period  of  dullness  preceding  the  pain — 
not  so  in  colic.  Then  the  animal  begins  to  paw  in  a  peculiar 
manner  ;  he  may  paw  for  hours.  The  belly  is  tucked  up ;  he 
looks  at  the  sides.  These  are  all  symptoms  of  colic ;  but  in 
colic  they  are  not  so  gradual.  Early  in  the  disease  the  pulse 
is  not  much  affected — about  forty  or  forty-five  beats  in  a  minute, 
but  full  and  hard.  The  mouth,  ears,  and  legs  are  hotter  than  nat- 
ural. The  pain  still  gradually  increases.  He  begins  to  move 
his  legs,  cringes,  and  lies  down  (but  more  carefully  than  in  colic), 
and  gets  up,  but  does  not  stand  as  in  spasmodic  colic ;  but  turns 
around  perhaps  two  or  three  times,  and  lies  down  again.  There 
are  no  periods  of  freedom  from  pain,  as  in  spasmodic  colic. 
The  eyes  about  this  time  have  a  very  peculiar  luster;  they  be- 
come red.  The  lining  of  the  nose  also  becomes  red.  The  ears 
and  legs  may  now  be  either  hot  or  cold,  or  alternately  hot  and 
cold  ;  and  the  bowels  costive,  although  they  may  have  been  loose 
at  first,  and  if  any  small  pellets  of  dung  are  passed,  they  are 
covered  with  mucus  or  slime.  Frequent  attempts  are  made  to 
pass  water,  and  a  small  amount  may  be  passed.  Pressure  on 
the  belly  causes  pain  ;  but  in  colic  it  affords  relief.  The  pulse 
may  now  run  up  to  eighty  or  one  hundred  and  twenty  per 
minute. 

TREATMENT. — Treatment  is  seldom  successful.  Give  powdered 
opium,  in  one  dram  doses  every  hour,  until  four  or  five  doses 
are  given,  unless  relieved  sooner.  And  give  twenty  drops  of 


732  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

• 

tincture  of  aconite-root  in  a  tablesponful  of  water  every  two 
hours  until  the  fever  begins  to  subside,  which  can  be  determined 
by  the  pulse  getting  either  slower  or  weaker.  Give  injections 
of  warm  water  to  each  gallon,  of  which  add  two  ounces  of 
laudanum.  Apply  blankets  wrung  from  hot  water  to  the  bowels, 
just  as  hot  as  can  be  borne  by  the  animal,  and  place  a  dry 
blanket  on  the  outside  of  them.  Stimulants  are  of  great  benefit 
when  the  animal  becomes  weakened. 

Take — Sweet  Spirits  of  Niter,        ....  1  ounce. 

Ale  or  Beer, 1  pint. 

Mix,  and  give  at  one  dose;  or  whisky,  one-fourth  pint,  may 
be  used  instead  of  the  ale  or  beer.  If  whisky  is  used,  add  one- 
half  pint  of  water.  Do  not  interfere  with  the  bowels,  although 
they  do  not  act  for  some  time.  Keep  the  patient  well  blanketed, 
and  rub  the  legs  well  to  keep  up  the  circulation.  If  signs  of 
recovery  are  noticed,  discontinue  the  use  of  opium. 

Azoturia. — This  disease  is  known  by  a  variety  of  names, 
as  Partial  Paralysis,  French  Stiffs,  Kidney  Disease,  Hysteria, 
Enzobtic  Hcematuria,  etc.  It  is  a  partial  paralysis  of  the  hind 
quarters,  rarely  of  the  fore  quarters.  There  is  an  over  abund- 
ance of  nitrogenous  products  in  the  urine. 

CAUSES. — The  causes  are  not  satisfactorily  ascertained,  but 
it  is  well  known  that  it  very  rarely,  if  ever,  attacks  an  animal 
at  rest,  and  usually  attacks  those  that  have  been  working,  then 
rested,  and  well  fed  while  resting,  and  again  put  to  work;  and 
in  these  cases  it  may  come  on  in  driving  an  animal  a  half-mile, 
or  the  animal  may  be  driven  three  or  four  miles,  and  then  be 
attacked  very  suddenly;  so  much  so,  that  owners  have  been 
known  to  examine  the  feet  for  snags,  nails,  etc.,  thinking  it  im- 
possible for  the  animal  to  become  diseased  so  very  suddenly. 
In  other  cases  the  disease  does  not  develop  so  suddenly.  Slow 
work  is  not  liable  to  cause  so  severe  an  attack  as  fast  driving. 

SYMPTOMS. — The  horse  becomes  sluggish,  sweats  too  freely, 
becomes  stiff,  usually  in  the  muscles  of  the  loins,  the  breathing 
is  increased,  the  pulse  quick  and  weak,  the  muscles  of  the 
loins,  in  many  cases,  hard,  tense,  and  enlarged,  and  in  some 
cases  the  bowels  are  bloated.  In  more  severe  cases  the  symp- 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES.  733 

toms  will  be  more  alarming;  he  may  drop  on  the  hind  legs, 
stagger,  and  fall,  or  he  may  lie  down,  get  up,  and  again  lie 
down,  showing  some  symptoms  of  colic,  until  he  is  unable 
longer  to  get  up.  In  other  cases  an  animal  will  suddenly  falter, 
as  if  he  had  stepped  on  a  nail  or  snag.  In  almost  all  cases 
the  ears  and  legs  will  be  cold,  and  there  will  be  pain  in  the 
diseased  parts,  usually  shown  by  the  animal  looking  around,  or 
by  an  uneasiness  and  inability  to  remain  in  one  position.  If  a 
case  is  very  mild,  and  it  becomes  puzzling  to  determine  whether 
or  not  this  disease  is  the  one,  stand  the  animal  in  a  stall  for 
twenty  or  thirty  minutes,  and  then  he  will  show  stiffness.  The 
urine  is  always  of  a  dark  red  or  coffee  color,  and  if  it  is  kept 
for  some  time  in  a  vessel,  a  sediment  will  fall  to  the  bottom. 
This  disease  is  often  mistaken  for  inflammation  of  the  kidneys. 
If  it  is  an  ordinary  attack,  and  proper  remedies  are  used,  the 
animal  often  gets  better  in  a  few  hours,  and  in  a  few  da}rs  will  be 
well.  But  when  the  pain  is  very  severe,  the  pulse  quick  and  full, 
and  the  animal  can  not  get  up,  it  is  an  unfavorable  case. 

TREATMENT. — Give  eight  drams  of  aloes,  dissolved  in  hot 
water ;  give  when  cool  at  one  dose.  Give  injections  of  warm 
soap  suds  freely  until  the  physic  begins  to  act,  and  in  a  mild 
attack  give  sweet  spirits  of  niter,  one  ounce  three  times  a  day. 
Apply  blankets  wrung  from  hot  water  over  the  loins,  and  cover 
them  with  dry  blankets ;  or  if  this  can  not  be  done,  you  may 
apply  one  of  the  following : 

Take — Aqua  Ammonia,          ......     1  ounce. 

Turpentine,     .......          1  ounce. 

Flaxseed  Oil,        .......     1  ounce. 

Mix,  shake,  and  rub  over  the  loins ;  or 

Take — Mustard,  powdered,        .....          2  ounces. 
Water,  hot, 1  quart. 

Mix,  and  when  slightly  warm,  apply  as  the  above. 

If  the  water  is  not  passed,  a  catheter  (a  long  flexible  tube) 
should  be  used  after  being  well  oiled.  In  a  mare,  insert  the 
hand  along  the  floor  of  the  vagina,  until  the  valve  which  closes 
the  neck  of  the  bladder  can  be  felt,  raise  this,  introduce  the  in- 
strument carefully  until  the  urine  begins  to  flow.  In  a  gelding 


734  TUE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

or  stallion,  the  same  thing  is  to  be  done,  but  the  operation  is 
more  difficult  than  in  a  mare.  Take  hold  of  the  end  of  the 
penis  with  one  hand,  and  having  the  catheter  well  oiled,  start 
it  up  the  passage  until  it  reaches  the  turn  just  below  the  anus, 
then  have  an  assistant  direct  or  turn  the  point  of  the  instru- 
ment around  the  curve,  while  you  push  the  instrument  very 
gently  until  it  has  passed  this  point.  When  the  urine  is  not 
freely  passed 

Take — Colchicum,  .......  45  grains. 

Vinegar, 1  ounce. 

Alcohol 2  drams. 

Water, 8  ounces. 

Mix,  and  give  at  one  dose,  and  repeat  every  three  hours 
until  the  water  begins  to  pass.  The  animal  will  in  most  cases 
be  very  thirsty,  and  he  should  be  given  plenty  of  water,  in 
small  quantities  but  often,  and  just  slightly  warmed ;  keep  him 
as  comfortable  as  possible,  and  if  he  can  not  get  up,  turn  him 
from  side  to  side  frequently,  and  as  soon  as  possible  get  him 
upon  his  feet — with  the  assistance  of  slings  if  necessary — even 
though  he  stand  but  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes. 

If  you  have  a  horse  attacked  with  this  disease,  do  not  under 
any  consideration  work  or  drive  him  longer,  but  get  him  into 
the  nearest  stable,  and  keep  him  quiet.  Do  not  even  walk  him 
home  if  it  is  far  and  he  is  bad.  Three  or  four  drams  of  salt- 
peter three  times  a  day  is  considered  a  cure  for  it,  after  the 
physic  has  been  given;  or  bicarbonate  of  soda,  in  half-ounce 
doses,  three  times  a  day. 

If   the   animal   is    suffering    greatly,  give 

Powdered  opium,        .......         1  dram. 

Or,  Fluid  Extract  of  Beladonna, 45  drops. 

Or,  Laudanum,  .......         1  ounce. 

And  repeat  the  dose  in  two  hours  if  necessary,  until  the 
pain  subsides  some,  but  do  not  give  too  much  opium,  unless  the 
pain  is  severe. 

Blistering. — When  there  is  high  fever  in  a  part,  or  when 
the  skin  is  injured,  a  blister  seldom  does  any  good,  but  often 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES.  735 

does  harm.  I  will  quote  from  Williams'  "  Principles  and  Prac- 
tice of  Veterinary  Surgery"  the  following:  "Hints  upon  blister- 
ing :  No  more  than  two  legs  should  be  blistered  at  one  time, 
and  three  weeks  at  least  must  be  allowed  to  elapse  before  the 
others  are  blistered,  and  between  the  re-application.  It  is  bad 
practice  to  blister  extensively  in  very  hot  weather,  and  it  is  a 
mistake  to  suppose  that  blisters  to  the  loins  and  back  are  more 
apt  to  irritate  the  urinary  organs  than  when  applied  to  any  other 
part  of  the  body,  provided  that  it  be  carefully  and  properly 
done.  .  .  .  It  is  necessary  to  tie  the  horses  head  to  the 
rack  after  a  blister  has  been  applied,  in  order  that  he  may  not 
bite  it  or  touch  it  with  his  lips  or  tongue,  and  thus  blister  the 
mouth  and  blemish  the  spot.  It  is  also  necessary  to  tie  the  head 
so  that  the  horse  can  not  lie  down,  for  if  he  lies  upon  the  blis- 
tered limb,  the  vesicant  (blister)  will  adhere  to  that  part  of  the 
body  brought  in  contact  with  it  whilst  the  animal  is  recumbent, 
and  produce  an  effect  upon  it  as  well  as  upon  the  part  to  which 
it  has  been  purposely  applied.  If  the  blistered  spot  is  in  reach 
of  the  tail,  the  tail  should  be  tied  up,  or  it  is  apt  to  become 
daubed,  and  the  blister  whipped  on  the  thighs,  sheath,  or  udder. 
If  the  effects  are  not  sufficiently  apparent  in  about  thirty  hours 
after  the  blister  has  been  applied,  a  very  little  more,  or  what  is 
remaining  on  the  skin,  which  may  be  sufficient,  should  be  gently 
rubbed  in;  and  in  about  forty -eight  hours  after  the  application 
the  part  is  to  be  washed  and  every  trace  of  the  blister  removed ; 
a  little  oil  being  now  applied,  or  what  suits  better,  an  emulsion 
of  sweet  oil,  carbonate  of  potash,  and  water.  It  is  a  mistake  to 
keep  the  parts  soft  too  long;  the  eschars  should  be  allowed  to 
accumulate  and  desquamate  gradually.  .  .  .  The  best  method 
is  to  keep  the  head  tied  up  until  a  thick  scab  is  formed,  which 
will  destroy  the  itchiness  in  the  parts." 

In  pleurisy  and  sprains  which  have  become  chronic  the  Can- 
tharides  Blister  is  considered  the  best;  made  as  follows : 

Take — Cantharides,  powdered, 1  dram. 

Lard,      ....'....          6  drams. 

Mix,  and  melt  slowly,  never  allowing  it  to  get  as  hot  as  boil- 
ing water.     A  good   way  to   prepare  it   is    to  place  the  vessel 


736  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

containing  the  medicine  inside  of  another  vessel  which  contains 
water.  Place  this  on  a  fire,  and  heat  slowly  until  the  lard  melts; 
then  remove  it  from  the  fire,  and  when  it  gets  so  near  cold  that 
the  cantharides  will  not  settle,  stir  it  thoroughly,  and  it  is  ready 
for  use. 

When  a  bone  is  affected,  as  in  spavin — a  cartilage,  as  in 
side-bone — or  when  a  ligament  is  chronically  affected,  or  when 
a  deeper  and  more  permanent  action  is  desired,  the  Biniodide  of 
Mercury  Blister  should  be  used,  prepared  as  follows : 

Take — Biuiodide  of  Mercury,         .         .         .  .    1  dram. 

Lard,    ....          ....       8  drains. 

Mix  thoroughly,  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 

There  are  many  other  compound  blisters  which  are  some- 
times used,  but  these  are  the  ones  most  frequently  recommended, 
and  almost  universally  used.  Compound  blisters  are  more  liable 
to  blemish  than  the  more  simple  ones. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  all  animals  are  not  equally  affected 
by  blister — the  skin  of  some  responding  to  their  action  more 
readily  than  that  of  others — these  preparations  do  not  act  uni- 
formly on  all  animals ;  in  the  one  case  the  blister  will  have  to  be 
made  stronger,  and  vice  versa.  A  very  large  surface  should  not 
in  any  case  be  blistered  at  one  time ;  especially  with  canthar- 
ides, as  the  cantharides  is  liable  to  be  absorbed,  and  cause  an 
irritation  of  the  urinary  organs.  Before  applying  a  blister,  the 
skin  should  be  well  washed  with  soap  and  water;  and  it  is  best 
to  clip  or  shave  the  hair  off  before  applying  the  medicine ;  rubbing 
it  into  the  parts  well  makes  it  more  active.  A  very  severe  sore 
is  not  often  desirable,  and  better  results  usually  follow  milder 
applications.  In  two  or  three  days  after  a  blister  has  been 
applied,  the  blistered  surface  should  be  thoroughly  washed,  and 
rubbed  over  with  oil  or  glycerine ;  or  the  white  lotion  may  be 
used.  (See  Index.) 

In  old,  chronic  cases,  when  a  blister  has  been  applied  and  no 
good  results  follow,  it  may  be  repeated  again  and  again,  always 
bearing  in  mind  the  rules  given  at  the  head  of  this  chapter, 
until  it  either  accomplishes  the  desired  effect,  or  satisfies  you 
that  it  will  not  do  any  good. 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES.  737 

I  will  also  give  in  this  connection  the  Iodine  Ointment,  which 
is  so  extensively  used  in  chronic  enlargements  of  all  kinds,  es- 
pecially of  the  glands,  as  in  big  neck,  among  men.  This  oint- 
ment is  made  as  follows  : 

Take — Iodine  Crystals, 4  drains. 

Iodide  of  Potassium, 2  drams. 

Oil,  or  Water  (either),         ....         1  ounce. 

Mix  thoroughly,  and  when  the  ingredients  are  dissolved,  it 
is  ready  for  use.  The  ointment,  as  given  in  the  recipe,  will 
cause  soreness  in  the  part  to  which  it  is  applied,  and  for  this 
reason  it  should  not  be  applied  oftener  than  once  or  twice  a  day, 
or  even  less  frequently  than  this  if  it  proves  too  severe.  When 
a  more  gentle  action  is  desired,  as  when  it  is  desired  to  cause 
the  disappearance  of  some  collected  fluid,  it  should  be  used  only 
half  as  strong  as  given  in  the  formula,  and  it  may  be  applied 
oftener.  The  hints  regarding  blisters  npply  to  the  use  of  this 
in  its  strong  form,  but  in  a  less  degree  to  the  use  of  the  weaker 
preparation. 

Bots. — This  is  not  classed  as  a  disease  by  modern  veteri- 
nary writers,  and  investigation  has  shown  that  the  evils  attrib- 
uted to  the  bot  are  purely  imaginary,  and  the  symptoms  those 
of  colic,  pleurisy,  etc.,  instead.  Without  doubt  many  valuable 
horses  have  been  killed  by  corroding  poisons,  given  to  make 
the  terrible  "bot"  let  go  its  hold  on  the  stomach. 

Bots  are  the  larvae  of  the  bot-fly,  a  species  of  the  gad-fly, 
which  lays  its  eggs  on  the  hair  of  the  horse,  and  which  adhere 
to  the  horse's  tongue  when  licking  himself,  and  are  taken  into 
the  stomach.  The  larvae  are  provided  with  hooks  by  which 
they  attach  themselves  to  the  inner  portion  of  the  stomach, 
where  they  remain  feeding  upon  the  mucus  until  they  undergo 
changes  which  fit  them  for  another  stage  of  existence,  when 
they  release  their  hold  and  pass  into  the  bowels,  and  are  re- 
moved with  the  natural  evacuations.  This  usually  occurs  late 
in  the  spring.  There  is  no  evidence  that  they  produce  any 
pain  or  injury  to  the  horse,  other  than  to  prevent  proper  nutri- 
tion, and  the  best  treatment  is  to  improve  the  condition  of  the 
animal  by  a  generous  supply  of  nutritious  food. 

47 


738  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


VIII. 


CATTLE  —  HISTORY    AND    DESCRIPTION   OK 

BREEDS. 

QHORT-HORNS.—  While  our  readers  are  particularly  in- 
O  terested  in  the  Short-horns  of  the  present  day,  as  found 
in  our  own  country,  a  short  sketch  of  the  origin  of  the  breed,  as 
far  as  known,  will  be  interesting. 

The  breed  is  of  English  origin,  and  there  is  no  authentic 
record  of  them  until  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
Few  pedigrees,  if  any,  can  be  traced  back  further  than  1740, 
although  Mr.  Thomas  Bates,  a  distinguished  Short-horn  breeder, 
of  England,  in  an  account  of  these  cattle,  claims  that  they  were 
bred  on  the  estate  of  the  earl  of  Northumberland  as  early  as 
1580.  Modern  Short-horns,  however,  trace  back  in  direct  line 
to  the  famous  bull,  Hubback,  who  was  calved  in  1777.  This 
bull,  who  may  be  said  to  be  the  founder  of  the  breed  of  Short- 
horns, as  known  at  the  present  day,  was  bred  by  Mr.  Turner, 
of  Hurworth,  and  subsequently  owned  by  Mr.  Colling,  in  whose 
hands  he  laid  the  foundation  of  this  celebrated  breed.  There 
is  some  doubt  as  to  whether  Hubback  was  a  pure  Short- 
horn, although  "Allen,"  in  his  "American  Cattle  Book,"  claims 
that  he  was;  but  whether  or  not,  he  proved  a  most  valuable 
stock-getter,  and  his  descendants,  Foljamb,  Bolingbroke,  Favor- 
ite, and  Comet  permanently  fixed  the  characteristics  of  the 
breed.  Comet  was  so  highly  esteemed  among  breeders  that  he 
sold  for  one  thousand  guineas,  or  over  five  thousand  dollars. 

Mr.  Charles  Colling  was  a  sagacious  man,  and  as  the  value 
of  this  superior  breed  of  cattle  was  only  known  to  the  breed- 
ers, and  their  reputation  as  yet  local,  he  determined  to  make 
other  farmers  of  England  familiar  with  them.  For  this  purpose 
he  took  a  calf  got  by  Favorite,  made  him  a  steer,  and  fed  him 


740  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

to  a  bullock,  for  the  purpose  of  exhibiting  him  through  the 
country.  Colling  kept  this  steer  for  five  years,  and  called  him 
the  "Durham  Ox,"  and  the  Short-horns  in  this  country  were 
called  by  many,  "Durhams."  I  knew  them  by  this  name,  as 
a  boy,  for  many  years  before  I  ever  heard  of  the  "short-horns." 
This  "Durham  Ox"  weighed,  at  five  years  old,  3,024  pounds, 
and  it  was  estimated  that  he  would  dress  2,352  pounds;  and 
this  extraordinary  weight  was  due  to  the  exceeding  ripeness  of 
his  points,  rather  than  his  great  size.  This  steer  was  exhibited 
for  six  years  longer,  or  until  he  was  eleven  years  old,  the 
owner,  Mr.  John  Day,  to  whom  he  was  sold,  taking  him  through 
most  of  the  counties  of  England  and  Scotland.  At  the  age  of 
eleven  years  he  met  with  an  accident  and  had  to  be  slaughtered. 
His  hip  was  dislocated,  in  February,  and  he  was  not  killed  till 
April,  and  although  he  had  lost  much  flesh,  his  weight  was  as 
follows : 

Carcass, 2,322  Ibs. 

Tallow, 156  " 

Hide, 142  " 


Total, 2,620    " 

This  steer  was  greatly  admired,  and  Mr.  Day  was  at  one  time 
offered  $10,000  for  him. 

Mr.  Colling  afterwards  fed  a  thorough-bred  heifer  got  by 
"Favorite,"  and  sent  her  out  on  exhibition.  Her  profitable 
weight,  when  slaughtered  (by  which  is  meant,  meat,  Mde,  and 
tallow),  was  estimated  at  1,820  pounds.  Her  live  weight  was 
2,300  pounds. 

The  exhibition  of  these  wonderful  cattle  called  attention  to 
their  merits,  and  created  such  a  demand  for  the  stock  that  Mr. 
Colling  soon  realized  a  fortune  from  them.  It  also  stimulated 
other  breeders  to  improve  their  herds.  The  Short-horns  now 
stand  in  the  front  rank  in  England  and  some  countries  on  the 
continent  adjacent,  and  also  in  the  Australian  and  Canadian  col- 
onies. They  are  the  heaviest  beef-cattle  sold  in  the  London 
market,  and  it  is  claimed  that  they  ripen  at  an  earlier  day  than 
any  others.  It  is  also  claimed  that,  when  bred  for  dairy  purposes, 
they  excel  for  this  purpose. 


742  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Short-horns  in  America. — Soon  after  the  close  of  the 
Revolutionary  War,  some  cattle,  supposed  to  be  pure  Short-horns, 
were  imported  to  Virginia.  They  were  well-fleshed  animals,  and 
the  cows  were  remarkable  milkers,  some  of  them  giving  as  high 
as  thirty-two  quarts  a  day.  Some  of  the  produce  of  these  cat- 
tle, as  early  as  1797,  were  taken  to  Kentucky  by  a  man  named 
Patton,  and,  as  little  was  known  of  breeds,  they  were  called  the 
"Patton  stock."  These  cattle  probably  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  famous  cattle  of  the  "  Blue-grass "  country  of  Kentucky. 
Another  small  importation  from  England  to  New  York  was 
made  in  1796,  but  no  pure  blood  can  be  traced  to  these  cattle. 

In  1815-16  an  Englishman  named  Cox  imported  a  bull  and 
two  heifers  into  Rensselaer  County,  N.  Y.,  and  in  1822  another 
Englishman  named  Wayne,  imported  two  bulls,  and  pure  bred 
descendants  of  the  Cox  stock  were  crossed  by  the  Wayne  bulls. 
The  stock  still  exists  in  considerable  numbers  and  of  good  qual- 
ity, in  that  locality.  From  the  date  last  named  to  1839,  impor- 
tations were  quite  frequent,  when  a  period  of  years  occurred  in 
which  few,  if  any,  short-horns  were  imported. 

In  1849,  Mr.  Thomas  Bates,  a  distinguished  Short-horn 
breeder  in  England,  died,  and  his  herd  fell  mostly  into  the 
hands  of  Lord  Ducie,  who  already  owned  a  noble  herd,  to  which 
he  now  added  the  Bates  stock.  He  was  a  skillful  breeder,  and 
during  the  brief  time  he  held  them  he  increased,  if  possible,  the 
reputation  of  the  Bates  stock.  Only  three  years  after  purchas- 
ing these  cattle  Lord  Ducie  died,  and  a  peremptory  sale  of  his 
stock  was  advertised.  The  attendance  of  English  breeders  was 
large  at  this  sale,  and  several  American  gentlemen  went  over  to 
witness  it,  and  some  of  the  finest  and  highest  priced  animals 
were  bought  by  Mr.  Samuel  Thome,  of  Dutchess  County,  N.  Y. 
L.  G.  Morris  and  Noel  J.  Becar  also  bought  animals  at  this 
sale,  and  added  others  from  other  choice  herds.  Soon  after,  im- 
portations which  included  some  of  the  "Bates"  blood  were  made 
by  Ezra  Cornell,  of  Ithaca,  and  James  0.  Sheldon,  of  Geneva, 
N.  Y. 

Between  1852  and  1856  several  companies  were  formed  in 
Clinton,  Madison,  and  other  counties  of  Ohio,  and  in  Bourbon, 


CATTLE— HISTORY  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS.          743 

Fayette,  and  other  counties  of  Kentucky,  and  importations  made 
from  the  best  English  herds,  so  that  by  the  latter  date,  the 
United  States  undoubtedly  possessed — though  in  less  numbers— 
as  valuable  a  selection  of  Short-horns  as  could  be  found  in  England 
itself.  The  English  Herd  Book  was  begun  in  1822,  and  at  this 
date  contains  in  its  sixteen  volumes  a  record  of  over  twenty- 
three  thousand  bulls,  and  thirty  thousand  cows.  The  American 
Herd  Book  consists  of  eight  volumes,  and  has  recorded  over 
seven  thousand  bulls  and  twelve  thousand  cows. 

Characteristics  of  the  Short-horns. — While  there  are 
some  families  noted  for  their  milking  qualities,  especially  among 
the  earlier  importations,  it  is  chiefly  as  beef  cattle  that  they  excel. 
They  are  of  rapid  growth  and  early  maturity,  with  great  apti- 
tude to  fatten,  which  gives  great  rotundity  of  carcass  and  early 
ripeness.  A  general  description  of  the  breed  which  I  find  in 
"  Allen's  American  Cattle  Book,"  is  as  follows  :  "  Head — the 
muzzle  fine ;  the  face  slightly  dishing  or  concave ;  the  cheeks 
lean  of  flesh  ;  the  eye  full  and  bright ;  the  forehead  full  and 
broad  ;  the  horns  showing  no  black  except  at  the  tips,  and 
standing  wide,  short  and  oval  shaped,  at  the  base  spreading 
gracefully  out,  and  then  curving  in  with  a  downward  inclina- 
tion, or  upward  with  a  still  further  spread — as  either  form  is 
taken  without  prejudice  to  purity  of  blood  in  the  animal — of  a 
waxy  or  neutral  color,  and  sometimes  darker  at  the  tips;  the 
throat  clean,  without  dewlap ;  the  ear  sizable,  thin,  and  quickly 
moving ;  the  neck  full,  setting  well  into  the  shoulders  and 
breast,  with  a  slight  pendulous  hanging  of  the  skin — not  a  dew- 
lap— -just  at  the  brisket ;  the  shoulders  full  and  nearly  straight, 
full  and  wide  at  the  tops ;  the  shoulder  points,  or  neck-vein, 
wide  and  full ;  the  brisket  broad,  low,  and  projecting  well  for- 
ward, sometimes  so  much  as  to  almost  appear  a  deformity  ;  the 
arm  gracefully  tapering  to  the  knee,  and  below  that  a  leg  of 
fine  bone  ending  with  a  well-rounded  foot ;  the  ribs  round  and 
full — giving  free  play  to  vigorous  lungs — and  running  back  well 
towards  the  hips ;  the  crops  full ;  the  chine  and  back  straight 
from  the  shoulders  to  the  tail ;  the  hips  wide,  cind  level  with  the 
back  and  loin  ;  the  loins  full  and  level ;  the  rump  long  and  wide ; 


744  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

the  tail  set  on  a  level  with  the  back,  small  and  tapering  ;  the 
thigh  full  and  heavily  fleshed ;  the  twist  wide ;  the  flank  low 
and  full ;  the  hock  or  gambrel-joint  standing  straight — as  with 
the  horse — or  nearly  so ;  the  hind-leg  like  the  fore  one,  clean 
and  sinewy,  and  the  foot  small." 

From  this  description  it  will  be  seen  that  a  marked  charac- 
teristic of  the  "  Short-horn  "  is  rotundity  of  carcass,  and  a  small 
percentage  of  waste,  the  bone  and  offal  being  but  a  small  per 
cent  of  the  entire  weight  of  the  animal. 

In  color  they  range  from  pure  white  to  deep  red,  and  be- 
tween these  colors  all  the  variations  of  roan,  red  and  white, 
flecked,  and  spotted.  For  many  years  past,  the  fashionable 
color  in  the  United  States  has  been  red,  and  this  preference  has, 
we  think,  been  carried  to  a  foolish  extreme,  which  has  led 
breeders  to  castrate  animals  that  possessed  every  valuable  point 
except  the  one  of  color.  It  is  believed,  however,  that  this  ficti- 
tious value  of  mere  color  will  not  have  as  much  influence  in 
the  future  as  in  the  past,  as  some  breeders  are  using  roan  bulls 
for  the  very  purpose  of  breaking  down  the  prejudice.  In  Eng- 
land there  has  not  been  this  prejudice  against  white,  and  in 
favor  of  red  color.  The  heifer  already  referred  to  as  exhibited 
by  Mr.  Colling,  was  a  pure  white;  and  as  late  as  1883,  the  first 
prize  at  a  prominent  English  cattle  show  was  awarded  to  a  white 
animal,  while  in  the  United  States  the  color  would  have  ruled 
it  out. 

Short-horns  must  have  abundant  feed  and  good  pasturage, 
and  therefore  are  best  adapted  to  rich,  level,  or  gently  undulat- 
ing lands.  On  rolling  broken  land  that  produces  short  grasses 
or  scanty  herbage,  some  of  the  smaller,  more  active  breeds  of 
cattle  will  give  better  results. 

The  great  points  of  value  in  the  Short-horn,  are  early  ma- 
turity— whereby  it  is  claimed  that  an  entire  year  of  care  and 
keeping  can  be  saved  over  most  other  breeds — weight  of  meat, 
ripeness  of  points,  and  giving  the  most  flesh  in  the  best  places, 
so  that  the  butcher  can  get  more  high-priced  cuts  from  the  car- 
cass than  from  an  ordinary  bullock.  It  is  also  a  fact  of  great 
importance  to  the  farmer,  that  the  Short-horn  bull,  when  used  on 


CATTLE—  HISTORY  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS.          745 

native  cows,  imparts  these  valuable  qualities  to  his  offspring  in 
large  measure,  often  making  grades  nearly  as  valuable  as 
thorough-breds  for  the  butcher.  No  other  breed  of  cattle  has 
contributed  so  many  valuable  points  to  the  stock  of  the  United 
States,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  any  other  will  ever  supplant  it  as  a 
general  purpose  animal. 

The  Herefords. — It  is   but   recently  that  this    breed   of 
cattle  have  assumed  prominence  in  the  United  States,  but  they 
are  now,  among  many  of  the  beef-producing  farmers  of  the  West, 
'held  in  high  esteem,  and  bid  fair  to  rival  the  Short-horns. 

The  Hereford  is  an  English  breed,  taking  its  name  from 
Hereford  County,  although  they  have  been  long  bred  in  several 
other  counties  of  England,  and  also  in  Wales.  This  breed  is 
always  spoken  of  as  of  ancient  descent.  The  Herefords  of  a 
hundred  years  ago  were  deep  red — almost  brown — in  color,  with 
mottled  faces ;  now  they  are  usually  red  with  shades  running  into 
light  or  yellowish  red,  with  white  faces,  throats,  bellies,  and 
sometimes  backs.  Occasionally  a  roan  will  be  found,  and  more 
rarely  an  almost  pure  white  with  red  ears. 

Allen,  in  his  "  American  Cattle  Book,"  says  :  "  Perhaps  we 
can  not  convey  a  better  description  of  the  Herefords  than  to 
say  :  give  a  Devon  a  quarter  more  size,  somewhat  more  pro- 
portionate bone  and  horn,  a  trifle  shorter  legs  and  longer  body, 
a  little  coarser  in  every  respect,  and  you  have  a  good  Hereford 
in  all  except  color." 

The  Herefords  do  not  excel  as  a  dairy  breed,  and  the 
instances  are  rare  in  which  superiority  as  milkers  is  claimed  for 
them.  Their  milk  is  rich  in  quality,  but  deficient  in  quantity; 
breeding  in  later  years  has  been  with  a  view  to  increase 
the  tendency  to  take  on  flesh  rather  than  to  develop  the  milk- 
ing qualities.  In  the  days  when  oxen  were  largely  used  and 
sought  after  there  were  no  cattle  considered  superior  to  the 
Herefords  for  this  purpose.  They  are  large,  strong,  and  mus- 
cular, well  developed  and  powerful,  and  while  not  quite  so  active 
as  the  Devon,  are  much  stronger. 

As  a  beef  animal  the  Hereford  is  superior.  They  mature 
early,  are  thrifty  in  growth,  feed  well,  and  show  well  on  the 


CATTLE— HISTORY  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS.          747 

butcher's  block.  At  the  prize  shows  in  the  London  market, 
they  compete  successfully  with  other  improved  breeds.  It  is 
claimed  by  some  English  breeders  who  oppose  the  Herefords  that 
the  improvement  shown  in  them  in  modern  times  is  due  to  a 
stealthy  cross  with  Short-horns.  Whether  or  not  this  is  true  is 
difficult  if  not  impossible  to  determine,  but  in  any  event  the 
Herefords  of  to-day  are  possessed  of  valuable  points  and  are 
growing  in  popularity. 

When  they  were  first  introduced  into  the  United  States  is 
not  known,  but  occasional  marks  among  our  native  cattle  show 
evidence  of  Hereford  blood,  which  must  have  come  from  some 
importation  of  which  we  have  no  record.  The  first  of  which  we 
have  a  record  was  by  Henry  Clay  in  1816  or  1817,  but  as  Mr. 
Clay  soon  after  became  a  breeder  of  Short-horns  and  discarded 
the  Hereford's,  this  importation  left  no  permanent  impress  on  the 
herds  of  that  vicinity.  A  few  years  subsequently,  a  Hereford 
bull,  and  possibly  a  cow  or  two,  was  sent  from  England  to  Mas- 
sachusetts by  Sir  Isaac  Coffin,  and  this  bull  was  crossed  exten- 
sively on  native  cows,  and  left  his  impress  on  the  cattle  of  the 
vicinity  where  he  was  used.  A  large  importation  was  made  in 
1840  by  an  Englishman.  These  cattle  were  first  taken  to  Jeff- 
erson County,  New  York,  and  the  herd  was  afterwards  scattered, 
the  bulk  of  it  going  to  near  Albany,  New  York,  and  a  part  into 
Vermont,  where  they  were  bred  for  some  years,  sold,  and  scat- 
tered. Among  those  who  have  been  successful  breeders  of  these 
cattle  may  be  named  Mr.  Erastus  Corning,  of  New  York,  Mr. 
George  Clark,  of  the  same  State,  and  Thomas  Aston  and  John 
Humphries,  of  Lorain  County,  Ohio. 

In  1860  and  1861,  Mr.  Frederick  Stone  made  two  importa- 
tions of  superior  Hereford's  into  Canada,  and  about  half  these 
cattle  and  their  descendants  were  sold  to  breeders  in  the  United 
States.  More  recently  numerous  importations  of  good  Hereford 
cattle  have  been  made,  both  into  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
and  scattered  chiefly  through  the  Western  States  for  crossing  on 
the  native  and  Texas  cattle,  as  the  cross  has  proved  extremely 
valuable  for  beef.  They  are  also  now  largely  bred  pure  to  sup- 
ply the  demand  for  this  purpose,  as  they  are  rapidly  gaining  in 


CATTLE— HISTORY  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS.         749 

public  favor.  A  herd-book  has  been  established  to  record  them, 
and  the  breed  may  be  considered  as  established.  While  they 
may  not  equal  the  Short-horns  in  early  maturity,  they  perhaps 
come  nearer  that  breed  as  a  beef  producer  than  any  other,  and 
will  undoubtedly  maintain  a  high  position  among  the  cattle  of 
the  United  States. 

The  Aberdeen-Angus,  Galloway,  or  Polled  Cattle.— 
These  cattle  are  a  hornless  race  originating  in  Scotland.  They 
have  always  been  favorites  with  English  farmers  on  account  of 
their  large  size  and  excellent  fattening  qualities,  and  also  be- 
cause they  are  of  a  mild  disposition,  and  the  absence  of  horns 
makes  them  much  safer  to  handle  and  ship  than  other  cattle. 
These  cattle  are  described  as  straight  and  broad  in  the  back, 
nearly  level  from  the  head  to  the  rump,  round  in  the  ribs,  and 
broad  in  the  loin. 

In  roundness  of  barrel  and  fullness  of  ribs  they  compare 
favorably  with  our  best  breeds.  The  Galloway  is  short  in  the 
leg  and  moderately  fine  in  the  shank  bone ;  and  with  the  same 
cleanness  of  bone  and  shortness  of  shank,  there  is  no  other 
breed  so  large  and  muscular  above  the  knee.  The  chest  is  deep, 
broad,  and  capacious.  The  neck  of  the  bull  is  thick,  almost  to  a 
fault,  but  a  thin  and  delicate  neck  would  not  correspond  with 
the  broad  shoulders,  deep  chest,  and  close,  compact  form  of  the 
breed.  The  head  is  rather  heavy,  the  eyes  not  prominent,  and 
the  ears  large,  rough,  and  full  of  long  hairs  on  the  inside;  the 
skin  loose  and  mellow,  of  medium  thickness ;  the  hair  long,  soft, 
and  silky.  The  prevailing  and  fashionable  color  is  black,  but  a 
few  are  of  a  dark  brindled  brown,  or  a  dun  or  drab,  and  still 
fewer  are  speckled  with  white. 

The  bulls  have  a  remarkable  prepotency  to  impress  their 
characteristics  on  other  breeds  of  cattle.  In  my  own  county  I 
have  seen  them  crossed  on  Short-horns  with  the  result  that  a 
very  large  per  cent  of  the  offspring  were  hornless.  It  is  often 
the  case  when  crossed  with  horned  cattle,  that  small  horns  will 
be  found  attached  merely  to  the  skin,  instead  of  to  the  skull. 

The  Galloway's  are  not  good  milkers;  for  while  they  give 
rich  milk,  they  can  not  be  depended  on  to  average  more  than 


CATTLE— HISTORY  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS.  751 

six  or  eight  quarts  for  the  first  five  months  after  calving,  and 
they  will  usually  go  dry  for  nearly  or  quite  three  months. 
They  are  very  docile  and  easily  managed,  and  it  is  rare  to  find 
even  a  bull  furious  or  troublesome. 

While  there  were  polled  cattle  brought  to  this  country  as 
early  as  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  there  is  no 
authentic  record  of  any  importation  until  about  the  year  1850, 
when  some  enterprising  Scotch  farmers  imported  some  of  them 
in  the  vicinity  of  Toronto,  Canada.  There  were  probably  sev- 
eral importations  about  this  time,  for  as  early  as  1857  "  Allen  " 
speaks  of  seeing  over  forty  of  them  exhibited  at  a  single  pro- 
vincial fair.  He  says  of  these  cattle :  "  They  were  full,  round, 
and  comely  in  form,  robust  in  appearance,  showing  a  ready  apti- 
tude to  take  on  flesh ;  elastic  to  the  touch ;  having  a  good  skin, 
with  long,  thick,  wavy  hair ;  a  placid  look,  and  were  apparently 
of  kindly  temper.  They  were  mostly  black,  although  there 
were  one  or  two  dull  reds  or  duns,  and  one  brindle." 

Since  the  date  above  referred  to,  importations  of  these  cattle 
have  been  quite  numerous,  and  during  1883  a  single  breeder  in 
Missouri  imported  nine  hundred  head  of  bulls  and  heifers  for 
distribution  among  the  cattle-breeders  of  the  plains.  One  fact 
worthy  of  notice  in  connection  with  this  importation  is  that 
four  hundred  and  sixty-eight  of  these  cattle  were  brought  over 
at  one  shipment,  and  but  one  bull  calf  lost.  Whether  this  re- 
markable success  was  due  to  the  superior  hardiness  of  these 
cattle,  to  the  fact  that  they  were  hornless  and  did  not  injure 
one  another,  to  superior  care  on  the  passage,  or  to  all  these  com- 
bined, it  at  least  shows  that  cattle  may  be  imported  with  little 
loss,  while  often  the  mortality  in  bringing  them  over  is  fearful. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  polled  cattle  are  becoming  more  pop- 
ular every  year,  and  that  many  of  our  best  breeders  are  seri- 
ously questioning  the  utility  of  horns,  and  believe  that  while 
they  were  necessary  for  defense  for  cattle  in  a  wild  state,  that 
the  time  has  now  come  when  they  should  be  dispensed  with. 
The  polled  cattle  have  already  established  a  permanent  reputa- 
tion in  this  country,  and  they  are  likely  to  maintain  a  foothold 
among  the  various  breeds  in  our  future  beef  production. 


752 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


The  Holstein. — FRIESAN  OR  DUTCH  CATLLE. — The  great 
excellence  of  this  breed  of  cattle  is  that  they  combine,  with  ex- 
cellent dairy  qualities,  large  size,  and  a  compact  frame,  capable 
of  making  good  beef.  They  are  almost  invariably  black  and 
white,  spotted,  pied,  or  mottled  in  picturesque  inequalities  over 
the  body ;  the  horn  is  short,  and  the  hair  short,  fine  and  silky. 


HOLSTEIN  BULL-NETHERLAND  PRINCE. 
The  property  of  Smiths  and  Powell,  Syracuse,  New  York. 

While  Dutch  cattle,  presumably  of  this  breed,  were  brought 
to  this  country  as  early  as  1820-25,  and  other  importations 
were  made  between  1850  and  1860,  it  was  not  till  subsequent 
to  the  latter  date  that  any  herd  of  pure-bred  Holsteins  was  es- 
tablished, or  that  the  merits  of  the  breed  became  known.  In 
1861  Mr.  W.  W.  Chenery,  of  Boston,  Massachusetts,  imported 
a  bull  and  four  cows  from  the  best  dairy  herds  of  North  Hol- 
land. The  bull,  at  four  years  old,  weighed  2,465  pounds,  and 
the  cows  averaged  1,325  pounds.  One  of  these  cows  gave  for 
ten  successive  days  an  average  of  74  47-100  pounds  of  milk, 
and  made,  under  a  six  days'  test,  17  pounds  14  ounces  of  but- 
ter— nearly  three  pounds  per  day.  As  milk  producers  they 
stand  high;  yearly  records  of  12,000  to  15,000  pounds  of  milk 
are  not  rare,  and  18,000  pounds  have  been  reached. 


CATTLE— HISTORY  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS. 


753 


During  the  last  twenty  years  m;my  importations  of  those 
cattle  have  been  made  and,  perhaps,  no  breed  has  grown  in 
favor  more  rapidly  than  these  wherever  they  have  been  in- 
troduced, and  we  predict  that  they  will  take  a  prominent  place  in 
the  future,  both  for  the  dairy  and  as  a  general  purpose  animal. 

Mr.  Powell,  of  Syracuse,  New  York,  in  a  recent  address  be- 
before  the  Farmer's  Club  of  Onondaga  County,  New  York,  in 


HOLSTEIN  COW-AGGIE. 
The  property  of  Siniths  and  Powell,  Syracuse,  New  York. 

answer  to    the   question,  "Are    Holstein's   good  butter    cows?'* 
made  the  following  statement: 

"Holsteins  have  not  yet  equaled  the  highest  yield  made  by 
a  few  Jerseys,  but  we  think  the  average  is  considerable  higher, 
and  with  a  like  effort  in  that  direction  I  think  the  highest  Jer- 
sey records  will  be  reached.  As  Holstein's  milk  more  evenly 
throughout  the  year  and  hold  out  longer,  I  am  confident,  as  a 
class,  that  their  yearly  yield  of  butter  will  be  greater.  Of 
course,  the  Jerseys  will  make  more  butter  from  a  given  amount 
of  milk,  but  the  larger  flow  of  the  Holsteins  will  more  than 
make  up  the  difference,  and  contrary  to  the  general  expressed 
opinion,  I  consider  this  an  important  item  in  favor  of  the  Hol- 
steins. With  the  present  custom  of  using  coolers  in  creameries 
the  milk  is  sweet  after  the  cream  is  removed. 

48 


754  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

"The  Holstein  milk,  containing,  as  it  does,  a  large  per  cent 
of  casine  and  other  solids,  is  still  worth  half  the  price  of  new 
milk  for  making  cheese  and  feeding  young  stock,  and  will  pay 
largely  toward  the  keeping  of  the  cows.  Calves  can  be  fattened 
for  the  butchers  on  skimmed  Holstein  milk.  Colonel  HolFman, 
whose  statement  will  be  unquestioned,  states  that  he  has  pro- 
duced a  growth  of  one  hundred  pounds  per  month  on  calves  fed 
only  on  Holstein  milk,  after  the  cream  had  all  been  taken  off. 
This  is  no  small  item  in  favor  of  the  breed,  and  will  add  largely 
to  the  credit  side  of  the  account.  You  are  all  probably  aware 
that  the  small  amount  of  skimmed  milk,  left  from  the  light  yield 
of  the  noted  butter  breeds,  is  almost  entirely  worthless  for 
cheese  or  feeding  young  stock.  It  is,  therefore,  a  great  mistake 
to  suppose  that  the  best  and  most  profitable  butter  cows  are 
those  that  make  the  most  butter  from  the  smallest  amount  of 
milk.  The  yield  of  butter  being  equal,  the  balance  will  be  in 
favor  of  the  larger  flow,  and  the  better  quality  of  milk  after 
removing  the  cream. 

"  On  this  last  point  I  wish  to  be  fully  understood,  as  my  ideas 
are  contrary  to  the  generally  accepted  theory.  We  almost  daily 
hear  the  assertion  and  see  it  in  the  stock  journals,  that  certain 
cows  are  remarkable  for  butter  for  the  simple  reason  that  a 
pound  of  butter  has  been  produced  from  a  very  small  amount 
of  milk.  This  I  claim  to  be  a  false  basis  on  which  to  estimate 
profits.  If  two  cows,  one  giving  fifty  pounds  of  milk  per  day, 
and  the  other  twenty  pounds,  each  produce  two  pounds  of  butter 
per  day,  other  things  being  equal,  the  former  is  decidedly  the 
most  profitable  and  desirable.  We  will  make  this  point  clear  by 
taking  for  illustration  a  Jersey  cow  that  will  give  six  thousand 
pounds  of  milk  in  a  year,  and  a  Holstein  cow  that  will  give 
twelve  thousand  pounds.  Here  allow  me  to  say,  that  actual 
records  will  show  the  latter  to  be  much  more  common  in  pro- 
portion to  the  number  of  each  breed  of  cows  in  this  country 
than  the  former.  Each  we  will  suppose  to  make  the  same 
amount  of  butter.  The  cream  taken  from  the  Jersey  milk  will 
probably  be  about  twenty-five  per  cent,  leaving  of  the  skim-milk 
four  thousand  five  hundred  pounds.  The  cream  on  the  Holstein 


CATTLE— HISTORY  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS.  755 

milk  to  correspond  with  the  above  estimate  would  be  about  fifteen 
per  cent  (the  Jersey  cream  being  more  dense  and  solid),  which 
will  leave  ten  thousand  two  hundred  pounds  after  the  cream  is 
removed,  or  five  thousand  seven  hundred  pounds  more  than  the 
Jersey,  which  is  worth  half  the  price  of  new  milk  for  cheese, 
to  feed  young  stock,  or  to  sell  in  the  market.  This  estimate  is 
on  the  supposition  that  the  Jersey  milk,  after  removing  twenty- 
five  per  cent  cream,  is  equal  to  the  Holstein  after  removing 
only  fifteen  per  cent,  which  is  far  from  the  fact.  Any  party 
who  has  given  the  subject  attention  will  agree  that  the  skim- 
milk  of  the  Holstein  is  worth  fully  double  that  of  the  Jersey. 
In  fact,  the  Holstein  milk,  after  remaining  in  the  cooler  twelve 
hours  from  the  time  of  setting,  at  which  time  the  cream  is  re- 
moved, is  perfectly  sweet,  and  will  compare  for  family  use,  or 
for  food  for  children,  with  a  fair  sample  of  whole  milk,  as  it  is 
frequently  sold  in  the  market.  From  this  you  can  make  your 
own  estimates,  and  you  will  see  that  the  product  of  the  Hol- 
stein cow  above  that  of  the  Jersey  will  nearly  or  quite  pay  her 
keep  for  the  year." 

The  sixth  volume  of  the  Holstein  Herd  Book  shows  in  this 
country,  at  the  close  of  1882,  one  thousand  seven  hundred 
males,  and  three  thousand  two  hundred  and  eighty-eight  females. 

Devons. — This  beautiful  breed  of  cattle  dates  back  further 
than  any  other  among  us.  While  they  generally  go  under  the 
name  of  "  Devon "  simply,  the  true  name  is  "  North  Devon,"  as 
the  cattle  from  the  south  part  of  Devonshire  were  of  a  larger  and 
coarser  frame,  with  less  tendency  to  fatten,  although  of  superior 
quality  for  the  dairy.  They  have  been  bred  for  many  centu- 
ries in  England,  and  great  attention  has  been  paid  to  their  im- 
provement during  the  last  century.  In  fineness  of  limb,  uni- 
formity of  color,  delicacy  of  proportion,  and  purity  of  breeding 
they  are  unsurpassed  by  any  other  race  of  cattle. 

In  localities  where  oxen  are  largely  used,  the  Devons  are 
highly  esteemed  for  this  purpose,  as  they  rank  among  cattle 
as  the  "  thorough-bred  "  among  horses.  According  to  their  size 
they  combine  more  fineness  of  bone,  more  muscular  power,  in- 
telligence, activity,  and  bottom,  than  any  other  breed. 


CATTLE-HISTORY  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS.  757 

One  thing  remarkable  about  the  Devons  is  the  comparative 
smallness  of  the  cow.  A  well-grown  steer  will  weigh  from  one 
thousand  four  hundred  to  one  thousand  six  hundred  pounds ; 
the  bull  from  one  thousand  to  twelve  hundred,  and  the  cow 
from  eight  hundred  to  one  thousand.  Thc.se  are  given  as  aver- 
age weights,  and  are  often  exceeded  by  careful  handling  and 
high  feeding.  At  a  Vermont  county  fair  in  the  autumn  of 
1883,  fifty-three  yokes  of  cattle  of  this  breed  were  exhibited. 
Of  these  cattle  there  were  seventy-five  that  weighed  fifteen 
hundred  pounds  or  more,  each ;  the  heaviest  pair  weighing  three 
thousand  seven  hundred  and  eighty  pounds,  and  the  next  heav- 
iest three  thousand  seven  hundred  and  thirty.  Considering 
that  the  Devons  are  a  fine  breed  and  have  been  classed  as 
small  cattle,  these  weights  are  remarkable. 

The  Devons  are  probably  found  in  greater  excellence  and 
abundance  in  New  England  than  anywhere  else  in  the  United 
States.  Their  size  has  been  increased  considerably  in  the  hands 
of  careful  breeders  in  England  during  the  last  century. 

As  a  dairy  cow,  the  Devon  occupies  a  medium  rank,  as  to 
quantity  of  milk,  but  the  quality  is  superior,  and  perhaps  no 
other  breed  except  the  Jersey  will  yield  as  much  butter  from  a 
given  quantity  of  milk.  If  careful  selections  are  made,  and 
these  cattle  bred  with  a  view  to  developing  their  dairy  quali- 
ties, few  breeds  will  equal  them  for  this  purpose.  The  cow  is 
docile  in  temper,  easy  to  keep,  and  readily  managed.  Her  ud- 
der is  soft,  of  good  size  and  shape,  with  thin,  silky  hair,  taper 
teats,  easily  milked,  and  every  way  satisfactory  to  her  owner. 

"Allen,"  in  his  book  on  "  American  Cattle,"  says :  '•  We  have 
kept  thorough-bred  Devons  for  thirty-four  years,  sometimes  as 
high  as  twenty-five  or  thirty  in  number.  Many  of  them  have 
been  excellent  milkers;  some  of  them  extraordinary  for  their 
size.  We  had  once,  two  three-year-old  heifers  which  gave,  for 
some  three  months  after  calving,  on  pasture  only,  an  average  of 
eighteen  quarts  each  per  day."  All  things  considered,  the  De- 
vons may  be  classed  as  good  dairy  cows,  and,  taking  into  ac- 
count their  size,  consumption  of  food,  disposition,  appearance, 
and  quantity  and  quality  of  milk,  they  will  give  good  satisfaction. 


758  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

As  a  beef  animal,  the  Devon  ranks  as  first-class  for  fineness 
of  flesh  and  delicacy  of  flavor.  It  matures  as  early  as  the 
Short-horn,  and  its  meat  is  finer  grained,  juicy,  and  nicely  mar- 
bled. In  the  London  markets  Devon  beef  usually  brings  a  penny 
a  pound  more  than  that  of  the  larger  breeds.  They  are  good 
feeders,  taking  on  flesh  rapidly,  and  their  flesh  is  of  excellent 
quality.  They  have  been  fed  in  England  to  attain  a  net  weight 
of  from  nine  hundred  to  over  fifteen  hundred  pounds,  and  a 
pair  of  Devon  oxen,  in  Connecticut,  which  were  worked  till  six 
years  old,  and  then  fed  for  fifteen  months,  made  the  following 
weights : 

No.  1— Carcass, 1,438  Ibs. 

Hide, 117  " 

Tallow, 175  " 


Total, 1,730  " 

No.  2— Carcass, 1,528  Ibs. 

Hide, 115  " 

Tallow, 213  " 


Total, 1,856  " 

These  weights  are  exceptional,  however,  but  Mr.  Allen  says 
that  he  has  slaughtered  many  steers  at  three  and  a  half  years  old 
which  gave  a  profitable  weight — quarters,  hide,  and  tallow — of 
from  seven  hundred  to  eight  hundred  and  fifty  pounds,  which 
never  had  been  fed  any  thing  but  grass  and  hay.  Still,  popular 
opinion  in  the  United  States  classes  them  as  too  small  for  the  most 
profitable  beef  animal,  and  on  our  rich  prairie  lands  they  can  not 
compete  with  the  Short-horns,  Herefords,  and  Aberdeens.  In 
the  Southern  States  they  are  popular,  and  often  preferred  to 
any  other  breed,  as  they  bear  the  climate  well  and  are  more  free 
from  diseases  than  many  others.  Their  muscular  activity  makes 
them  valuable  for  high,  rolling  lands  and  mountain  ranges,  and 
on  such  farms  they  will  give  better  satisfaction  than  the  heavier 
breeds. 

Devons  in  the  United  States. — The  accounts  of  the 
earlier  introduction  of  these  cattle  to  this  country  are  meager. 
From  the  appearance  of  the  New  England  cattle,  there  is  little 
doubt  that  some  Devons  were  early  brought  into  Massachusetts, 


S      x 


760  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

but  there  is  no  record  of  any  importation  of  them  till  1817.,  and 
these  were  brought  to  Maryland,  by  Messrs.  Caton  and  Patter- 
son. The  year  following — 1818 — Mr.  Rufus  King,  of  Jamaica, 
Long  Island,  imported  a  few;  and  still  another  lot  were  brought 
to  Maryland  by  Mr.  Henry  Thompson,  not  long  after. 

About  the  year  1836  an  English  farmer,  named  Vernon, 
brought  a  bull  and  cow  of  this  breed  into  Genesee  County,  New 
York,  from  the  herd  of  Mr.  Davy,  in  England,  and  between 
1840  and  1850  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Society  made  a 
considerable  importation  of  Devons,  which  were  distributed  in 
various  parts  of  New  England.  Several  importations  have  been 
made  since  1850,  and  all  of  them  of  the  choicest  selections, 
equal,  probably,  in  style  and  quality,  to  any  in  England.  These 
herds  have  been  carefully  bred,  and  their  produce  widely  dis- 
seminated, and  have  done  much  to  improve  the  lighter  cattle  of 
our  country. 

The  following  description  of  the  Devons  I  find  in  "Allen's" 
book  on  "  American  Cattle :"  "  The  head — lean  in  flesh,  is 
rather  short;  the  forehead  broad,  the  face  slightly  dishing,  and 
tapering  gracefully  to  a  fine,  clear,  yellow  muzzle.  The  eye — 
bright,  prominent,  and  surrounded  by  a  ring  of  orange-colored, 
or  yellow,  skin.  The  horn — upright,  and  curving  outward, 
cream-colored,  and  black  at  the  tips,  graceful  in  its  setting,  and 
rather  long  for  the  size  of  the  animal.  The  ear — well-set,  and 
lively  in  action.  The  neck — on  a  level  (in  the  bull  slightly 
arching)  with  the  head  and  shoulders,  full  at  its  junction  with 
the  breast,  clean,  and  without  dew-lap.  The  shoulders — fine, 
open  (somewhat  slanting  like  those  of  the  horse),  and  on  a  level 
with  the  back.  The  neck-vein — full  and  smooth.  The  arm- 
delicate,  and  the  leg,  below  the  knee,  small,  terminating  in  a 
clean,  dull-brown,  and  some  striped  hoof.  The  brisket — full, 
and  projecting  well  forward.  The  crops — well  filled,  and  even 
with  the  shoulders.  The  back — straight  from  the  shoulders  to 
the  tail.  The  ribs — springing  out  roundly  from  the  back,  and 
running  low  down,  to  inclose  a  full  chest,  and  setting  well  back 
towards  the  hips,  giving  a  snug,  neat  belly.  The  flanks — full, 
and  low.  The  hips — wide,  and  level  with  the  back.  The  loin — 


CATTLE— HISTORY  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS.  761 

full,  and  level.  The  thigh — well-fleshed,  and  full,  the  lower 
part  somewhat  thin,  and  gracefully  tapering  to  the  hock,  the  leg 
below  small,  flat,  and  sinewy.  The  twist  (the  space  between 
the  thighs) — well  let  down,  and  open.  The  tail — taper,  like  a 
drum-stick,  and  terminating  with  a  bush  of  white  hair.  The 
color — invariably  a  cherry-red,  sometimes  showing  a  lighter  or 
deeper  shade,  and  the  skin  under  the  hair  a  rich  cream  color. 
The  bull  will  show  the  stronger  and  masculine  character  of  his 
sex;  the  steer  will  develop  the  finer  points,  and  the  cow,  all 
the  delicacy  and  refinement  belonging  to  her  race.  In  the 
roundness  and  fullness  which  accompany  the  proper  develop- 
ment of  the  points  named,  the  silky,  wavy  laying  of  the  hair, 
and  the  elastic  touch  of  the  flesh,  as  the  finger  is  pressed  upon 
it,  every  beholder  will  at  once  see  a  most  blood-like  and  grace- 
ful animal. " 

The  Ayrshires. — The  origin  of  this  breed  of  cattle  is 
even  at  the  present  day  a  matter  of  dispute.  It  is  certain  that 
as  late  as  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  there  was  no 
such  breed  in  Cunningham  or  Ayrshire — the  localities  more  re- 
cently famous  for  them — or  even  in  Scotland.  As  late  as  1783 
Mr.  Aiton  described  the  cattle  of  Ayrshire  as  follows  :  "  The 
cows  kept  in  the  districts  of  Kyle  and  Cunningham  were  of  a 
diminutive  size,  ill  fed,  ill  shaped,  and  yielded  but  a  scanty  re- 
turn in  milk.  They  were  mostly  black,  with  large  stripes  of 
white  along  the  chine  or  ridge  of  the  back,  about  their  flanks, 
and  on  their  faces.  Their  horns  were  high  and  crooked,  having 
deep  ringlets  at  the  roots;  a  sure  sign  that  the  cattle  were  but 
scantily  fed.  The  chine  of  their  backs  stood  up  high  ;m<l  nar- 
row;  their  sides  were  lank,  short  and  thin;  their  hides  thick. ad- 
hering to  their  bones  ;  their  hair  was  coarse  and  open,  and 
few  of  them  yielded  more  than  six  or  eight  quarts  of  milk  a 
day  when  in  their  best  plight,  or  weighed  when  fat  more  than 
three  hundred  to  four  hundred  pounds,  net." 

The  modern  Ayrshire  which  was  obtained  from  this  same 
locality  bears  no  resemblance  to  the  cattle  above  described. 
The  cattle  of  Ayrshire  are  no  longer  the  meager,  unshapely, 
unprofitable  animals  described  by  Aiton,  but  almost  double  the 


762 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


size,  and  yield  much  more  than  double  the  quantity  of  milk. 
The  pure  Ayrshires  are  generally  red  and  white,  spotted  or 
mottled,  not  roan,  like  many  of  the  Short-horns,  but  often  pre- 
senting a  bright  contrast  of  colors.  They  are  sometimes,  though 
rarely,  nearly  or  quite  all  red,  and  sometimes  black  and  white, 
but  the  favorite  color  is  red  and  white  brightly  contrasted,  and 
by  some  breeders  strawberry-red  is  preferred.  The  head  is 
small,  fine,  and  clean  ;  the  face  long,  and  narrow  at  the  muzzle, 
with  a  sprightly  yet  generally  mild  expression ;  eye  small, 


AYRSHIRE  COW— MOLLIE  FENDER,  4,351. 
From  Robert  W.  Carrons,  Washington,  Pennsylvania. 

smart  and  lively ;  the  horns  short,  fine,  and  slightly  twisted  up- 
wards, set  wide  apart  at  the  roots ;  the  neck  thin,  body  enlarg- 
ing from  fore  to  hind  quarters;  the  back  straight  and  narrow, 
but  broad  across  the  loin ;  joints  rather  loose  and  open ;  ribs 
rather  flat ;  hind-quarters  rather  thin  ;  bone,  fine ;  tail,  long,  fine 
and  bushy  at  the  end  ;  hair  generally  thin  and  soft;  udder  light 
colored  and  capacious,  extending  well  forward  under  the  belly ; 
teats  of  medium  size,  generally  set  regularly  and  wide  apart ; 
milk  veins  prominent  and  well  developed.  The  carcass  of  the 
pure  Ayrshire  is  light,  particularly  the  fore-quarters,  which  i& 


CATTLE—  HfSTORY  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS.  763 

considered  an  index  of  great  milking  qualities,  but  the  pelvis  is 
capacious  and  wide  over  the  hips. 

While  the  Ayrshire  lacks  something  of  the  symmetry  and 
aptitude  to  fatten  found  in  the  Short-horn,  it  is,  on  the  whole,  a 
good-looking  animal.  While  there  is  some  doubt  about  the 
matter,  I  find  the  best  authorities  agree  in  the  probability  that 
the  Ayrshire  cow  was  produced  by  a  cross  of  Short-horn  blood 
on  the  small  native  cattle  before  described,  or  at  least  that  they 
contributed  to  its  production. 

All  authorities  agree  in  giving  to  the  breed  a  high  rank  as 
dairy  cows.  Mr.  Aiton  says  :  "  Hundreds  and  thousands  of 
the  best  Scotch  dairy  cows,  when  they  are  in  their  best  condition 
and  well  fed,  yield  at  the  rate  of  one  thousand  gallons  of  milk 
in  one  year ;  that  in  general  from  three  and  three-quarters  to  four 
gallons  of  their  milk  will  make  a  pound  of  butter. '  This  state- 
ment applies  to  choice  cows,  but  Mr.  Rankine  reports  that  two 
dairymen  of  his  acquaintance,  one  of  whom  kept  from  twenty 
to  thirty,  and  the  other  from  thirty  to  forty  cows,  reported  to 
him  an  average  yield  per  cow  of  six  hundred  and  fifty  gallons 
in  the  first  case  and  six  hundred  and  eighty-seven  and  one-half 
in  the  second.  One  of  these  dairymen  reported  that  a  fraction 
more  than  two  and  one-half  gallons  of  milk  made  a  pound  of 
butter,  and  thirty-two  gallons  of  new  milk  made  thirty-six 
pounds  of  cheese  or  forty-eight  gallons  of  skimmed  milk  pro- 
duced the  same  quantity. 

In  further  confirmation  of  the  value  of  the  Ayrshire  as  a 
dairy  cow,  I  quote  from  Allen's  "  American  Cattle  :  "  "  The  quan- 
tity of  milk  yielded  by  the  Ayrshire  cow  is,  considering  her  size, 
very  great.  Five  gallons  daily  for  two  or  three  months  after 
calving  may  be  considered  as  not  more  than  an  average  quan- 
tity. Three  gallons  daily  will  be  given  for  the  next  three 
months,  and  one  gallon  and  a  half  during  the  succeeding  four 
months.  This  would  amount  to  more  than  eight  hundred  and 
fifty  gallons;  but  allowing  for  some  unproductive  cows,  six  hun- 
dred gallons  per  year,  is  the  average  quantity  obtained  annu- 
ally from  each  cow.  Three  gallons  and  a  half  of  this  milk 
will  yield  about  a  pound  and  a  half,  avoirdupois,  of  butter, 


764  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

or   an   average   of   about   five   pounds  of   butter  per  week  the 
year  round." 

"  Flint "  says  of  the  Ayrshires  in  his  work  on  "  Dairy  Farm- 
ing : "  "  We  must  conclude  that  for  purely  dairy  purposes  the 
Ayrshire  cow  deserves  the  first  place.  In  consequence  of  her 
small,  symmetrical,  and  compact  body,  combined  with  a  well- 
formed  chest  and  a  capacious  stomach,  there  is  little  waste,  com- 
paratively speaking,  through  the  respiratory  system,  while  at 
the  same  time  there  is  a  very  complete  assimilation  of  the  food, 
and  thus  she  converts  a  large  proportion  of  her  food  into  milk. 
So  remarkable  is  this  fact  that  all  dairy  farmers  who  have  any 
experience  on  the  point  agree  in  stating  that  an  Ayrshire  cow 
generally  gives  a  larger  return  of  milk  for  the  food  consumed  than  a 
cow  of  any  other  breed." 

It  is  claimed  by  good  authority  that  the  milking  qualities 
of  the  breed  have  been  developed  by  the  selection  of  bulls  of  a 
feminine  appearance.  While  the  Ayrshire  is  pre-eminently  a 
dairy  breed,  it  is  conceded  that  they  fatten  kindly  and  profit- 
ably ;  but  "  Youatt"  says  of  them  :  "  It  will  be  long,  perhaps,  be- 
fore they  will  be  favorites  with  the  butchers,  for  the  fifth  quar- 
ter (hide  and  tallow)  will  not  weigh  well  in  them."  Their  fat 
is  mingled  with  the  flesh  rather  than  separated  in  the  form  of 
tallow,  but  this  gives  a  more  beautiful  appearance  to  the  meat, 
and  should  enhance  its  price. 

"Flint"  recommends  that  they  be  crossed  with  the  Short- 
horn, using  bulls  of  the  latter  breed  of  superior  milking  strains, 
and  that  this  will  give  improved  size  and  form  with  little  danger 
of  reducing  the  valuable  dairy  qualities. 

The  Ayrshires  in  the  United  States. — T  can  find  no 
record  giving  dates  of  their  importation,  or  the  names  of  im- 
porters, but  they  have  been  on  irial  here  for  about  a  half- 
century,  and  have  been  successful.  It  is  a  fact,  however,  that 
they  do  not  yield  so  large  a  quantity  of  milk  in  this  country  as 
in  Scotland.  The  chief  reason  for  this  is  found  in  the  difference 
of  climate.  Ayrshire  has  a  moist  climate — an  almost  continuous 
drizzle  of  rains  or  moisture  pervading  it — making  fresh  green 
pastures  ;  a  cooler  and  more  equable  temperature  in  summer, 


CATTLE— HISTORY  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS.  765 

and  warmer  in  winter  than  ours.  Our  climate  is  more  liable  to 
extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  and  protracted  droughts,  and  this 
difference  accounts  for  the  difference  in  yield.  Cows  of  this 
breed  imported  to  this  country,  and  accompanied  by  certificates 
of  their  yield  in  Ayrshire,  have  here  given  about  two-thirds  as 
much,  but,  even  with  this  falling,  off,  are  accounted  good  milkers. 

The  Jerseys  —  Alderney  —  Guernsey  —  or  Channel 
Island  Cattle. — Practically  these  are  all  one  breed  of  cattle, 
but  have  been  variously  named  as  they  were  brought  from  one  or 
another  of  the  Channel  Islands.  These  cattle  were  introduced 
into  the  United  States  as  early  as  1820,  and  about  1850,  large 
importations  were  made.  During  the  decade  from  1870  to  1880, 
great  interest  was  awakened  in  the  breed,  and  large  and  fre- 
quent importations  made.  There  is  a  strong  and  bitter  opposi- 
tion to  these  cattle  on  the  part  of  many  farmers  on  account  of 
their  small  size,  but  they  are  exceedingly  popular  with  villagers 
who  keep  but  one  cow,  as  they  are  delicate  and  fawn-like  in 
appearance,  and  produce  large  quantities  of  rich,  yellow  cream 
and  butter,  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  milk  they  give. 

There  are  on  record  many  remarkable  yields  of  butter  from 
individuals  of  this  race,  sixteen  to  eighteen  pounds,  and  even 
more  having  been  made  in  a  week.  This  was  under  high  feed- 
ing and  extra  care,  and  must  not  be  taken  as  an  average,  or 
even  a  result  easily  attained;  but  still  there  is  no  disputing  the 
fact  of  the  superior  richness  and  high  color  of  Jersey  milk. 
Another  fact  has  added  to  their  popularity,  and  that  is,  that  the 
grades  descended  from  native  dams  and  Jersey  sires  partake 
largely  of  the  superior  butter-producing  quality  of  the  breed, 
and  often,  with  improved  size,  are  found  nearly,  or  quite  as 
valuable  for  the  dairy  as  the  thorough-bred.  A  half-blood  Jersey 
raised  in  my  neighborhood,  made  fifty-one  and  one-half  pounds 
of  butter  in  May,  after  dropping  her  second  calf. 

The  Jersey  is  simply  a  milking  cow,  and  should  be  bred  for 
this  purpose  and  no  other,  and  yet  Youatt  says  of  them :  "  One 
excellence  it  must  be  acknowledged,  that  the  Alderneys  possess ; 
when  they  are  dried,  they  fatten  with  a  rapidity  that  would  be 
scarcely  thought  possible  from  their  gaunt  appearance. 


CATTLE— HISTORY  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS.  767 

One  thing  that  undoubtedly  has  had  great  influence  in 
reducing  the  size  of  the  Jerseys  is,  that  they  breed  very  young, 
it  being  quite  common  for  the  heifers  to  drop  their  first  calf  at 
fifteen  months  old,  and  if  allowed  access  to  the  bull,  they  will 
usually  come  in  at  from  seventeen  to  twenty  months  old.  While 
it  is  admitted  that  the  size  has  been  reduced  by  this  trait,  it  is 
nevertheless  a  valuable  one,  for  the  Jerseys  will  never  be  grown 
as  a  beef  animal,  and  if  they  can  be  made  to  pay  their  way 
from  the  time  they  are  fifteen  or  eighteen  months  old,  it  is  cer- 
tainly better  than  to  keep  them  a  year  longer  unproductive  for 
the  sake  of  adding  one  or  two  hundred  pounds  to  their  weight. 
I  am  now  milking  a  three-fourths  Jersey  who  dropped  her  second 
calf  when  thirty-one  months  old,  after  having  been  milked  a 
year,  and  I  estimate  that  her  milk  and  butter  alone  paid  all  the 
expense  of  raising  her  up  to  the  time  she  dropped  her  first  calf 
at  seventeen  months  old. 

We  describe  the  Jersey  as  follows :  The  head — muzzle  fine, 
the  nose  either  dark-brown  or  black,  and  occasionally  a  yellowish 
shade,  with  a  peculiar  mealy  appearance,  light  colored  hair  run- 
ning up  the  face  into  a  smoky  hue,  where  it  gradually  takes 
the  general  color  of  the  body;  the  face  is  slightly  dishing, 
clean  of  flesh,  mild  and  gentle  in  expression ;  the  eye  clear 
and  full,  and  encircled  with  a  distinct  ring,  the  color  of 
the  nose ;  the  forehead  bold ;  the  horn  short,  curving  inward, 
and  waxy  in  color,  with  black  tips ;  the  ear,  sizable,  thin,  and 
quick  in  movement.  The  whole  head  is  original  and  bold-like 
in  appearance,  more  so  than  in  almost  any  other  race  of  cattle, 
reminding  one  strongly  of  the  head  of  the  American  elk.  The 
neck  is  somewhat  depressed — would  be  called  ewe-necked  by 
some — but  clean  in  the  throat,  with  moderate  or  little  dewlap ; 
the  shoulders  are  thin  and  somewhat  ragged,  with  prominent 
points  running  down  to  a  delicate  arm,  and  slender  legs ;  the 
fore-quarters  stand  rather  close  together,  with  a  thinish,  but  well- 
developed  brisket  between  ;  the  ribs  are  flat,  yet  giving  sufficient 
play  for  good  lungs ;  the  back  depressed  from  a  straight-line ; 
the  belly  deep  and  large;  the  hips  tolerably  wide;  the  rump 
and  tail  high;  the  loin  and  quarter  medium  in  length;  the  thigh 


768  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

thin  and  deep ;  the  twist  wide,  to  accommodate  a  clean,  good- 
sized  udder;  the  flanks  medium;  the  hocks  or  gambrel-joints 
crooked  ;  the  hind-legs  small ;  the  udder  capacious,  square,  set 
well  forward,  and  covered  with  soft  silky  hair ;  the  teats 
fine,  standing  well  apart,  and  nicely  tapering;  the  milk  veins 
prominent. 

On  the  whole,  she  is  a  homely,  blood-like,  gentle,  useful  little 
cow,  with  a  kindly  temper,  loving  to  be  petted,  and  readily  be- 
comes a  great  favorite  with  those  who  have  the  care  of  her. 


..'.'.  VI     '•••••   ••  • 

JKKSEY  BULL-COBURN'S  PRIZE,  6,851. 
The  property  of  Beech  Urove  Farm,  Beech  Grove,  Marion  County,  Ind. 

The  color  is  usually  light,  red,  or  fawn,  occasionally  smoky-gray 
or  squirrel,  and  sometimes  black  mixed,  or  plashed  more  or  less 
with  white.  Roan  colors,  and  a  more  rounded  form,  are  occa- 
sionally found,  but  are  not  fancied  by  breeders.  The  Guernsey 
is  usually  one-third  larger,  of  similar  shape,  but  with  more  of 
rotundity  and  symmetry  of  form,  and  a  superior  tendency  to 
flesh,  while  in  dairy  qualities  they  are  not  inferior. 

While  the  Jersey  cow  is  noted  for  her  gentleness,  the  bulls 
are  much  inclined  to  be  vicious  if  kept  till  maturity. 

The  Spanish  or  Texan  Cattle. — We  describe  these 
cattle  not  on  account  of  their  merit  or  desirable  qualities,  but 


CATTLE— HISTORY  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS.  769 

because  they  have  filled  an  important  place  in  the  cattle-raising 
of  the  plains,  and  even  been  brought  in  large  numbers  to  our 
Eastern  markets.  These  cattle  probably  originated  from  stock 
imported  into  Mexico  from  Spain,  as  early  as  1525.  A  modern 
traveler  describes  the  cattle  of  Spain  as  follows  :  <;  They  are  of 
small  size,  with  large,  coarse,  long,  and  wide-spreading  horns, 
mostly  with  a  half  or  full  twist  to  them,  and  set  back  rather 
than  forward,  with  the  point  outward.  Their  colors  are  black, 
dark-brown,  reddish-brown,  light  yellowish-red,  with  some  white 
on  throat  and  belly,  and  occasionally  a  black  and  white  roan,  or 
gray.  The  cows  are  nearly  as  large  as  the  oxen,  with  the  same 
style  of  horn.  The  head  is  long  and  rather  fine.  They  do  not 
appear  to  be  good  milkers." 

This  description  is  so  nearly  that  of  the  Texan  cattle  as  to 
clearly  show  them  to  be  of  the  same  stock,  and  the  similarity  is 
the  more  striking,  when  we  remember  that  the  Spanish  cattle  are 
thoroughly  domesticated  and  treated  with  care  in  a  country  of 
dense  population  and  close  husbandry,  while  the  Texas  cattle 
are  descendants  of  stock  which  had  run  wild  for  many  generations. 

These  cattle,  as  found  on  the  plains  of  the  West,  are  tall, 
lank,  and  bony,  with  coarse  heads  and  enormous  horns,  legs  long 
and  coarse ;  they  have  much  dewlap,  and  little  brisket,  flat  sides, 
somewhat  sway-backed,  high  in  the  flank,  with  narrow  hips  and 
quarters,  and  with  a  large  proportion  of  offal.  They  mature 
slowly,  and  are  usually  not  marketed  till  from  five  to  seven 
years  old.  The  cows  are  poor  milkers,  and  only  continue  in  milk 
long  enough  to  rear  a  calf.  While  these  cattle  were  well-suited 
in  many  of  their  characteristics  to  the  system  of  management 
of  a  former  generation,  they  are  destined  to  extinction  under  a 
better  system  of  farming,  and  will  be  superseded  by  larger  and 
finer  cattle  that  mature  much  earlier.  This  improvement  is  now 
going  on  rapidly  by  crossing  with  the  improved  breeds,  and  in  a 
few  generations  the  wild,  lonjr-horned  Texan  will  be  modified, 
until  in  form,  color,  and  valuable  qualities,  it  will  resemble  the 
Short-horn,  Hereford,  or  polled  Angus. 

49 


770  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


IX. 

CATTLE— GENERAL    MANAGEMENT. 

IN  quite  an  extensive  experience  in  buying  cattle,  I  have  had 
a  chance  to  observe  the  management  on  a  large  number 
of  farms,  and  my  conclusion  is  that  in  many  cases  the 
owners  realize  no  profit  from  them,  barely  getting  paid  for 
what  they  feed  them,  or  (as  is  the  case  in  some  instances) 
actually  losing  money.  I  also  came  to  the  conclusion  that  in 
most  cases  this  was  due  to  the  parsimony,  carelessness,  or  want 
of  management  of  the  owner,  and  that  attention  to  a  few  points 
easily  within  control  of  the  owner  would  prevent  loss. 

Mistakes  of  Stockmen. — The  first  wrong  step  is  in  se- 
lecting the  sire,  the  farmer  getting  the  service  of  the  bull  that 
will  cost  the  least.  In  many  neighborhoods  I  have  known  the 
services  of  a  thoroughbred  Short-horn  offered  for  the  sum  of  two 
dollars,  and  not  patronage  enough  obtained  to  pay  the  expense 
of  keeping.  It  is  quite  a  common  practice  to  allow  a  bull  calf  to 
run  till  a  year  or  fifteen  months  old  and  sire  a  few  calves  and 
then  castrate  him,  and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  several  year- 
ling bulls  on  a  farm.  A  calf  that  has  run  to  this  age  without 
castration  will  always  be  classed  as  a  stag,  and  will  not  bring  as 
much  when  fat  by  one  or  two  cents  a  pound  as  a  good  smooth 
steer.  It  requires  no  special  skill  to  castrate  a  calf  a  week  old, 
and  any  fanner  can  do  it  and  the  calf  scarcely  feels  it  at  all, 
but  the  longer  it  is  postponed,  the  more  difficult,  and  severe, 
and  dangerous  the  operation  becomes.  Until  acquainted  with 
the  facts,  it  is  difficult  to  believe  how  large  a  per  cent  of  the 
male  calves  are  injured  by  allowing  them  to  run  too  long  with- 
out castration. 

The   next   point    I  notice   in  unprofitable   cattle   raising  is 


CATTLE— GENERAL  MANAGEMENT.  771 

stunting  the  calves.  This  is  often  done  during  the  first  few 
weeks,  or  the  first  winter,  and  not  infrequently  the  calves  are 
first  stunted  on  skimmed  milk,  and  this  is  followed  by  wintering 
on  poor  hay  or  at  the  straw- stack,  with  insufficient  shelter,  so 
that  when  a  year  old  this  double  process  has  reduced  them  to  a 
point  from  which  they  can  never  fully  recover.  A  calf  which, 
from  insufficient  or  improper  food,  comes  to  a  stand  in  growth 
during  the  first  year  can  never  make  so  good  an  animal  as  if 
kept  growing  continually.  So  there  is  not  only  a  loss  of  food 
during  this  period,  but  on  all  the  food  consumed  by  it  after. 
To  get  an  idea  how  common  this  evil  is,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
travel,  and  inspect  the  stock  in  March. 

In  the  same  line  is  to  be  enumerated  bad  wintering.  The 
animal  on  grass  through  the  summer  recovers  in  a  measure 
from  the  starvation  of  its  first  winter,  and  fall  finds  it  fairly 
thrifty,  and  if  it  was  now  fed  so  as  to  keep  it  growing  through 
the  second  winter,  it  would  be  ready  the  coming  spring  to  make 
early  and  rapid  growth,  but  the  farmer  has  more  stock  than  he 
has  feed  for,  or  neglects  to  save  his  feed  and  depends  on  the 
stalk  pasture  and  straw-stack  to  carry  them  through,  and  April 
finds  his  stock  a  hundred  pounds  lighter  than  they  were  in  Oc- 
tober, and  it  takes  the  best  part  of  the  grazing  season  to  bring 
them  to  the  weight  and  condition  they  were  in  the  previous 
autumn,  and  thus  the  season  of  profitable  pasturing  is  shortened 
to  a  fow  months  during  the  hottest  season  of  the  year,  when 
flies  are  troublesome,  and  short  pastures  and  drought  most 
likely. 

This  bad  wintering  often  leads  to  bad  summering,  for  the 
stock  is  in  so  great  need  of  grass  that  they  are  turned  out  as 
soon  as  it  is  possible  to  get  a  living,  and,  as  a  consequence,  the 
pastures  are  tramped  and  gnawed  so  as  to  never  recover,  and 
the  stock  is  on  short  rations  all  summer.  This  is  especially 
likely  to  be  the  case  when  clover  is  depended  on,  as  it  is  more 
injured  by  tramping  and  early  feeding  than  the  grasses,  and  a 
clover  field  will  not  produce  half  the  feed  in  a  season  when 
pastured  short  early  that  it  will  if  allowed  to  bloom  before  the 
stock  is  turned  on  it.  One  other  common  cause  of  loss  is  keep- 


772  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

ing  old  cows  past  their  prime  till  they  can  only  be  sold  to  the 
bologna-sausage  makers  for  about  two  cents  a  pound.  They 
form  quite  a  per  cent  of  the  stock  offered  for  sale  in  our  cities, 
and  are  regularly  quoted  in  the  daily  markets.  These  same 
cows,  a  few  years  before,  with  proper  management  would  have 
made  good  beef,  and  could  have  been  sold  at  a  profit,  but  were 
kept  at  a  loss  and  finally  sold  at  half  price. 

Raising  Calves. — If  we  expect  an  animal  that  will  be 
thrifty  and  well-developed,  and  that  we  can  expect  with  cer- 
tainity  to  give  good  returns  for  food  and  care,  the  first  year  is 
the  most  important,  for  upon  the  care  it  gets  at  this  period  de- 
pends the  future  profit.  I  have  seen  many  intelligent  farmers 
whose  judgment  on  most  subjects  I  should  value  highly,  who 
had  been  brought  up  with  the  idea  that  to  starve  and  freeze  a 
young  animal  made  it  tough  and  hardy,  and  no  experience  or 
argument  could  get  this  out  of  their  heads.  There  are  two  ex- 
tremes to  be  avoided  in  feeding  calves ;  one  is  feeding  too  lit- 
tle or  too  poor  food,  and  the  other  too  much  or  too  rich. 

There  is  no  way  in  which  a  more  perfectly  developed  animal 
can  be  had  than  by  allowing  the  calf  to  suck  the  mother  and 
have  access  to  good  pasture,  but  as  a  general  rule  this  is  consid- 
ered too  expensive,  and  the  majority  of  calves  are  raised  by 
hand.  I  have  also  found  that  calves  allowed  to  run  with  the  cow 
give  great  trouble  by  sucking  the  cows  after  you  wish  to  wean 
them,  and  a  calf  that  has  run  with  its  dam  through  the  summer 
can  not  be  wintered  in  the  same  yard  with  its  mother. 

That  a  thrifty,  well-developed  calf  can  be  raised  on  skimmed 
milk,  I  have  proved  over  and  over  in  my  own  experience  on  the 
farm,  and  if  all  the  milk  could  be  had  for  the  purpose,  and  I 
could  get  the  calves,  I  could  raise  well  five  calves  in  a  season 
from  two  good  cows ;  and  while  they  would  not  be  as  smooth 
and  well-developed  at  weaning  time  as  those  which  had  sucked 
the  cow,  I  should  expect  them  to  be  as  valuable  at  a  year  old. 
There  would,  of  course,  be  care  and  labor  connected  with  this 
plan,  but  we  get  all  the  butter,  and  can  raise  five  calves  instead 
of  two,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  labor  is  well  paid  for. 

Perhaps  the  question  arises,  where  can  we  get  the  calves  ? 


CATTLE— GENERAL  MANAGEMENT.  773 

I  know  it  is  difficult  in  many  neighborhoods,  as  the  farmers  are 
wise  in  not  selling  their  calves,  but  there  are  few  neighbor- 
hoods in  which  there  is  not  a  huckster  route,  and  if  not  near  a 
city  market,  where  you  can  buy  them,  an  arrangement  can 
usually  be  made  with  a  huckster  to  furnish  what  you  want. 

To  raise  five  calves  from  two  cows  I  should  want  the  cows 
to  come  in  fresh  in  early  spring,  so  as  to  be  at  their  greatest 
flow  of  milk  when  the  pasture  was  best,  and  I  should  want  to 
buy  one  calf  as  near  as  possible  the  same  age.  I  always  feed 
new  milk  for  about  ten  days  or  until  the  calf  gets  to  eating 
well  and  shows  some  growth.  I  then  begin  to  use  linseed  meal, 
beginning  with  a  table-spoonful  for  each  calf.  Pour  hot  water 
over  it,  and  let  it  stand  till  it  softens  and  forms  a  kind  of  jelly, 
and  then  pour  it  into  the  skimmed  milk,  and  make  it  as  near 
the  temperature  of  new  milk  as  you  can.  I  would  not  change 
at  once  from  new  to  skimmed  milk,  but  begin  by  mixing,  and 
be  a  week  in  making  the  change.  The  quantity  of  linseed  meal 
may  be  gradually  increased  up  to  a  gill  for  each  calf.  I  have 
never  experienced  any  bad  effect  from  this  feed,  and  think  that 
if  given  in  regular  quantities  it  makes  up  to  a  large  extent  for 
the  loss  of  the  cream.  I  always  recommend  linseed  meal  for 
calves.  I  wish  to  caution  our  readers  against  the  use  of 
cotton-seed  meal  for  this  purpose,  as  I  have  known  of  the  death 
of  many  calves  from  its  use. 

I  want  the  calves  to  run  on  good  grass  by  the  time  they 
are  three  weeks  old,  and  they  will  soon  begin  to  graze.  By  the 
time  they  are  a  month  old  begin  to  give  some  extra  feed. 
Shelled  corn  is  good  while  they  are  on  milk,  but  should  be  fed 
in  moderate  quantities,  and  when  weaned  bran  or  a  mixture  of 
bran  and  oats  should  be  substituted.  By  the  time  calves  are 
ten  weeks  old  they  should  be  eating  enough  grass  and  bran  or 
other  food  so  that  the  quantity  of  milk  could  be  reduced  and 
another  calf  bought,  and  a  month  later  still  another.  With 
good  grass  and  a  little  other  food,  after  four  months  old  the 
calves  can  be  made  to  thrive  as  well  without  milk.  The  calves 
should  have  a  little  grain  or  bran  every  day  till  they  go  on 
grass  at  a,  year  old,  as  hay  or  corn  fodder  is  not  a  perfect 


774  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

ration,  but  with  the  addition  of  a  little  food  that  is  rich  in  flesh 
formers,  and  a  warm  stable,  you  can  keep  them  growing  all 
winter. 

As  the  flow  of  milk  is  greatest  during  the  season  of  early 
pasture,  it  would  be  less  trouble,  and  perhaps  better,  to  get 
two  extra  calves  of  the  same  age  as  the  two  your  own  cows 
had  dropped,  and  raise  them  all  together,  for  with  good  cows 
this  could  be  done.  Ordinarily,  however,  where  milk  is  needed 
in  the  family,  one  calf  for  each  cow  is  all  that  can  be  profitably 
kept,  and  I  would  not  under  any  circumstances  keep  more  than 
I  could  feed  well,  and  should  not  expect  to  keep  a  calf  thrifty 
with  less  than  six  quarts  of  milk  a  day,  and  then  only  by  the 
judicious  use  of  linseed  meal. 

To  succeed  in  growing  as  good  a  calf  on  skimmed  milk  as 
on  new  requires  care  and  skill,  and  the  work  can  not  be  trusted 
to  children  or  left  to  be  done  by  any  one  who  happens  to  think 
of  it,  but  one  person  should  have  the  care  of  them,  and  the 
feeding  should  be  regular  as  to  time  and  amount.  I  prefer 
feeding  twice  a  day  rather  than  three  times,  as  the  calf  will 
begin  to  graze  sooner  if  allowed  to  become  hungry. 

Fall  Calves. — For  many  years  after  I  began  farming  I 
sold  all  fall  calves  to  the  butchers,  thinking  that  a  calf  born  at 
that  season  could  not  be  profitably  raised.  After  an  experience 
extending  over  several  years,  in  which  I  have  raised  both  spring 
and  fall  calves,  I  prefer  the  latter,  and  I  find  that  many  of  the 
best  stock  men  of  my  vicinity  agree  with  me.  We  have  more 
leisure  in  winter  than  in  summer  to  attend  to  a  calf,  there  are 
no  flies  to  trouble,  and  the  milk  will  keep  sweet,  the  calf  soon 
learns  to  eat  bran,  shelled  corn,  and  hay  or  corn  fodder,  and 
grows  thriftily  all  winter,  and  goes  on  pasture  at  six  or  seven 
months'  old  instead  of  one  year.  Your  spring  calf  is  weaned 
on  failing  pastures,  and  must  have  extra  care  for  a  full  year, 
but  the  fall  calf  having  a  long  season  on  grass  comes  to  its 
second  winter  much  better  developed,  and  can  be  kept  thrifty 
with  less  care.  In  a  test  which  I  have  made  with  grade  Short- 
horn steers,  I  found  a  difference  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 
pounds  at  a  year  old  in  favor  of  the  fall  calf.  These  figures 


CATTLE— GENERAL  MANAGEMENT.  775 

might  probably  be  changed  by  repeated  experiments,  but  I  think 
that  we  would  usually  find  about  this  extra  weight  at  one  year 
old  on  the  fall  calf. 

The  best  winter  food  for  calves  is  a  mixture  of  bran  and 
shelled  corn  fed  in  connection  with  clover  or  second-crop  hay, 
or  corn  fodder ;  and  for  rough  feed  I  think  nothing  better  or 
cheaper  than  the  latter,  but  it  is  well  for  variety  to  feed  a  little 
hay  or  sheaf  oats.  I  have  injured  calves  by  feeding  too  much 
corn,  and  think  a  pound  a  day  fed  with  the  same  quantity  of 
bran  enough  to  start  with,  but  towards  spring  the  amount  of 
bran  might  be  doubled.  I  would  not  have  the  corn  ground  for 
calves,  if  the  grinding  cost  nothing,  as  their  digestive  powers 
are  good,  and  there  is  less  danger  of  indigestion  when  fed  on 
whole  corn  than  when  it  is  ground.  I  place  a  high  feeding  value 
on  bran,  particularly  for  young,  growing  stock,  as  it  has  largely 
the  same  effect  as  grass  in  keeping  the  stomach  and  bowels  reg- 
ular, and  enabling  the  animal  to  better  assimilate  other  foods. 

J.  G.  Oxer's  Plan. — I  think  the  best  developed  calves  of 
their  age  that  I  have  ever  seen  raised  on  skimmed-milk  were  on 
the  farm  of  Mr.  Oxer,  of  Preble  County,  Ohio.  As  he  has 
been  very  successful  with  cattle,  I  asked  him  to  contribute  from 
his  experience  for  this  book,  and  I  give  here  an  article  from 
his  pen  on  the  rearing  of  calves : 

"  The  different  modes  of  raising  calves  have  an  important 
influence  upon  their  future  existence,  whether  for  the  dairy,  for 
the  shambles,  for  breeding,  or  for  the  show  ring,  and  in  these 
days  of  long  strides  and  great  improvements  a  great  many  are 
fed  for  the  latter  purpose. 

"  In  our  experience  of  twenty  years,  if  for  the  dairy,  we  do 
not  force  the  animal,  but  after  it  is  dropped  it  is  allowed  to  re- 
main with  the  dam  until  it  is  dry  and  gets  a  good  draught  of 
milk,  after  which  it  is  taken  from  her  and  the  dam  turned  with 
it  morning  and  evening  for  six  or  seven  days;  if  the  cow  does 
well,  the  calf  is  then  moved  out  of  sight,  and  taught  to  drink  the 
milk  instead  of  drawing  it  from  the  cow. 

"  To  teach  the  calf  to  drink  without  much  trouble  is  an  im- 
portant point,  and  the  plan  adopted  by  us  is  to  feed  very  little 


776  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

milk  the  first  time  or  two.  Three  or  four  pints  is  enough,  fresh 
from  the  cow.  Have  some  one  to  hold  the  vessel.  Have  the 
calf  tied  or  in  some  inclosure  where  it  will  have  but  little  room. 
Seize  it  under  the  chin  with  one  hand  and  put  the  other  hand  on 
its  head,  and  force  its  mouth  into  the  milk ;  and  in  its  endeavors 
to  release  itself  it  is  very  likely  to  get  a  draught  of  the  milk, 
and  will  soon  take  to  drinking.  Do  not  allow  the  calf  to  have 
the  finger  under  any  circumstances  if  it  can  be  avoided,  for  the 
more  they  tug  at  your  finger  the  more  they  want  to.  If  the  calf 
does  not  choose  to  drink  the  first  time,  do  not  worry  it  too  long, 
but  let  it  wait  until  the  next  feeding  time.  Hunger  will  soon 
get  the  best  of  it,  and  it  will  be  only  too  glad  to  get  its  milk. 

"  The  quantity  and  quality  of  milk  are  important  considera- 
tions for  the  first  few  weeks.  At  the  beginning  very  little  skim- 
milk  should  be  given,  and  that  perfectly  sweet.  Calves  are  often 
made  almost  worthless  by  an  indiscriminate  feeding  of  milk  in 
its  various  stages.  Their  stomachs  are  not  in  condition  to  digest 
such  stuff,  and  they  get  the  scours,  become  paunchy,  the  hair 
stands  the  wrong  way,  and  their  looks  show  that  they  have  not 
been  properly  cared  for. 

"  If  our  calves  are  dropped  in  the  fall  or  winter,  they  are 
kept  constantly  housed  in  bad  weather,  and  fed  milk  twice  each 
day,  as  near  the  same  time,  morning  and  evening,  as  circum- 
stances will  admit  of,  regularity  in  feeding,  both  in  quantity 
and  quality,  being  a  very  important  point.  As  soon  as  the  calf 
learns  to  drink,  we  increase  the  skim-milk  each  day  for  a  period 
of  about  two  weeks.  It  js  then  three  weeks  old,  and  it  is  fed 
three  to  four  quarts  of  warm  skim-milk  twice  each  day.  The 
warm  milk  process  is  kept  up  until  the  calves  are  about  three 
months  old,  after  which  time  they  are  taught  to  drink  cold 
milk  by  degrees,  and  the  quantity  is  also  lessened,  until  they  are 
finally  weaned,  at  from  four  to  five  months  old. 

"  We  always  place  a  little  hay  within  reach  of  our  calves 
when  they  are  but  a  few  weeks  old.  It  seems  to  be  necessary 
for  their  proper  development,  and  they  very  soon  learn  to  eat 
it.  Clover  and  timothy  mixed  seem  to  make  the  best  ration. 
Clover  alone  is  a  little  too  loosening,  and  timothy  a  little  too 


CATTLE— GENERAL  MANAGEMENT.  777 

binding.  Fine  Hungarian  or  millet  is  also  very  good.  For 
summer  feeding,  about  the  same  plan  is  followed,  with  the  ex- 
ception that  the  calf  is  allowed  to  run  on  grass,  and  is  fed  a  lit- 
tle dry  hay  besides.  Calves  intended  for  milkers  should  have 
but  very  little,  if  any,  corn  during  their  growing  period,  for  it 
always  has  a  tendency  towards  too  much  fat.  Wheat-bran, 
barley-meal,  or  plenty  of  beets,  carrots,  or  mangel  wurzel,  will 
make  a  good  ration  in  winter,  after  the  calf  is  weaned.  We 
have  never  tried  the  various  hay  teas  and  different  kinds  of 
gruels,  for  the  raising  of  young  calves,  and  think  they  should 
only  be  resorted  to  in  extreme  cases,  to  say  the  least. 

"Calves  that  scour  when  young  should  be  treated  without 
delay,  for  if  allowed  to  become  chronic,  it  is  much  harder  to 
check.  First  try  a  fresh  egg  or  two  in  the  milk.  If  that  does 
not  effect  a  cure,  tie  a  half-pint  of  wheat  flour  in  a  rag  and  boil 
it  for  two  hours.  Let  it  dry,  and  pulverize  a  portion  each  time 
in  the  milk.  In  all  cases  calves  should  have  enough  suitable 
food  to  satisfy  hunger,  and  plenty  of  water  to  satisfy  thirst. 
For  whatever  purpose  the  calf  is  raised,  strict  attention  to  its 
growth  and  health  will  always  pay,  especially  in  these  days  of 
high  prices. 

"A  calf  intended  for  veal,  should  always  have  an  ample  sup- 
ply of  fresh  milk  from  the  cow — either  fed  directly  after  drawn, 
or  allowed  to  draw  the  milk  itself.  If  it  is  fed  by  hand,  by 
shelling  a  small  quantity  of  corn  in  the  milk  vessel,  the  calf 
will  very  soon  learn  to  eat,  and  it  is  a  great  addition  to  the 
milk  in  forcing  the  calf.  The  writer  has  had  some  experience 
in  buying  veal  calves,  and  it  is  very  easy  to  distinguish  a  calf 
that  receives  all  the  fresh  milk  it  can  assimilate,  and  one  that 
is  fed  partly  on  skim-milk.  But  the  production  of  veals,  we 
think,  should  not  be  encouraged,  for  the  great  increase  in  the 
demand  for  veal  is  having  an  injurious  effect  on  the  production 
of  good  cattle  throughout  the  country. 

"In  raising  calves  for  breeding  purposes,  a  full  development 
of  all  the  parts  is  the  main  object  to  be  sought.  In  such  csises 
we  almost  invariably  let  the  calf  take  the  milk  fresh  from  the 
cow,  and  very  seldom  let  it  run  with  its  mother,  but  turn  it 


778  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

with  her  morning  and  evening,  and  after  it  has  taken  a  proper 
amount  of  milk,  if  any  remains,  the  cow  is  milked  dry. 

"The  writer  has  attended  so  many  sales  of  thorough-bred 
cattle,  and  seen  so  many  splendid  cows  made  almost  worthless 
from  spoiled  teats,  by  allowing  the  calves  to  remain  with  them, 
and  not  paying  proper  attention  to  having  them  milked,  that  he 
considers  it  a  very  unprofitable  practice.  The  calf  should  have, 
in  addition  to  the  milk,  as  soon  as  it  is  old  enough,  either  hay 
or  grass,  shelled  corn,  or  corn-meal  and  bran.  We  consider 
shelled  corn  a  very  necessary  article  of  food  towards  a  proper 
development  of  the  animal.  Some  writers  claim  that  bulls  in- 
tended for  breeding  should  never  be  allowed  either  corn  or  corn- 
meal  as  a  part  of  their  ration ;  but  in  our  experience  of  a  num- 
ber of  years,  we  have  never  seen  any  injurious  effects  arising 
from  it. 

"Raising  calves  for  the  show-ring  we  consider  as  unwise,  to 
say  the  best  of  it.  They  are  kept  in  the  stable  for  months, 
and  sometimes  even  years,  with  very  little  or  no  exercise,  and 
fed,  pampered,  and  nursed  until  they  are  made  almost  entirely 
worthless  for  any  thing  except  for  beef,  and  they  are  kept  fat 
so  long  that  they  are  not  good  for  that.  The  writer,  a  few 
years  since,  in  making  a  tour  through  the  dominion  of  Canada, 
inspected  a  herd,  a  portion  of  which  were  kept  especially  for  the 
show-ring,  and  as  an  advertisement  of  the  herd.  We  were  in- 
formed that  they  were  kept  constantly  in  the  stable  during  the 
day,  and  only  turned  out  for  exercise  of  fine  evenings,  and  the 
cows,  such  as  would  breed,  almost  as  soon  as  they  would  drop 
their  calves,  were  dried  off,  and  the  calf  provided  with  another 
mother.  It  struck  us  as  all  being  very  nice,  but  entirely  too 
expensive  for  the  masses." 

Pastures  and  Grazing. — With  a  calf  of  good  stock,  and 
well  cared  for  until  ready  to  go  on  grass,  at  six  months  or  a 
year  old  (according  to  whether  it  is  born  in  fall  or  spring),  we 
have  made  a  fair  start  towards  raising  a  thrifty,  well-developed 
cow  or  steer,  and  one  that  shall  give  a  profit;  but  the  same  good 
management  and  judgment  that  has  enabled  us  to  grow  such  a 
calf,  must  be  exercised  in  the  further  development  of  the  animal. 


CATTLE-GENERAL  MANAGEMENT.  779 

To  have  good  cattle,  we  must  have  good  pasture,  and  to  raise 
cheap  beef,  we  must  extend  the  grazing  season  as  long  as  is 
consistent  with  a  thrifty  growth  of  the  animal.  The  farmer  who 
is  able  to  keep  his  cattle  on  pasture,  on  which  they  will  thrive, 
for  an  average  of  seven  months  of  the  year,  will  have  a  great 
advantage  over  the  one  who  can  pasture  but  five  months.  And 
the  farmer  who  so  manages  that  his  cattle  thrive  and  gain  in 
weight  during  the  entire  grass  season,  will  get  a  larger  profit 
than  he  who  so  manages  that  his  cattle  for  months  barely  hold 
their  own.  To  insure,  then,  the  greatest  profit,  the  farmer 
will  need  early  pasture,  a  variety  of  grasses  or  forage  plants, 
so  as  to  keep  up  a  succession  of  food,  an  abundant  supply  of 
good  water,  shade,  and  some  provision  against  severe  drought. 
In  a  word,  his  animals  should  be  comfortable,  and  every  thing 
which  tends  to  their  comfort  is  profitable  to  the  owner. 

There  should  be  on  every  stock-farm  some  permanent  pasture 
of  early  grasses,  and  on  all  soils  where  it  will  flourish  there  is 
no  variety  better  for  this  purpose  than  blue-grass.  It  starts 
very  early  in  the  spring,  and  it  is  not  injured  by  tramping  or 
short-cropping,  and  as  its  growth  is  rapid  at  this  season  it  may 
be  heavily  stocked.  It  flourishes  on  rich  or  poor  land,  grows 
well  in  the  shade,  and  will  protect  rolling-lands  from  washing 
better  than  any  other  grass.  In  ordinary  seasons  it  may  be 
pastured  a  month  earlier  than  the  stock  should  go  on  clover,  and 
in  cold,  backward  springs  when,  as  in  1882,  we  have  frost  till 
the  middle  of  May,  we  can  sometimes  gain  six  weeks  by  the  use 
of  this  grass.  For  wet  land,  red-top  will  give  the  best  satisfac- 
tion. I  think  it  inferior  in  quality  to  blue-grass,  but  it  is  early 
and  productive,  and  cattle  eat  it  fairly  well.  Another  early 
variety  which  will  give  excellent  satisfaction  is  orchard  grass. 
It  is  of  rapid  growth,  has  a  broad  blade  which  makes  a  large 
amount  of  food  which  is  not  surpassed  in  sweetness  or  nutrition 
by  any  other  variety. 

The  farmer  who  makes  grazing  his  leading  interest,  should 
seed  a  field  with  rye  for  the  first  pasture  in  spring,  then  turn  on 
a  field  of  permanent  pasture  seeded  with  one  or  more  of  the 
grasses  named  above,  which  should  be  stocked  heavily  enough 


780  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

to  have  it  eaten  close  by  the  time  clover  begins  to  blossom ;  then 
all  the  stock  should  be  transferred  to  the  clover,  which  will  bear 
heavy  stocking  for  two  or  three  months,  by  which  time  the  per- 
manent pasture  will  have  made  a  good  growth  for  fall  feed. 

To  provide  against  drought  or  supplement  the  feed  when 
frosty  nights  come,  he  should  grow  some  extra  crops  to  feed 
the  stock  if  needed,  and  there  is  nothing  so  cheap  for  this  pur- 
pose as  corn.  I  would  not  advise  sowing  it  broadcast,  or  even 
drilling  very  thickly,  as  I  think  more  is  lost  in  quality  than  is 
gained  in  quantity,  but  it  may  be  planted  three  or  four  stalks  in 
a  hill,  and  with  hills  eighteen  inches  apart,  and  the  rows  wide 
enough  to  admit  the  cultivator,  and  it  will  produce  a  large 
amount  of  food  to  the  acre.  It  is  better  to  begin  giving  extra 
feed  before  the  pastures  are  too  short  and  the  stock  checked 
in  their  growth.  Pumpkins  will  be  found  cheap  and  valuable  to 
be  fed  as  the  quality  or  quantity  of  the  pasture  deteriorates,  and 
if  the  Connecticut  field  pumpkin  is  grown  all  that  will  be  neces- 
sary will  be  to  draw  a  sufficient  quantity  to  the  field  each  day, 
and  scatter  them  on  the  grass,  as  the  cattle  can  eat  them  with- 
out chopping. 

It  is  folly  to  keep  cattle  out  on  pasture  after  the  cold  storms 
of  winter  have  come,  and  the  pastures  are  already  eaten  short,  for 
under  such  management  not  only  do  the  cattle  lose  flesh  and 
begin  winter  at  a  disadvantage,  but  the  pasture  is  injured,  the 
roots  being  left  bare  and  unprotected,  and  it  will  not  only  be 
later  to  start  in  the  spring  but  poorer  all  the  next  summer  for 
such  management. 

It  is  not  safe  to  feed  green  corn  to  cattle  in  a  field  with 
hogs,  as  the  latter  will  chew  the  husk  and  stalks,  and  reject  the 
fiber  which  becomes  indigestible,  and  if  many  of  these  cuds  are 
eaten  by  the  cows,  they  often  produce  impaction  of  the  stomach, 
and  cause  inflammation  and  death.  The  owner  should  visit  his 
cattle  weekly  while  on  pasture,  and  inspect  them  and  note  their 
condition.  If  salt  is  not  kept  in  the  pasture  where  they  can 
have  free  access  to  it,  which  is  probably  the  best  plan,  they 
should  be  salted  regularly.  If  you  find  some  that  are  unthrifty, 
it  is  better  to  cull  them  out  and  sell  them  for  what  they  will 


CATTLE— GENERAL  MANAGEMENT.  781 

bring  than  to  keep  them,  as  it  is  a  great  deal  wiser  to  sell  an 
unthrifty  animal  at  a  small  loss  than  to  incur  a  greater  by 
keeping  it. 

The  Water  Supply  is  a  matter  of  great  importance  on  a 
stock-farm,  as  cattle  can  not  thrive  if  obliged  to  drink  warm 
water  from  a  filthy  pool.  If  there  is  a  permanent  spring  on 
the  farm,  by  all  means  include  it  in  your  pasture,  and  if  there 
is  none,  try  and  provide  a  supply  of  good  water  for  the  stock 
from  some  other  source.  A  good  well,  provided  with  a  wind- 
engine  to  pump  the  water,  will  pay  for  quite  an  outlay,  or  if  a 
well  is  out  of  the  question — as  is  the  case  in  some  localities,  on 
account  of  the  depth  to  which  they  must  be  dug,  or  the  fact  that 
permanent  veins  can  not  be  found — a  cistern  may  be  dug  and. 
filled  with  surface-water  during  the  wet  season,  and  held  as  a 
reserve. 

In  many  localities  where  there  is  a  clay  or  limestone  soil, 
these  cisterns  will  hold  without  cement.  I  have  two  of  them, 
holding  one  hundred  and  fifty  barrels  each,  which  may  be  simply 
called  arched-wells.  They  are  ten  feet  in  diameter,  and  arched 
with  brick,  the  arch  resting  on  the  natural  ledge  of  limestone. 
They  fill  with  water  from  the  natural  drainage  of  the  soil, 
whenever  heavy  rains  saturate  it,  and  in  the  longest  drought 
they  retain  water  for  two-thirds  of  their  depth.  In  a  porous 
soil,  where  the  cisterns  must  be  bricked,  or  stoned  and  cemented, 
a  cistern  would  be  expensive,  but  there  occasionally  comes  a 
season  in  which  the  gain  is  so  great  that  it  will  justify  u  heavy 
expense.  Cattle  that  must  be  driven  a  mile  or  two  through 
choking  dust  to  fill  themselves  with  warm  river  water  once  in 
twenty-four  hours  will  be  likely  to  lose  flesh  rapidly,  and  if 
this  must  be  continued  for  several  weeks,  as  is  the  case  every 
few  years,  the  loss  on  a  moderate  herd  of  cattle  will  go  far  to- 
wards paying  for  a  cistern  that  would  last  through  any  drought 
likely  to  occur. 

A  supply  of  moderately  good  water  can  be  had  by  construct- 
ing a  pond  if  the  soil  is  such  as  will  hold  water,  and  if  not,  it 
can  sometimes  be  made  so  by  drawing  clay  and  puddling  the 
bottom.  A  pond  for  stock-water  should  be  made  where  there  is 


782  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

a  gentle  slope,  so  that  there  will  be  no  danger  of  its  being  filled 
by  wash  from  the  fields.  Do  not  make  it  over  ten  feet  wide,  and 
of  such  length  as  will  be  necesssry  for  the  amount  of  water 
needed ;  plant  around  it  a  double  row  of  soft-maple  trees,  or 
some  other  quick-growing  timber,  to  grow  a  dense  shade  for 
its  protection,  and  fence  it  thoroughly,  so  that  no  stock  can  ever 
get  into  it.  I  would  dig  the  pond  east  and  west,  and  arrange  at 
the  east  end  for  the  stock  to  get  at  the  water,  as  this  point 
would  not  need  so  much  shade.  At  this  end  set  the  fence  a  few 
feet  into  the  pond,  and  make  a  gradual  slope  to  the  water,  and 
cover  it  with  broken  stone  or  gravel  to  such  a  depth  that  the 
stock  will  not  get  into  the  mud.  Such  a  pond  could  be  dug  with 
.the  plow  and  scraper  at  a  moderate  expense,  and  when  the  trees 
have  attained  a  few  years  growth,  the  water  would  keep  cool 
and  wholesome. 

Shade  in  every  pasture  is  desirable,  and  the  best  way  to 
secure  it  is  to  plant  shelter-belts  of  timber  along  the  north  and 
west  side  of  the  field.  These  belts  will  not  only  furnish  grate- 
ful shade  during  the  heat  of  summer,  but  protection  in  spring 
and  fall,  not  only  for  the  stock,  but  also  for  the  grass  or  grain 
crops.  There  are  many  days  when  the  cattle  are  not  comfortable 
in  the  pastures,  if  unprotected,  and  at  such  times  these  timber- 
belts  would  be  of  great  value.  It  has  been  proved,  that  with 
one-sixth  of  the  land  planted  in  timber  on  the  praries,  the  other 
five-sixths  produced  as  much  grain  as  the  whole  did  without  the 
shelter,  and  there  is  no  product  of  the  farm  that  is  likely  to 
give  so  great  profit  in  the  future  as  timber,  and  if  we  can  get 
benefit  from  it  while  growing,  as  well  as  a  profit  when  it  is 
marketed,  there  is  a  double  motive  for  planting  timber-belts. 
How  to  start  these  timber-belts  is  told  in  another  chapter. 

Winter  Care  of  Cattle. — I  have  already  in  this  chapter 
shown  that  bad  wintering  made  unprofitable  cattle.  The  wise 
farmer  will,  before  winter  sets  in,  take  an  inventory  of  his 
stock  and  resources,  and  if  he  finds  that  he  has  not  enough  food 
to  carry  his  stock  through  in  good  condition,  he  will  either  buy 
food  or  sell  stock.  It  is  wise  to  do  this  in  the  fall  rather  than 
to  wait  till  the  latter  part  of  winter,  for  the  fanner  who  tries  to 


CATTLE— GENERAL  MANAGEMENT.  783 

winter  more  stock  than  he  has  food  for,  is  tempted  to  feed  a  lit- 
tle short  in  the  hope  that  he  may  get  through  without  purchas- 
ing feed,  and  his  cattle  will  not  be  in  a  condition  to  bring  a  fair 
price  in  the  spring;  or  if  he  must  buy  food,  it  is  usually  much 
scarcer  and  higher  in  price  in  the  spring  than  in  the  fall. 

There  are  a  few  fixed  principles  in  feeding  that  the  farmer 
should  keep  in  mind.  For  example  :  it  takes  a  certain  amount 
of  food  to  supply  the  waste  of  the  system,  and  on  this  food  there 
is  no  profit.  This  can  be  illustrated  by  the  fuel  burned  under  a 
boiler  to  generate  steam  to  drive  machinery.  A  moderate  fire, 
which  is  not  sufficient  to  bring  the  water  to  a  boil,  might  be 
kept  up  all  day  and  no  power  generated  and  no  profit  accrue, 
but  a  little  more  fuel  added  would  start  the  water  to  boiling, 
and  it  would  be  easy  to  keep  it  so.  If  the  animal  is  merely 
fed  what  will  supply  the  waste  through  the  winter,  we  have 
made  no  profit  on  the  food,  but  the  addition  of  a  small  amount 
of  rich  food  will  enable  us  to  make  a  profit  on  all  the  animal 
has  eaten. 

Another  fact  is,  that  warmth  and  shelter  are,  to  some  ex- 
tent, an  equivalent  for  food.  Or,  in  other  words,  one  purpose 
which  food  subserves  in  the  animal  is  to  maintain  vital  heat, 
and  food  used  for  this  purpose  can  not  be  used  to  replace  waste 
tissue  or  add  muscle  or  fat.  I  have  an  agricultural  boiler  which 
gives  a  good  illustration  of  this  fact.  The  boiler  holds  sixty 
gallons,  and  as  it  is  one  foot  higher  than  the  stove  on  which  it 
is  placed,  and  three  feet  in  diameter,  there  is  about  nine  super- 
ficial feet  of  surface  exposed  to  the  air.  I  find  that  on  a  cold, 
windy  day  it  will  take  an  hour  longer  and  double  the  amount 
of  fuel  to  bring  the  water  to  a  boil  if  this  surface  is  unpro- 
tected. There  are  farmers  still  who  claim  that  cattle  will  do 
as  well  without  as  with  shelter,  and  they  refer  us  to  the  fine 
cattle  that  are  fattened  on  the  prairies  as  a  proof  of  their  state- 
ment. We  grant  that  fine  fat  cattle  are  reared  without  shelter, 
but  that  does  not  change  the  fact  that  food  used  to  maintain 
heat  can  not  be  used  for  any  other  purpose,  and  these  same 
cattle  would  have  been  fattened  on  a  much  less  quantity  of 
corn  if  they  had  been  protected.  In  a  prairie  country  of  cheap 


784  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

corn  and  bad  roads,  it  may  sometimes  be  cheaper  to  maintain 
vital  heat  by  additional  food  than  by  shelter;  but  to  the  major- 
ity of  farmers  there  can  be  no  question  that  shelter  costs  less 
than  grain. 

One  other  illustration :  Every  one  knows  how  much  easier 
it  is  to  keep  a  fire  up  when  the  furnace  is  hot  than  to  start  it 
when  every  thing  is  cold.  The  same  thing  is  true  in  the  growth 
of  an  animal.  If  it  is  so  wintered  that  growth  ceases  and  the 
animal  loses  flesh,  it  is  a  slow  process  to  bring  it  back  to  the 
point  of  profitable  feeding. 

There  is  much  truth  in  the  saying,  "An  animal  well  wintered 
is  half  summered."  I  have  found  that  the  cattle  that  are  kept 
thrifty  through  the  winter,  and  are  so  fed  as  to  make  a  little 
gain,  begin  at  once  to  thrive  rapidly  when  turned  to  pasture, 
and  before  the  starveling  has  shed  its  old  hair,  and  shows  signs 
of  improvement,  the  well-wintered  animal  is  good  beef.  The 
farmer  who  winters  five  cattle  on  the  food  necessary  for  four 
will,  in  a  majority  of  cases,  fail  to  realize  any  profit  from  them. 

With  perhaps  some  exceptions,  I  do  not  think  the  winter  a 
favorable  season  for  feeding  for  beef;  but  I  shall  speak  of  that 
under  another  head.  But  I  do  recommend  such  winter  feeding 
as  will  keep  the  cattle  thrifty,  and  bring  them  through  the  win- 
ter in  such  a  condition  as  to  make  grazing  profitable.  For 
young  cattle,  and  cows  giving  milk,  I  place  a  very  high  value 
on  bran  for  winter  food;  but  for  dry  cows,  and  two  or  three- 
year-old  steers  and  heifers,  I  find  nothing  better  for  the  grain 
ration  than  whole  corn. 

All  things  considered,  in  our  best  grain-growing  regions, 
corn  and  straw  will  winter  cattle  cheaper  and  in  better  condi- 
tion than  any  other  food.  The  straw  may  be  stacked  so  as  to 
afford  shelter,  and  the  cattle  allowed  to  remain  day  and  night 
in  the  stack  yard,  or  they  may  be  stabled  at  night,  and  given 
the  corn  night  and  morning,  and  for  a  change  a  small  feed  of 
corn-fodder;  but  they  will  do  well  on  corn  and  straw  without 
other  food.  In  this  method  of  cattle  feeding,  corn  can  be  used 
freely  at  a  profit,  from  the  fact  that  a  large  part  of  the  nutri- 
ment in  the  corn  is  available  for  hogs  after  having  passed 


CATTLE— GENERAL  MANAGEMENT.  785 

through  the  cattle.  All  who  have  tried  the  plan  of  feeding 
whole  corn  to  cattle,  and  allowing  hogs  to  follow,  agree  in  giv- 
ing it  a  high  feeding  value  for  the  hogs,  and  the  lowest  claim 
made  is  that  corn  is  worth  half  as  much  for  hogs,  after  it  has 
been  fed  to  cattle,  as  it  would  be  if  fed  directly  to  them. 

Mr.  John  D.  Gillett,  who  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
successful  cattle  feeders  of  Illinois,  estimates  that  fifty  dollars' 
worth  of  pork  can  be  made  from  the  corn  fed  to  a  steer  dur- 
ing the  two  years  from  the  spring  it  is  a  yearling,  and  that  the 
steer  will,  in  this  time,  eat  two  hundred  and  thirty-five  bushels 
of  corn,  worth,  at  thirty-five  cents  a  bushel,  $81.75.  This 
estimate  makes  the  pork  pay  considerably  more  than  half  the 
cost  of  the  corn,  and  is  made  where  the  feeding  is  on  what 
might  be  called  the  forcing  plan,  where  the  cuttle  are  fed  corn 
summer  and  winter  from  the  time  they  are  one  year  old  till 
marketed.  I  accept  this  estimate  of  Mr.  Gillett's  with  little 
question  of  its  accuracy,  as  he  has  been  largely  engaged  in  the 
business  of  cattle  feeding  for  many  years,  and  few  men  have 
had  as  good  a  chance  to  ascertain  the  facts. 

The  farmer  who  grows  wheat  largely  can,  by  utilizing  his 
straw,  winter  cattle  much  cheaper  that  those  who  must  feed 
hay.  I  am  much  inclined  to  doubt  the  economy  of  wintering 
cattle  on  hay  alone,  as  is  the  practice  in  many  of  the  dairy  re- 
gions, for  I  think  it  not  only  better  for  the  animal,  but  cheaper, 
to  feed  some  grain  or  other  food.  If  an  animal  is  wintered  on 
hay  alone,  unless  it  is  of  the  best  quality,  it  is  impossible  for  it 
to  eat  and  digest  enough  to  furnish  the  necessary  nutriment. 
A  few  pounds  of  bran  and  corn  substituted  for  twice  as  many 
pounds  of  hay  will  give  a  ration  more  easily  digested,  more 
palatable,  and  better  calculated  to  supply  all  the  need  of  the 
system,  and  often  at  a  less  cost. 

The  proportionate  feeding  value  of  corn  and  good  meadow 
hay  is  that  of  fifty-nine  to  one  hundred.  In  round  numbers, 
we  may  therefore  say  that  a  bushel  of  corn  will  be  equal  to  a 
hundred  weight  of  hay,  or  twenty  bushels  of  corn  to  a  ton  of 
hay.  At  this  rate,  corn,  at  fifty  cents  a  bushel,  is  as  cheap  a 
food  as  hay  at  $10.00  per  ton. 

50 


786  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Feeding  for  Beef. — Perhaps  there  is  no  one  branch  of 
stock-farming  in  which  farmers  universally  feel  so  great  an  in- 
terest as  the  feeding  of  cattle  for  beef,  and  none  which,  if  a 
profit  is  to  be  realized,  requires  more  skill  and  judgment,  par- 
ticularly if  winter  stall-feeding  is  attempted.  The  inexperienced 
farmer  who  attempts  winter  stall-feeding,  is  far  more  likely  to 
lose  than  to  make  money  by  the  operation,  as  many  have  found 
to  their  sorrow.  There  are  different  systems  of  feeding  adapted 
to  different  localities,  and  the  farmer  must  determine  for  himself 
which  he  will  adopt.  In  the  West,  where  land  and  grain  are 
cheap,  a  system  would  prove  profitable  that  would  be  ruinous 
on  high-priced  land,  where  it  costs  two  or  three  times  as  much 
to  produce  a  bushel  of  grain.  In  the  new  prairie  countries  no 
account  is  taken  of  the  value  of  the  manure,  and  under  the  sys- 
tem practiced  but  little  benefit  is  derived  from  it,  while  among 
the  truck  farmers  of  the  Eastern  States  manure  is  so  valuable 
that  farmers  are  willing  to  invest  thousands  of  dollars  in  cattle 
and  food  in  the  fall,  if  they  are  sure  of  getting  their  money 
back  in  the  beef,  as  they  consider  the  manure  a  fair  profit  for 
the  investment  and  labor. 

Different  Systems  of  Feeding. — I  have  spoken  of  Mr. 
Gillett,  the  great  cattle  feeder  of  Illinois.  From  a  statement 
of  his  method  of  feeding,  which  I  find  in  an  agricultural  paper, 
I  should  designate  it  as  the  forcing  system.  That  he  handles 
good  stock  will  be  seen  from  the  weight  of  his  yearlings,  which 
he  averages  at  seven  hundred  pounds.  In  the  statement  before 
me  he  does  not  give  the  details  of  the  management  of  the  calves, 
but  states. that  they  are  fed  no  corn  until  one  year  old,  and  he 
puts  the  cost  of  a  calf  at  this  age  at  $29,  and  its  value  five 
cents  per  pound,  or  $35.  I  infer  that  the  calves  are  allowed  to 
run  with  the  dams  through  the  summer.  At  one  year  old  he 
begins  feeding  corn,  and  for  two  years  they  are  fed  summer 
and  winter  all  they  will  eat,  and  hogs  allowed  to  follow  them 
to  eat  the  waste. 

Mr.  Gillett  claims,  under  this  system  of  feeding,  that  the 
steers  will  gain  nine  hundred  pounds  each  from  one  to  two 
years  old,  and  that  they  will  consume  an  average  of  one  hun- 


CATTLE— GENERAL  MANAGEMENT.  787 

dred  and  ten  bushels  of  corn  each,  worth  $38.40,  and  he  esti- 
mates that  five  hundred  pounds  of  pork  will  be  made  from  the 
droppings,  which,  at  an  average  price  of  five  dollars  a  hundred, 
pays  $25,  or  more  than  five-eighths  of  the  cost  of  the  corn. 
The  cattle  now  average  sixteen  hundred  pounds,  and  are  worth 
$6.50  per  hundred,  and  the  profit  on  this  year's  feeding  he  esti- 
mates at  over  $50  per  head.  From  two  to  three  years  old,  each 
steer  consumes  an  average  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-five 
bushels  of  corn,  and  gains  but  six  hundred  pounds,  and  the  profit 
this  year  he  estimates  at  about  $19  per  head,  the  cattle  now 
being  worth  $7  per  hundred. 

It  will  be  seen  from  these  figures  that  if  the  supply  of  this 
quality  of  cattle  was  unlimited,  a  much  greater  profit  could  be 
made  by  marketing  at  two  years  old,  as  it  takes  fifteen  bushels 
more  corn  to  make  six  hundred  pounds  gain  on  a  steer  from 
two  to  three  years  old,  than  to  make  nine  hundred  pounds  on 
the  steer  from  one  to  two  years  old.  As,  however,  $19  is  a 
paying  profit,  and  the  supply  of  choice  cattle  is  limited,  it  pays 
to  keep  them  over  till  three  years  old.  These  figures  show  how 
much  is  gained  by  early  maturity,  and  this  is  the  quality  of 
greatest  value  in  our  improved  breeds  of  cattle,  and  it  has  been 
proved  in  thousands  of  cases  that  good  grades  of  these  improved 
breeds  will  be  as  heavy  and  ripe  for  the  butcher  at  two  years 
old  as  common  cattle  at  three.* 

Perhaps  some  farmer  will  criticize  these  figures  and  say, 
"How  is  it  that  Mr.  Gillett  counts  with  such  certainty  on  $6.50 
and  $7  per  hundred  for  cattle?  Is  not  the  price  of  beef  sub- 
ject to  fluctuation  like  other  products?"  Yes,  my  friend,  the 
price  of  old  cows,  scrub  steers,  that  weigh  from  six  to  nine 
hundred,  stags  and  "  Pennyroyal "  stock  goes  up  and  down  in 
the  market,  continually  vibrating  between  $1.75  and  $5  per 
hundred  pounds,  but  smooth,  ripe  steers,  that  will  average  six- 
teen hundred  pounds,  vary  but  little  in  price,  unless  it  is  in  a 
time  of  great  scarcity,  and  then  the  price  advances,  but  the 


•Since  the  above  was  written  I  understand  that  Mr.  Gillett  has  determined  to 
market  his  cattle  at  two  years  old,  as  continued  experience  has  shown  him  that 
the  greatest  profit  is  found  by  handling  cattle  so  as  to  mature  them  at  this  age. 


788  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

market  is  never  over-stocked  with  them,  and  the  price  rarely,  if 
ever,  gets  below  the  figures  named. 

For  a  year  past  I  have  heard  marvelous  stories  concerning 
a  steer  raised  by  Mr.  Oliver  Keffer,  of  Union  County,  Indiana, 
a  man  of  large  experience  in  feeding  and  handling  cattle,  and 
wishing  to  know  the  truth  I  wrote  him  asking  that  he  would  give 
me  the  facts  about  it.  In  reply,  Mr.  Keffer  writes  as  follows : 

"DEAR  SIR, — The  steer  you  ask  about  I  bought  when  he 
was  three  months  old,  paying  $12.50  for  him.  I  sold  him 
when  thirty-four  months  old,  at  which  time  he  weighed  two  thou- 
sand one  hundred  pounds.  He  was  shipped  to  Pittsburg  with 
five  others  that  averaged  eighteen  hundred  and  fifty  pounds, 
and  the  lot  sold  at  nine  cents  per  pound.  I  could  have  sold 
this  steer  alone  for  ten  cents  per  pound.  This  statement  you 
can  rely  on.  0.  KEFFER." 

The  Labor-saving  System  of  cattle  feeding  is  practiced 
to  some  extent,  and  is,  perhaps,  not  without  some  advantages. 
Under  this  plan  corn  is  kept  before  the  cattle  all  the  time  after 
they  are  on  full  feed.  Pastures  are  allowed  to  grow  up  to  fur- 
nish rough  feed  for  a  part  of  the  winter,  and  straw-stacks  are 
provided  to  which  the  cattle  can  run  when  the  grass  is  covered 
with  snow.  Feed-boxes  are  placed  high  enough  so  that  the 
hogs  can  not  get  into  them,  and  in  these  corn  is  always  kept  so 
that  the  cattle  can  help  themselves.  If  at  any  time  soiled  corn 
is  found  in  the  boxes,  it  is  shoveled  out  to  the  hogs  that  are 
allowed  to  follow  the  cattle.  The  labor  of  feeding  cattle  is  thus 
reduced  to  a  minimum,  and  one  man  can  in  a  very  few  hours 
do  all  the  work  necessary  for  a  week  for  a  large  lot  of  cattle, 
as  a  load  of  corn  at  a  time  is  shoveled  into  the  boxes.  It 
will  not  answer  to  begin  this  heavy  feeding  at  once,  as  the 
cattle  would  injure  themselves  by  over-eating,  but  begin  with  a 
small  quantity  of  corn  and  gradually  increase  until  the  cattle 
leave  some  in  the  feed-boxes,  and  then  fill  them  up  and  allow 
the  cattle  to  help  themselves. 

I  have  never  tried  this  plan,  as  I  prefer  stall-feeding,  so  as 
to  save  the  manure,  but  a  neighbor  who  has  practiced  it  for 


CA TTLE— GENERAL  MA NAGEMEN T. 


789 


FEED   liOX    FOR  SHOCK  CORN. 


years,  tells  me  that  his  cattle  do  remarkably  well,  and  that 
there  is  no  waste  of  corn,  as  the  hogs  eat  all  the  cattle  reject. 
I  think  the  best  form  of  feed-box  for  out-door  feeding  is  one 
large  enough  to  be  used  for  shock  corn  if  desired.  The  cut 
shows  its  form. 

Use  four  by  four  inch  scantling  for  posts  ;  cut  them  three  feet 
long.  Six  posts  will  be  needed  for  each  box,  and  I  recommend 
that  the  boxes  be 
made  five  by  ten  feet. 
Spike  two  by  four 
scantling  one  foot 
from  the  top  of  the 
posts,  across  from 
one  to  the  other  to 
support  the  floor. 
When  completed  you  will  have  a  bin  one  foot  deep,  on  legs  two 
feet  high.  Its  size  will  be  sufficient  to  hold  a  feed  of  shock 
corn  for  four  to  six  cattle,  and  its  width  such  that  they  can 
easily  reach  to  the  middle  of  it.  It  will  hardly  be  possible  for 
the  cattle  to  tip  it  over  on  account  of  its  width.  It  will  be 
high  enough  to  keep  the  hogs  out,  and  can  be  easily  moved  on 
a  sled.  About  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  of  lumber  will  be 
required,  and  if  this  can  be  had  for  two  dollars  a  hundred,  the 
cost  of  the  box  complete  should  not  exceed  three  dollars.  A 
few  of  these  feeding  boxes  would  be  convenient  on  every  farm. 
They  could  be  used  in  the  pastures  in  spring  or  fall,  when  a  little 
extra  feed  is  needed  by  the"  stock,  and  would  prevent  the 
tramping  and  waste  which  is  so  common  when  cattle  are  fed 
on  the  ground. 

Stall-feeding  of  Cattle. — More  labor  and  care  is  required 
to  feed  cattle  successfully  in  the  stable  than  by  the  methods 
already  described,  but  there  are  also  advantages  connected  with 
this  plan.  With  a  properly  constructed  stable  all  the  manure 
can  be  saved,  and  on  many  farms  this  alone  would  be  considered 
good  pay  for  the  labor.  With  cattle  warmly  sheltered,  less  food 
will  be  required  for  each  pound  of  flesh  gained,  as  less  will  be 
expended  in  keeping  up  vital  heat.  The  amount  of  food  to 


790  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

each  animal  can  be  regulated,  and  the  weaker  animals  can  be 
given  their  full  share,  which  is  not  the  case  when  fed  in  feed- 
lots.  An  opportunity  is  given  to  try  experiments  with  different 
foods,  or,  by  weighing  the  food  for  a  given  time,  and  the  animal 
before  and  after  the  experiment,  and  this  enables  the  feeder 
to  find  out  valuable  facts  concerning  the  amount  and  kind  of 
food  to  give.  By  confining  the  animals  in  stalls,  we  greatly 
economize  shelter,  as  at  least  three  animals  can  be  sheltered, 
when  tied,  in  the  space  that  would  be  monopolized  by  one  loose. 

I  give  here  an  article  from  the  pen  of  J.  G.  Oxer,  who  has 
been  a  successful  stall-feeder  of  cattle. 

Feeding  Cattle. — "As  the  demand  for  good  beef,  both  in 
this  country  and  Europe,  is  steadily  on  the  increase,  the  subject 
of  feeding  cattle,  or  the  production  of  good  beef  becomes  more 
and  more  important  to  the  farmers  of  this  country  each  succeed- 
ing year.  How  to  produce  the  most  and  best  beef  with  the 
least  possible  expense,  should  be  the  aim  of  every  one  engaged 
in  the  raising  of  cattle,  and  one  of  the  very  essential  points  is 
to  have  a  good  beef-producing  breed  to  begin  with.  The  writer 
has  had  considerable  experience  in  feeding  the  various  breeds  of 
cattle  for  market,  and  finds  a  vast  difference  in  the  growth  and 
feeding  qualities  of  the  good  grade  Short-horn  and  the  common 
scrub.  Cattle  intended  for  the  shambles  should  always  have  a 
plentiful  supply  of  good  food,  no  stinting  or  starving  to  make 
them  hardy,  as  some  say. 

"  It  is  no  uncommon  occurrence  to  see  cattle  no  larger  at 
three  years  than  they  should  be  at  twenty  months  or  two 
years,  and  this  is  generally  caused  by  the  starving  process 
during  the  first  year,  when  the  animal  is  too  young  to  take  care 
of  itself  among  a  herd  of  older  cattle.  The  old  maxim,  that 
'what  is  worth  doing  at  all  is  worth  doing  well,'  holds  good  in 
this  as  well  as  all  other  occupations.  As  stated  before,  to 
derive  the  greatest  profit  the  animal  must  be  kept  growing  from 
birth  until  it  is  slaughtered.  In  this  article  we  will  give  mostly 
our  own  experience. 

"Should  the  calf  be  dropped  in  the  fall,  it  is  either  fed  by 
hand  on  good  sweet  milk  for  the  first  five  or  six  months,  with 


CATTLE—GENERAL  MANAGEMENT.  791 

shelled  corn,  bran,  oatrmeal,  and  hay  in  addition  as  soon  as  it 
will  eat;  or  if  allowed  to  take  the  milk  from  the  cow,  it  is  turned 
with  her  twice  a  day,  with  the  same  food  in  addition  as  in  the 
case  of  feeding  by  hand.  In  the  spring,  when  turned  out  to 
grass,  the  same  process  of  giving  dry  feed  is  kept  up  at  least 
once  each  day,  until  the  grass  loses  its  washy  nature.  Calves 
dropped  in  the  spring  are  treated  much  the  same.  As  soon  as 
pastures  begin  to  run  short  in  the  autumn,  the  feeding  is  com- 
menced again,  and  when  bad  weather  comes  on,  the  calves  are 
brought  to  the  stable  and  not  permitted  to  roam  over  the  fields 
in  quest  of  food  until  grass  comes  the  next  season. 

"  The  best  food  for  yearlings  is  an  equal  mixture  of  shelled 
corn,  or  corn-meal,  bran,  and  oats  ;  the  corn  to  make  fat  and 
keep  up  animal  heat,  bran  and  oats  to  make  bone  an$  muscle. 
The  amount  that  each  animal  should  have  varies  so  much  at 
different  times,  that  it  is  hard  to  give  an  estimate  ;  when  it  is 
steady,  cold,  and  dry,  they  will  eat  much  more  than  when  the 
winter  is  warm  and  wet.  Some  writers  claim,  that  three  pounds 
of  solid  dry  food  for  each  hundred  pounds  the  animal  weighs  is 
amply  sufficient,  but  it  won't  always  hold  good.  The  second 
spring,  when  the  cattle  are  turned  to  grass,  they  are  fed  the  same 
as  at  first,  until  they  become  thoroughly  accustomed  to  it  and  no 
danger  of  scouring.  Many  good  animals  are  badly  injured  by  too 
sudden  a  change  from  dry  food  to  grass  in  the  spring  of  the  year. 
A  little  dry  food  each  day,  if  it  is  nothing  but  hay  or  good  straw — 
with  salt — in  small  quantities,  two  or  three  times  each  week  will 
prevent  scouring  and  keep  the  animal  in  good  condition. 

"  The  second  winter,  if  cattle  are  intended  for  the  shambles 
the  following  spring  or  summer,  we  begin  the  feeding  process  in 
time  to  keep  the  animals  from  losing  any  flesh;  but  in  the 
change  from  green  to  dry  food  it  is  impossible  to  keep  them  from 
shrinking  in  weight  for  a  period  of  three  or  four  weeks.  The 
cattle  are  stabled  at  the  beginning  of  bad  weather,  each  animal 
is  tied  by  itself  and  fed  lightly  the  first  few  days,  as  the  sudden 
change  from  out-door  exercise  to  being  tied  in  the  stable  causes 
a  little  excitement  and  a  high  pulse,  and  we  always  find  the 
result  more  satisfactory  to  feed  lightly  until  the  animal  becomes 


792  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

thoroughly  accustomed  to  the  change,  then  increase  each  animal's 
rations  to  all  it  will  eat  with  good  relish. 

"Our  feed  for  fattening  cattle  is  principally  corn  or  corn- 
meal,  with  a  little  bran.  I  am  a  thorough  believer  in  the 
efficacy  of  corn  as  a  fat-producer.  We  always  feed  twice  each 
day,  as  near  the  same  time,  morning  and  evening,  as  possible. 
Hay  is  fed  in  such  quantities  as  will  be  eaten  clean  and  with 
a  relish,  twice  each  day,  and  soon  after  the  morning  or  evening 
meal.  Have  always  practiced  watering  but  once  a  day  while 
the  cattle  are  kept  in  the  stable.  If  the  weather  is  not  too  in- 
clement, the  cattle  are  turned  out  in  a  lot  adjoining  the  stable, 
for  two  or  three  hours  each  day,  and  they  are  supplied  with 
plenty  of  water  freshly  pumped.  The  same  rules  are  followed 
as  in  feeding.  They  are  always  watered  about,  or  just  after  the 
middle  of  the  day,  after  the  cattle  have  had  ample  time  to 
digest  the  morning  meal.  After  an  experience  of  several  years 
with  the  various  grasses  and  corn-fodder,  I  think  a  mixture  of 
three-fourths  clover,  and  one-fourth  timothy,  gives  the  best 
results,  for  the  expense  in  producing  it,  of  any  roughness  that 
can  be  given. 

"  I  have  tried  various  plans  of  fastening  cattle,  and  for  animals 
that  weigh  under  one  thousand  pounds,  prefer  the  stanchion,  but 
heavier  cattle  do  much  better  to  be  tied  around  the  neck  or  head, 
in  order  to  have  more  freedom  in  lying  down  and  getting  up; 
and  it  is  a  fact  beyond  dispute,  that  cattle  will  be  much  better 
satisfied  tied  around  the  neck  than  around  the  head. 

"  Cattle  should  be  fed  at  least  twelve  or  fourteen  weeks  for 
profit  and  by  actual  test,  I  have  always  found  them  to  make 
the  greatest  gain  the  last  three  or  four  weeks  of  feeding.  An 
animal  in  good  flesh  will  gain  much  faster  than  one  in  thin  flesh. 

"  There  is  no  rule  that  can  be  laid  down  as  to  when  is  the 
best  time  to  dispose  of  fat  cattle,  but  when  they  are  thoroughly 
ripe  for  the  butcher,  and  the  price  is  such  that  there  will  be  a 
fair  profit  for  the  outlay,  is  a  very  good  time  to  sell. 

"A  few  thoughts  as  to  the  proper  time  to  purchase  cattle 
for  stall  feeding.  If  intended  to  be  turned  to  the  butcher 
from  the  stable,  I  have  always  practiced  buying  about,  or  just 


CATTLE— GENERAL  MANAGEMENT.  793 

before,  the  holidays;  the  cattle  are  then  generally  well  shrunk 
out,  pastures  are  becoming  short,  prices  are  usually  low  from  an 
over-crowded  market  with  stock  to  be  got  off  before  the 
weather  gets  too  bad  and  the  stock  runs  down  thin  in  flesh.  A 
few  day's  feeding  soon  starts  them  to  gaining,  and  they  improve 
right  along.  If  I  intend  to  graze  awhile  then  I  prefer  waiting 
until  February  before  making  purchases.  They  usually  advance 
a  little  by  that  time,  but  the  shrinkage  in  weight  from  a  scant 
supply  of  food,  which  is  practiced  by  so  many  farmers,  usually 
over-balances  the  advance  in  price.  Cattle  can  then  be  fed 
three  months,  turned  to  pasture  six  weeks  with  three  or  four 
quarts  of  corn-meal  to  each  animal  a  day,  and  they  are  in  prime 
condition  to  be  slaughtered. 

"  No  statement  has  been  made  thus  far  in  this  article  as  to 
the  amount  of  corn  or  its  equivalent  required  for  fattening  an 
animal.  I  have  always  fed  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  pounds 
pure  meal  each  day,  or  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  pounds  of 
corn  and  cob-meal,  or  corn  on  the  cob,  which  for  a  period  of 
one  hundred  days  would  make  about  thirty  bushels  of  corn  to 
each  animal.  The  above  is  an  average  for  cattle  weighing  from 
eleven  to  thirteen  hundred  pounds ;  have  never  weighed  the 
hay,  but  as  stated  before,  fed  what  would  be  cleanly  taken  up. 
Results  in  gain  for  a  period  of  about  one  hundred  days  in  stall 
feeding  have  run  from  two  and  one-fourth  to  three  pounds  per 
day.  A  steady,  cold  winter,  with  good  cattle,  the  average  is 
usually  about  two  and  three-fourth  pounds. 

"  Finally,  get  a  breed  that  will  fat.  Keep  them  growing 
continually.  It  is  wretched  policy  to  let  an  animal  lose  flesh, 
for  every  pound  costs  money,  and  it  will  cost  money  to  replace 
it.  One  who  pays  twice  for  a  thing  is  reckoned  unfortunate, 
but  farmers  often  pay  several  times  for  the  same  pound  of  flesh. 
If  the  above  method  could  be  thoroughly  inaugurated,  it  would 
lead  to  good  results  in  the  production  of  beef." 

While  I  like  stanchions,  and  would  have  them  in  every  sta- 
ble in  which  I  was  intending  to  tie  cattle,  I  would  never  leave 
cattle  to  lie  all  night  in  this  position,  for  it  is  unnatural  and 
can  not  be  comfortable.  With  the  stanchions' attached  to  each 


794  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

other  by  a  light  strip  of  board,  quite  a  row  of  cattle  can  be 
fastened  or  unfastened  by  a  single  motion  of  the  hand,  and  on 
this  account,  and  as  they  cost  but  little,  I  recommend  that  they 
be  put  in  all  cattle  stables ;  but  in  addition  I  would  have  a  short 
rope  and  snap  for  each  stall,  and  a  strap  or  short  piece  of  rope  with 
a  sliding  ring  on  it  round  the  horns  of  each  of  the  cattle.  The 
feed  can  be  put  in  the  boxes  and  the  cattle  let  in  and  secured 
by  the  stanchions,  and  then  at  your  leisure  each  one  can  be 
fastened  and  the  stanchions  thrown  open  for  the  night.  While 
they  are  eating  in  the  morning  the  stanchions  can  be  closed 
again  and  the  snaps  loosened,  so  that  when  you  wish  to  let  them 
out  you  can  do  it  quickly  and  easily.  There  is  always  some 
trouble  and  risk  of  being  hurt  by  the  horns  in  tying  animals, 
and  this  is  greatly  reduced  by  first  securing  their  heads  in  the 
stanchions.  I  have  never  found  a  tie  so  satisfactory  as  the  snap 
and  ring.  With  good,  strong  snaps  it  is  impossible  for  them  to 
get  loose,  and  the  time  required  to  fasten  or  unfasten  an  animal 
is  not  longer  than  it  takes  to  snap  your  ringers.  If  the  rope  or 
strap  round  the  horns  can  be  secured  so  as  to  keep  the  ring  in 
the  center  of  the  forehead,  it  will  be  an  advantage. 

For  steers  or  fattening  cattle  I  prefer  the  box  stall,  and  if 
one  has  room  so  as  to  allow  the  animal  a  stall  large  enough  to 
turn  round  in,  it  will  be  all  the  more  comfortable,  but  a  stall  so 
narrow  that  the  animal  can  not  turn,  with  a  single  bar  to  keep  it 
from  backing  out,  will  answer  the  purpose.  This  bar  can  be  hung 
on  a  pivot  by  a  single  bolt  through  it  so  as  to  turn  it  up  when 
open,  and  when  closed  it  can  be  kept  in  place  by  a  wooden  pin 
or  some  simple  form  of  latch,  which  can  be  easily  arranged. 

I  do  not  think  an  animal  can  be  so  thrifty  with  its  flanks 
and  horns  covered  with  tags,  or  plastered  with  dung,  and  I  have 
never  been  able  to  keep  cattle  clean  except  on  a  raised  floor  or 
with  a  manure  ditch.  I  prefer  the  latter,  and  make  it  eight 
inches  deep  and  two  feet  wide.  It  should  be  water-tight,  and 
where  tough  clay  can  be  had,  all  that  will  be  necessary  will  be 
to  make  it  fifteen  inches  deep,  with  sides  of  good  two-inch 
plank,  and  pound  six  inches  of  clay  in  the  bottom,  and  on  this 
lay  a  board  floor  'to  give  a  smooth,  solid  bottom.  If  clay  can 


CATTLE— GENERAL  MANAGEMENT.  795 

not  be  had  fill  the  bottom  to  a  depth  of  six  inches  with  broken 
stone  or  coarse  gravel  and  pound  it  down  well,  then  pour  in  a 
grout  made  with  one  part  of  cement  to  four  of  good  sharp  sand, 
and  after  it  has  set,  use  an  inch  coating  composed  of  two  parts 
of  sand  to  one  of  cement,  and  mixed  to  the  consistency  of 
mortar  for  plastering.  There  should  be  a  floor  laid  on  this,  but 
it  may  simply  be  two  boards,  each  a  foot  wide  (so  they  will  fill 
the  space),  laid  in  loose.  It  will  require  but  little  bedding  to 
keep  your  cattle  clean  on  such  a  floor  as  this,  as,  if  it  is  of  the 
proper  length,  most  of  the  manure  will  drop  into  the  ditch.  We 
always  keep  a  hoe  hanging  behind  the  cattle,  and  every  time 
we  visit  the  stable  if  there  is  any  manure  on  the  floor  we 
scrape  it  down  into  the  ditch. 

The  length  of  the  floor  will  depend  on  the  method  of  fasten- 
ing and  the  size  of  the  cattle.  If  their  heads  are  kept  in  the 
stanchions  the  floor  may  be  a  foot  shorter  than  if  tied.  I  use 
in  my  cow-stable  a  floor  five  and  one-half  feet  long,  and  find  it 
long  enough  for  the  largest  cows,  and  I  have  some  Short-horns 
that  weigh  fifteen  hundred.  I  think  four  and  three-quarter  feet 
long  enough  for  common  cattle  of  from  nine  to  twelve  hundred 
pounds  each  and  five  and  a  half  for  large  steers.  I  allow  four 
feet  of  width  for  each  cow,  and  have  plenty  of  room  to  milk, 
and  think  that  box  stalls  three  and  a  half  feet  wide  in  the  clear 
would  be  ample. 

There  is  no  material  for  bedding  that  I  have  ever  used  which 
keeps  the  cattle  so  clean  or  gives  as  good  satisfaction  as  saw- 
dust; and  when  I  can  get  it  within  five  miles  by  paying  fifty 
cents  a  cord  for  it,  I  use  no  other  bedding.  I  keep  the  ditch  as 
well  as  the  floor  littered,  so  as  to  absorb  the  liquid.  It  is  best 
to  clean  the  ditch  every  day  and  wheel  the  manure  to  the  barn- 
yard, but  in  case  of  bad  weather,  or  a  press  of  other  duties,  a 
ditch  of  this  size  will  hold  the  manure  for  three  days. 

If  one  was  arranging  a  new  stable  and  intending  to  go  into 
the  business  of  feeding  cattle  on  a  large  scale,  two  rows  of 
cattle  might  stand  with  their  heads  from  each  other,  and  have 
the  floor  between  them  eight  inches  lower  than  that  on  which 
they  stood,  and  wide  enough  to  drive  through  with  a  wagon  or 


796  TBE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

cart,  and  the  manure  could  be  taken  directly  from  the  stable  to 
the  fields.  This  would  save  much  labor  in  handling  the  manure. 
I  saw  at  Elgin,  111.,  a  dairy-barn,  in  which  sixty  cows  were  kept, 
that  was  arranged  in  this  way. 

Where  a  large  lot  of  cattle  are  to  be  foddered  in  the  barn, 
the  arrangements  for  getting  the  rough  feed  to  them  should  be 
as  convenient  as  possible.  If  hay  or  fodder  for  thirty  head  of 
cattle  must  be  forked  down  a  narrow  hole,  and  then  lifted  three 
or  four  feet  and  crowded  into  a  narrow  manger,  and  this  repeated 
three  times  a  day  for  many  months,  it  involves  a  large  amount 
of  hard  work. 

The  most  convenient  method  of  feeding  that  I  have  ever 
seen,  is  to  arrange  the  stables  around  the  barn-floor  so  that  the 
cattle  stand  two  and  a  half  or  three  feet  lower  than  the  floor, 
and  eat  directly  from  it.  With  such  an  arrangement  there  will 
be  no  lifting  of  hay  or  fodder,  but  with  a  rake  or  fork  it  can  be 
pushed  to  the  cattle.  If  building  a  cattle-barn,  I  should  adopt 
this  plan,  as  I  think  it  would  be  both  convenient  and  economical. 
The  loft-floors  above  the  cattle  should  be  dropped  as  low  as 
could  be  done  without  detriment,  so  as  to  give  the  room  above 
for  storage ;  and  if  the  cattle  stood  three  feet  lower  than  the 
barn-floor,  the  loft-floors  need  only  be  raised  four  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  former,  to  give  a  ceiling  seven  feet  high  in  the 
cattle  stable,  which  would  be  ample,  as  there  would  be  a  supply 
of  air  from  the  barn-floor.  The  grain  or  meal  can  be  fed  directly 
on  the  barn-floor  by  fastening  a  narrow  board  eighteen  inches 
from  the  edge  of  the  floor  to  prevent  it  being  pushed  beyond 
their  reach.  A  strong  board,  six  inches  wide,  will  be  needed  at 
the  edge  of  the  barn-floor  to  prevent  the  cattle  from  pulling  the 
hay  or  fodder  under  foot.  If  the  cattle  are  fed  in  a  basement, 
and  a  manger  used  for  fodder,  I  would  make  it  wide  enough  so 
that  a  man  could  walk  through  it  comfortably  carrying  a  bundle 
of  fodder,  or  with  his  arms  full  of  corn-buts.  If  the  studding 
on  the  side  next  the  cattle  lean  a  little  towards  them,  I  think 
two  feet  is  wide  enough  at  the  bottom. 

I  do  not  like  feed  boxes  in  the  manger,  as  they  are  in  the 
way,  and  the  cattle,  if  fed  meal,  will  always  waste  more  or  less, 


CATTLE— GENERAL  MANAGEMENT.  797 

which  drops  outside  the  boxes,  where  they  can  not  reach  it,  and 
becomes  sour.  I  prefer  to  make  the  bottom  of  the  manger  tight 
enough  to  feed  meal,  and  have  no  divisions  in  it,  but  so  arranged 
that  it  can  be  swept,  with  nothing  to  interfere  with  the  broom, 
from  one  end  to  the  other.  If  the  manger  is  made  of  dressed 
lumber,  and  is  two  feet  wide  in  the  bottom,  the  cattle  can  reach 
every  part  of  it,  and  can  eat  meal  or  corn  from  the  floor  of  the 
manger  as  well  as  from  a  box,  and  there  will  be  no  difficulty 
whatever  in  keeping  it  clean.  In  a  basement  barn  the  mangers 
can  be  arranged  so  that  the  hay  and  fodder  can  be  dropped 
down  to  the  cattle  through  trap-doors,  which  can  be  closed  after 
feeding.  If  grain  and  meal  are  kept  on  the  upper  floor,  a 
wooden  spout  can  be  arranged  to  convey  this  food  to  each  animal 
and  much  labor  saved. 

Feeding. — The  reader  will  recollect  that  I  am  now  speaking 
of  feeding  for  beef,  not  milk,  and  while  many  of  the  directions 
given  will  apply  to  all  cases,  I  yet  make  quite  a  difference  in 
feeding  for  the  butcher  or  the  dairy.  After  some  years  of 
experience,  I  am  well-grounded  in  the  belief  that  it  does  not  pay 
to  grind  corn  for  feeding  to  beef  cattle.  I  have  always  found 
more  danger  of  indigestion  and  scours  from  feeding  meal  than 
from  whole  corn,  and  while  the  cattle  will  digest  more  of  the 
meal,  I  think  it  cheaper  and  better  to  feed  whole  corn,  and  allow 
hogs  access  to  the  dung,  than  to  be  at  the  expense  of  grinding. 

The  most  successful  feeders  of  my  acquaintance  feed  whole 
corn.  The  experience  of  Illinois  cattle-feeders  shows  that  shock- 
corn  furnishes  a  perfect  ration  for  fattening  cattle,  and  it  is 
claimed  that  when  the  corn  is  eaten  with  the  husk  and  fodder, 
that  it  is  raised  and  remasticated  in  chewing  the  cud.  I  am  of  the 
opinion  that  it  would  pay  much  better  to  get  a  good  power-cutter, 
and  cut  up  the  fodder  and  corn  all  together,  than  to  husk  and  grind 
the  corn,  and  feed  it  and  the  fodder  separate.  One  advantage 
of  this  would  be,  that  the  refuse  of  the  fodder  would  be  in  a 
good  condition  for  bedding  for  the  cattle,  and  would  make  an 
admirable  absorbent  for  the  liquid  manure.  I  think  the  cattle 
would  also  eat  a  larger  per  cent  of  it  than  when  fed  long,  and  I 
have  the  testimony  of  dairymen  who  have  tried  it,  that  their 


798  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

cows  do  better  on  it.  I  visited  in  1876  a  dairyman  at  Elgin, 
111.,  who  milked  sixty  cows  and  used  corn-fodder  exclusively 
for  rough  feed  in  winter.  He  told  me  that  he  made  repeated 
tests,  feeding  his  cows  first  on  long  fodder  and  then  on  cut,  and 
he  found  that  the  cut  fodder  gave  eight  gallons  more  milk  per 
day  from  the  sixty  cows.  The  cut  fodder  was  fed  dry,  with  no 
meal  or  grain  mixed  with  it. 

I  have  found  so  much  trouble  in  feeding  corn-meal,  that  I 
always,  when  I  use  ground  feed,  mix  bran  with  the  meal,  as  I 
find  it  makes  a  much  more  palatable  and  easily  digested  ration 
than  corn-meal  alone. 

In  all  stall-feeding,  regularity,  both  as  to  time  and  quantity, 
is  of  great  importance.  A  single  over-feed  will  cause  the  loss 
of  a  week  (often  more),  and  if  this  is  repeated  a  few  times,  the 
animal  becomes  predisposed  to  indigestion,  and  will  likely  be 
unprofitable.  There  is  no  department  of  farm  work  that  I  have 
found  so  difficult  to  intrust  to  hired  help  as  the  feeding  of  cattle. 
The  novice  in  stall-feeding  will  be  more  likely  to  lose  than  to 
make  money,  unless  he  has  studied  the  details  well,  and  gives 
his  personal  attention  to  them.  The  points  in  which  he  is 
likely  to  err  are :  1st.  In  getting  cattle  that  are  not  good 
feeders.  2d.  In  too  heavy  feeding  at  the  start  before  the  cattle 
are  prepared  for  it.  3d.  In  beginning  to  feed  at  the  wrong 
season,  which  will  involve  feeding  too  long.  4th.  In  not  exer- 
cising good  judgment  in  selling. 

It  requires  judgment  and  experience  to  select  good  feeding 
cattle,  and  if  one  is  conscious  that  he  is  lacking  in  either  or 
both,  it  will  pay  to  get  some  one  who  understands  the  business 
to  select  the  stock  for  him,  particularly  if  buying  in  winter,  ex- 
pecting to  begin  feeding  at  once.  If  he  has  pasture  and  plenty 
of  rough  food  for  wintering  the  stock,  he  can  buy  during  the 
summer,  selecting  those  which  prove  to  be  good  feeders  and  dis- 
posing of  the  others  before  winter.  In  this  way,  one  with  but 
little  knowledge  of  the  business  can  get  a  good  lot  of  cattle. 
Every  feeder  or  dealer  in  cattle  should  have  stock  scales,  and 
weigh  frequently,  that  he  may  know  how  his  cattle  are  gaining, 
and  also  to  enable  him  to  become  expert  in  judging  the  weight 


CATTLE— GENERAL  MANAGEMENT.  799 

of  cattle.  The  scales  will  tell  you  what  animals  are  gaining 
the  most,  and  these  are  the  ones  to  keep  for  feeders.  If  you 
find  that  you  have  cattle  that  are  not  gaining,  or  that  are  gain- 
ing but  little,  the  sooner  they  are  sold  the  better. 

A  common  mistake  with  the  beginner  is  to  take  an  animal 
from  the  pasture  in  the  fall,  or,  perhaps,  a  month  or  two  later, 
when  it  has  been  at  the  straw-stack,  or  on  stalk-pasture,  and 
begin  heavy  grain  feeding  at  once.  This  is  almost  certain  to  re- 
sult in  indigestion  and  loss.  Our  experienced  feeders  do  not 
expect  to  get  their  cattle  on  full  feed  under  a  month,  and  even 
a  longer  time  is  recommended. 

I  think  it  a  mistake  to  buy  cattle  in  the  fall  from  the  pas- 
tures to  feed  for  a  spring  market.  In  the  transition  from  grass 
to  dry  food  they  will  lose  weight  unless  grain  feeding  is  begun 
at  once — and  even  then  it  will  be  difficult  to  make  them  gain 
much  for  a  month — and  to  feed  from  the  first  of  November  till 
spring  is  too  long  a  time,  ordinarily,  to  stall-feed  at  a  profit. 
Occasionally  a  lot  of  cattle  can  be  kept  in  stalls  on  full  feed 
for  a  longer  period  than  one  hundred  days,  but,  as  a  rule,  it  is 
not  advisable  to  try  to  feed  longer;  and  I  think  there  can  be  lit- 
tle question  that  the  chances  for  increase  of  weight,  and  also  for 
a  paying  price,  are  better  if  this  term  of  one  hundred  days  be- 
gins in  mid-winter  rather  than  in  autumn. 

If  cattle  are  to  be  sold  in  December,  feeding  should  begin 
before  they  are  taken  from  the  pasture,  and  they  should  be  so 
managed  that  they  will  not  feel  the  transition  from  grass  to  dry 
food.  If,  however,  they  are  to  be  fed  for  a  spring  market,  it  is 
considered  a  decided  advantage  that  they  should  have  but  little 
grain  for  a  few  weeks  after  leaving  pasture.  They  should  not 
be  allowed  to  get  poor,  but  should  be  fed  well  on  hay  or  corn- 
fodder.  This  is  what  feeders  call  "getting  the  gross  out  of 
them;"  and  just  as  a  hog  that  has  summered  on  a  diet  of  clover 
is  in  a  better  condition  to  take  on  fat  than  one  that  has  made  an 
equal  or  greater  growth  on  a  corn  diet,  so  these  cattle  will  have 
their  digestive  organs  in  such  a  condition  that  they  will  bear 
longer  and  heavier  feeding  and  give  better  returns  for  the  grain. 
I  think  this  of  special  importance  when  one  is  buying  cattle  to 


800  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

feed,  and  that  he  can  well  afford  to  pay  half  a  cent  a  pound  more 
for  good  cattle  the  first  of  January  than  the  less  price  for  the 
same  cattle  two  months  earlier. 

The  novice  will  need  to  keep  a  sharp  lookout  in  selling  his 
cattle.  As  a  rule,  I  would  advise  against  contracting  them  be- 
forehand. It  is  the  safer  rule  to  keep  control  of  them,  so  you 
can  sell  when  you  wish.  If  your  stock  is  sold  to  be  delivered 
the  last  of  May,  and  the  scales  show  in  April  that  they  are  not 
gaining,  you  will  be  obliged  to  keep  them  for  a  month,  probably, 
at  a  loss.  Keep  well  posted  on  the  value  of  cattle,  and  do  not 
take  the  butcher's  or  drover's  word  for  it.  If  you  have  a  car- 
load of  good  cattle  it  will  perhaps  pay  you  to  take  them  to  an 
Eastern  market;  but  that  is  a  matter  to  be  determined  at  the 
time.  You  must  take  shrinkage  into  consideration,  if  you  ship. 
I  have  learned  from  a  feeder  who  has  had  considerable  experi- 
ence, that  he  loses  more  from  shrinkage  when  he  ships  to  Cin- 
cinnati, which  is  sixty  miles  distant,  than  when  sent  to  Pitts- 
burg,  which  is  three  hundred  miles  away.  He  accounts  for  it 
in  this  way:  Those  shipped  the  shorter  distance  are  just  long 
enough  on  the  way  to  get  well  emptied.  They  do  not  get  over 
the  excitement  and  worry  of  loading  and  unloading,  and  are  sold 
at  once  without  feeding.  Those  shipped  the  longer  distance  are 
unloaded  and  fed  before  they  are  put  on  the  market,  and  make 
up  a  part  of  the  shrinkage. 

Experience  shows  that  it  is  not  profitable  to  turn  cattle  on 
grass  in  the  spring  if  they  have  been  full-fed  for  some  time  and 
are  to  be  sold  as  early  as  June,  as  the  young  grass  will  be  likely 
to  scour  them,  and  they  will  lose  flesh  rather  than  gain,  and  not 
be  in  as  good  condition  for  selling  as  if  kept  upon  dry  food. 

Grass  and  Grain  Combined. — I  have  had  considerable 
experience,  for  a  few  years  past,  in  feeding  cattle  for  a  June 
market,  and  have  found  that  I  could  make  a  greater  gain  in 
flesh  at  this  season  of  the  year  than  any  other,  and  consequently 
I  have  realized  greater  profit.  I  find  that  under  proper  man- 
agement I  can,  in  from  ten  to  twelve  weeks,  with  only  a  mod- 
erate amount  of  grain,  make  fair  beef  out  of  old  cows  and  indif- 
ferent stock  which  would  be  very  hard  to  fatten  at  any  other 


CATTLE— GENERAL  MANAGEMENT.  801 

season  of  the  year,  and  with  good  thrifty  steers  the  gain  in  flesh 
is  very  rapid.  My  greatest  success  in  cattle  feeding  has  been 
by  beginning  to  feed  grain  about  the  first  of  March  and  feed 
lightly,  but  enough  so  that  I  can  see  some  improvement,  and  as 
soon  as  the  pastures  are  good,  turn  to  grass.  Cattle  managed 
in  this  way  will  not  be  injured  by  the  transition  from  grain  to 
grass,  as  those  will  which  have  been  for  mortths  on  full  feed; 
but  the  start  the  grain  has  given  them  will  be  a  great  benefit, 
and  enable  them  at  once  to  begin  to  gain  and  thrive,  and  a  few 
weeks'  grazing  makes  them  salable.  I  have  often  bought  cows 
and  heifers  that  were  very  thin  in  flesh  the  first  of  March,  and 
fed  them  each  ten  bushels  of  corn,  or  less,  then  grazed  a  month, 
and  sold  to  the  butchers  at  a  price  which  paid  one  dollar  per 
bushel  for  the  corn  and  from  five  to  ten  dollars  a  month  for 
pasturing.  The  advantages  of  this  plan  of  feeding  are  many, 
and  I  can  recommend  it  with  great  confidence.  I  often  find 
that  I  can  make  the  most  money  from  my  pastures  by  stocking 
heavily  at  this  season  of  the  year,  and  then  selling  off  the  stock, 
so  as  to  leave  the  pastures  but  lightly  stocked  for  the  rest  of 
the  season.  This  leaves  the  roots  well  protected  and  insures 
early  pasture  next  spring. 

I  find  March  and  April  the  best  months  for  feeding  roots  to 
cattle,  and  I  have  been  able  to  fatten  old  cows  cheaply  by  feed- 
ing roots  and  meal  for  six  weeks  before  turning  to  grass.  If 
we  look  at  the  matter  carefully,  we  shall  see  several  reasons 
why  we  may  expect  a  large  profit  from  this  plan  of  manage- 
ment. First,  the  grain  feeding  which  I  recommend  gets  the 
animal  into  a  thrifty  condition  so  that  no  time  is  lost,  but  when 
turned  on  pasture  they  begin  at  once  to  take  on  fat.  Second, 
this  is  the  natural  season  of  rapid  growth  for  animals  and 
vegetables,  all  the  conditions  being  favorable.  The  cold  storms 
of  winter  are  past,  and  the  oppressive  heat  of  summer,  with 
its  swarms  of  flies  and  other  tormenting  insects,  has  not  come. 
Water  is  pure,  cold,  and  abundant,  and  the  growth  of  the 
grass  is  so  rapid  that  the  pastures  will  bear  heavy  stocking.  I 
think  it  safe  to  put  double  the  number  of  cattle  on  a  pasture, 

if  they  are  to  be  taken  off  in  June,  that  should  be  turned  on  it 

51 


802  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

if  they  must  get  their  living  from  it  all  summer.  One  other  ad- 
vantage is  that  the  best  market  of  the  year — particularly  for 
common  beef  cattle — is  usually  at  this  season.  The  cattle  that 
have  had  six  weeks  of  grain  feeding  before  going  to  pasture 
will  be  ready  for  the  butcher  a  month  sooner  than  those 
wintered  without  grain  and  turned  to  pasture  when  they  are 
poor ;  and  in  an  experience  of  many  years  I  have  always  found 
the  best  demand  and  prices  for  this  class  of  cattle  in  May  and 
early  June,  and  I  have  often  seen  the  price  drop  a  dollar  per 
hundred  as  soon  as  grass  beef  was  plenty. 

I  have  been  in  correspondence  for  some  years  with  an  Illi- 
nois cattle  feeder,  Mr.  Samuel  Deal,  of  McLean  County,  who 
has  fed  cattle  at  a  large  profit  since  he  adopted  the  plan  of 
spring  and  summer  feeding.  I  was  led  to  open  a  correspond- 
ence with  him  from  seeing  a  statement  of  the  gains  and  profit 
on  a  lot  of  sixty  cattle,  which  he  fed  in  1878,  and  accompany- 
ing it  was  the  statement  that  for  several  years  he  had  tried 
winter  feeding  and  had  not  found  it  profitable,  and  that  since 
he  had  adopted  the  plan  of  spring  feeding  he  had  not  in  a  sin- 
gle instance  failed  to  make  a  large  profit.  As  this  corresponded 
with  my  own  experience,  I  have  been  greatly  interested  in  the 
reports  of  his  success,  which  he  has  kindly  furnished  me  from 
year  to  year.  It  is  perhaps  not  out  of  place  for  me  to  say  that 
though  I  have  never  met  Mr.  Deal,  I  learn  from  those  ac- 
quainted with  him  that  he  is  a  man  of  strict  integrity  and  his 
statements  can  be  relied  on  as  accurate.  Accompanying  the 
statement  of  the  weight,  gain,  and  profit  of  the  different  lots  of 
cattle  he  has  fed  during  the  last  six  years,  was  the  following 
statement,  which  he  prepared  in  February,  1883,  after  an  expe- 
rience of  six  years  in  spring  feeding: 

Summer  Feeding  of  Cattle. — "  The  majority  of  farm- 
ers consider  grass  sufficient  for  cattle  in  summer  and  confine 
their  grain  feeding  to  the  winter  months.  I  have  found  a  large 
profit  from  feeding  grain  in  connection  with  grass,  and  that  each 
supplemented  the  other. 

"  I  find,  first,  that  it  takes  only  half  as  much  corn  to  fatten 
an  animal  when  on  grass  as  when  fed  in  winter  on  dry  feed.  It  • 


CATTLE— GENERAL  MANAGEMENT.  803 

also  takes  much  less  grass  for  the  corn-fed  cattle,  and  I  find 
that  a  pasture  that  will  furnish  grass  for  one  car  load  of  cattle 
only  when  they  are  fed  no  grain,  will  be  sufficient  for  two  car 
loads  when  fed  grain. 

"  Second.  The  gain  of  cattle  is  uniform  in  summer  feeding, 
as  you  do  not  have  the  storms  to  contend  with  which  winter 
brings.  I  have  often  in  winter  fed  with  the  greatest  care  for 
one  or  two  weeks  in  bad  weather,  and  felt  well  satisfied  if  my 
stock  had  not  actually  lost  flesh,  and  it  is  not  uncommon  for 
three  weeks  to  pass  without  gain,  when  the  cattle  were  eating 
over  half  a  bushel  of  corn  each  per  day.  It  is  considered  good 
feeding  to  make  an  average  gain  of  two  pounds  per  head  each 
day  in  winter  feeding,  and  to  do  this  requires  good  stock  and 
the  best  of  care  and  heavy  feeding.  The  statement  of  weights 
below  will  show  the  gains  I  have  been  able  to  make  by  com- 
bining grass  and  grain  feeding. 

"  Third.  In  winter  feeding  there  is  danger  of  over-feeding 
producing  indigestion  and  consequent  loss  of  appetite  and  flesh, 
and  with  the  utmost  care  there  will  be  loss  from  this  cause.  In 
summer  feeding  we  do  not  have  this  trouble,  for  the  cattle  when 
full  of  grass  will  not  eat  corn  enough  to  hurt  them.  In  summer 
feeding  I  find  the  cattle  will  eat  an  average  of  a  peck  of  corn  a 
day.  We  feed  at  night  in  boxes  in  a  feed-lot,  as  we  find  the 
cattle  will  come  to  the  lot  with  more  regularity  and  certainty 
then  than  at  any  other  time  of  the  day. 

"  The  profit  on  the  hogs  that  follow  the  cattle  pays,  on  an  av- 
erage, for  the  pasture  and  half  the  corn,  and  in  exceptional  years 
of  high  prices  of  pork  I  have  had  it  pay  for  pasture,  corn,  and 
interest  on  the  money  invested.  Below  I  give  a  statement  of 
the  time  of  feeding,  weights,  amount  of  corn  fed,  etc. : 

"  1877. — Fed  55  steers.  Put  in  feed-lots  February  17th  and 
fed  lightly  for  five  weeks,  but  got  them  on  full  feed  by  the  first 
of  April.  Fed  one  peck  of  corn  per  day  to  each  on  grass,  and 
sold  the  latter  part  of  June,  after  129  days  feeding.  Cattle 
weighed  1,010  pounds  each  when  put  up,  and  1,429  when  sold, 
making  an  average  gain  of  419  pounds,  or  about  3i  each  per  day. 

"  1878. — Fed    64  head.     These   cattle  were  quite  thin,  and 


804  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

averaged  1,000  pounds.  Began  feeding  as  before,  in  February, 
and  after  the  first  of  April  gave  them  all  the  shock  corn  they 
would  eat  till  turned  on  pasture.  Then  fed  as  before.  Sold  in 
August,  when  they  averaged  1,536  pounds.  These  cattle  were 
worth  when  put  up  to  feed,  $3.50  per  hundred,  or  $35  each,  and 
were  sold  at  $4.50  per  hundred,  bringing  $69.12  per  head.  After 
allowing  the  regular  rates  for  pasture,  market  price  for  corn,  and 
eight  per  cent  interest  on  capital,  there  was  a  net  profit  of  over 
$1,100  on  the  lot. 

"  1879. — This  year  89  head  were  fattened  on  the  same  plan. 
They  cost  $2,775  and  were  sold  in  two  lots,  the  heaviest  cattle 
July  16th,  at  $5  per  hundred,  and  the  lighter  on  September 
10th,  at  $4.75  per  hundred,  bringing  $6,974. 

"1880. — One  hundred  and  thirteen  cattle  were  fed  which 
cost  $4,048.  They  were  sold  in  three  lots,  the  first,  forty-eight 
head,  in  June,  as  many  more  in  August,  and  the  balance  in  De- 
cember, the  lot  bringing  $8,057.99. 

"  1881.— Fed  103  head  costing  $3,090 ;  sold  85  head  July 
15th  at  $5.25  per  hundred,  and  the  remainder  at  Christmas  at 
$4.75  per  hundred,  the  lot  bringing  $7,152.41. 

"1882. — Sixty-nine  head;  weight,  May  1st,  average  1,036 
pounds;  June  1st,  average  1,169  pounds;  making  a  gain  of  4i 
pounds  per  day.  July  1st,  average  1,261,  making  a  gain  of 
about  3  pounds  per  day.  July  18th,  34  head  were  sold  aver- 
aging 1,346  pounds,  and  the  remainder  were  kept  till  November, 
when  they  averaged  1,470.  The  lot  at  $4.50  per  hundred  were 
worth  when  I  began  feeding  $46.62  per  head,  corn  was  worth 
60  cents  a  bushel,  and  those  sold  in  July  ate  a  little  over  19  bush- 
els each,  worth  $11.85,  and  were  charged  for  pasture  21  months 
$4  each,  making  the  total  cost  $62.47  per  head.  These  cattle 
sold  for  $6.70  per  hundred,  being  $90.11  per  head;  deducting 
cost,  leaves  a  net  profit  of  $27.64  per  head.  The  cattle  sold  in 
November  brought  the  same  price  per  hundred,  which  amounted 
to  $98.49  per  head,  but  no  account  was  kept  of  corn  or  pasture 
after  the  first  lot  was  sold." 

The  last  letter  received  from  Mr.  Deal  was  dated  June  7, 
1883,  in  which  he  says: 


CATTLE— GENERAL  MANAGEMENT.  805 

"I  am  feeding  sixty-eight  head  of  steers  this  year  and  have 
just  weighed  for  the  first  time  since  we  turned  to  grass,  and 
find  that  we  have  the  largest  gain  we  have  ever  made  in  the 
same  time.  May  5th,  the  lot  averaged  999  pounds ;  June  1st, 
1,136,  making  a  gain  of  over  five  pounds  each  per  day." 

Mr.  Deal's  figures  would  be  more  satisfactory  if  he  had 
made  a  full  statement  of  each  year's  feeding  instead  of  merely 
giving  results,  but  it  seems  to  me  they  are  sufficient  to  show 
that  he  has  found  out  how  to  feed  cattle  at  a  profit,  for  during  a 
series  of  years,  including  both  high  and  low  prices  of  corn  and 
cattle,  he  has  made  a  large  and  uniform  profit.  His  report  also, 
as  far  as  it  gives  weights,  shows  that  the  greatest  gains  were 
in  the  early  part  of  the  season. 

Knowing  that  "in  the  multitude  of  counselors  there  is 
safety,"  and  that  farmers  are  always  glad  to  read  a  record 
of  practical  experience,  I  wrote  to  Mr.  A.  Jarrett,  of  McLean 
County,  Illinois,  whom  I  knew  to  be  a  successful  cattle-feeder, 
and  a  man  whose  statements  could  be  relied  on,  and  in  reply  to 
my  questions  received  from  him  the  following : 

"  I  have  fed  cattle  of  different  ages — one,  two,  and  three 
years  old.  I  prefer  three-year  old  steers  that  will  weigh  about 
twelve  hundred  pounds  each,  as  they  fatten  faster  than  younger 
cattle,  but  large,  thrifty,  two-year  olds  will  do  very  well.  If 
wanted  for  the  spring  market,  I  buy  in  the  fall  and  let  them 
run  on  stalk  pastures  as  long  as  I  can  to  keep  up  their  flesh, 
then  feed  lightly  till  the  first  of  March,  by  which  time  I  get 
them  on  full  feed.  The  length  of  time  I  feed  depends  greatly 
on  the  market.  I  sometimes  start  intending  to  feed  only  three 
months  and  feed  five.  In  winter  I  feed  shock  corn  once  a  day. 
I  think  they  do  better  on  it  than  on  husked  corn,  as  it  does  not 
dry  out  and  get  so  hard,  and  the  cattle  waste  less  when  fed  in 
this  way  than  when  husked.  I  consider  corn-fodder  a  better 
rough  feed  for  cattle  than  hay.  I  feed  shock  corn  in  what  are  called 
feed  pens,  made  of  poles  fourteen  or  sixteen  feet  long,  and  five 
feet  wide,  with  a  tight  floor  eighteen  inches  below  the  top. 
This  is  much  better  than  feeding  on  the  ground,  as  it  prevents 
tramping  and  wasting  the  corn,  and  the  stalks  thrown  out 


806  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

around  the  feed  pens  soon  accumulate  so  as  to  keep  the  cattle 
out  of  the  mud  and  also  save  the  manure,  which  I  find  in  fine 
condition  for  the  land  the  next  fall.  I  do  not  furnish  shelter, 
except  straw  stacks.  I  stack  my  wheat  and  rye  straw  in  the 
feed  lots  so  as  to  afford  good  wind-breaks  and  a  dry,  clean 
place  for  the  cattle  to  lie.  I  do  not  feed  hogs  and  cattle  in 
separate  lots,  alternating  them,  as  is  the  practice  of  many  feeders, 
but  make  my  feed  pens  high  enough  to  keep  the  hogs  out,  and 
let  hogs  and  cattle  run  together.  I  have  a  separate  lot  for  the 
hogs  to  sleep  in,  as  the  cattle  are  likely  to  tramp  them  and  in- 
jure them  in  cold  weather  when  they  burrow  under  the  straw. 

"In  summer  when  the  cattle  are  on  pasture  I  feed  ear  corn. 
I  break  the  large  ears  into  three  pieces,  as  there  is  less  waste 
than  if  fed  whole.  The  cattle  when  on  grass  usually  shell  off 
the  corn  and  reject  the  cob,  and  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  it 
would  be  better  to  feed  shelled  corn. 

"  For  a  late  spring  or  early  summer  market  I  begin  feeding 
from  the  first  of  February  to  the  first  of  March,  depending  on 
the  weather  and  the  condition  of  the  cattle  and  the  stalk  pastures, 
as  I  do  not  want  the  cattle  to  lose  any  flesh. 

"I  have  in  exceptional  cases  made  a  gain  of  one  hundred 
pounds  per  month  per  head  on  a  bunch  of  steers,  but  I  consider 
two  and  a  half  pounds  a  day  in  winter  and  three  pounds  in 
summer  very  satisfactory.  The  spring  of  the  year  generally 
gives  us  the  highest  prices  for  beef,  but  it  costs  more  to  fatten 
for  a  spring  than  a  summer  or  fall  market,  and  the  best  time  to 
sell  cattle  may  be  said  to  be  when  they  are  ripe. 

"  Cattle  that  have  been  on  full  feed  will  usually  fall  off  in 
flesh  when  turned  to  grass  without  corn,  and  even  if  fed  corn 
they  make  but  little  gain  if  any  for  two  weeks.  If  the  feeder 
does  not  expect  to  hold  his  cattle  six  weeks  or  two  months 
after  grass  comes,  he  will  do  better  not  to  turn  them  to  grass 
at  all. 

"  The  value  of  the  corn  for  hogs  after  it  has  passed  through 
the  cattle  varies  greatly.  If  the  corn  is  sound  and  hard,  and 
fed  in  good,  dry  lots  I  think  it  equal  to  fifty  per  cent  of  the 
first  cost,  but  when  light,  chaffy,  soft  corn  is  fed  it  is  worth 


CATTLE— GENERAL  MANAGEMENT.  807 

very  much  less.  I  have  had  seventy-five  hogs  follow  thirty- 
four  cattle  and  make  a  fine  growth.  It  is  not  best  to  try  to 
fatten  hogs  with  cattle,  as  if  full  fed  they  do  not  eat  the  waste 
corn  clean.  When  growing  corn  to  feed  to  cattle  from  the 
shock  I  plant  considerably  thicker  than  is  the  common  practice, 
as  it  gives  smaller  ears  for  the  cattle,  and  besides  I  think  it 
not  only  handles  better,  but  gives  more  feed  to  the  acre. 
There  is  quite  a  difference  in  steers  as  to  the  amount  of  corn 
they  will  eat,  but  two-year  olds  on  full  feed  will  eat  about  a 
peck  a  day  on  an  average,  and  three-year  olds  a  half  more. 

"Notwithstanding  I  do  not  house  my  cattle,  I  believe  it 
would  pay,  and  I  am  contemplating  building  a  barn  in  which  to 
feed  cattle.  A  neighbor  of  mine  fed  two  car-loads  in  a  barn  last 
winter,  and  his  experience  was  satisfactory.  I  believe  that  the 
time  will  come  when  the  cattle-feeders  of  Illinois  will  adopt 
Eastern  methods,  and  house  all  their  stock. 

"  I  will  close  by  giving  you  the  figures  on  two  lots  of  cattle 
that  I  have  fed.  The  first  was  a  lot  of  sixteen  choice  three- 
year-olds  that  averaged,  when  I  began  feeding,  January  23, 
1880,  1,124  pounds.  I  was  nearly  a  month  getting  them  on 
full  feed,  after  which  I  gave  them  all  they  would  eat,  feeding 
shock  corn  once  a  day  and  ear  corn  once.  They  averaged,  April 
29th,  1,358  pounds,  having  made  a  gain  of  2  3-7  pounds  per 
day  each.  At  this  date  I  turned  to  pasture  and  fed  one  peck 
of  corn  per  day  to  each.  This  was  fed  in  large  troughs.  I 
sold  August  18th,  when  their  average  weight  was  1,609  pounds, 
their  gain  on  grass  being  2J  pounds  per  day.  I  paid  for  these 
cattle  $35  per  head,  or  $560.  I  fed  981  bushels  of  corn,  worth 
25  cents  per  bushel,  which  makes  $245.25.  They  were  grazed 
three  and  two-third  months,  at  $1  per  month,  making  $60.  The 
customary  price  for  pasturing  is  $1.25  per  month,  but  when  corn 
is  fed  the  price  is  less.  These  cattle  brought  $1,105.06,  a  frac- 
tion over  $69  per  head.  I  estimate  that  the  increased  value  of 
the  hogs  following  these  cattle  more  than  paid  for  the  labor  of 
feeding  and  caring  for  them. 

"  My  second  experiment  in  feeding  cattle  was  in  1881,  when  I 
fed  34  head,  three-year-old  past.  Commencing  September  18th,  I 


808  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

kept  them  on  grass  for  two  weeks  before  giving  corn,  and  then  fed 
one  peck  of  corn  each  per  day  till  November  10th,  when  they  were 
put  in  a  one-acre  lot,  and  fed  in  troughs  all  they  would  eat.  These 
cattle  made  a  gain  of  2J  pounds  a  day  while  on  full  feed,  and 
gave  a  profit  of  $630.89,  or  nearly  $20  per  head  after  allowing 
market  price  for  corn  and  grass.  To  have  good  success  in  feed- 
ing cattle,  there  should  always  be  an  abundant  supply  of  pure 
water.  With  good  cattle  to  start  with,  good  care,  and  the  cattle 
made  fat  before  selling,  the  farmer  is  likely  to  be  rewarded  for 
his  labor." 


CATTLE— SOILING  AND  ENSILAGE.  809 


X. 

CATTLE—SOILINQ   AND   ENSILAQEX 

WHAT  Is  Soiling  ? — By  soiling  is  meant  the  feeding  of 
green  food  to  farm  stock  in  the  stable  or  barn-yard  dur- 
ing the  grazing  season,  instead  of  allowing  them  to 
gather  their  own  food  from  the  pastures.  In  some  countries  of 
Europe  the  system  has  been  generally  adopted,  and  some  exper- 
iments have  been  made  in  this  country  which  have  shown  that 
it  is  practicable  here  as  elsewhere.  At  present  it  would  not, 
perhaps,  be  wise  or  economical  for  a  majority  of  our  farmers  to 
adopt  this  plan,  but  doubtless  there  are  many  who  would  find 
great  profit  from  it.  I  wish  to  present  the  subject  fairly  and 
impartially,  showing  not  only  the  advantages  claimed  by  the  ad- 
vocates of  the  system,  but  also  the  disadvantages  which  are 
connected  with  it.  I  have  little  doubt  of  its  utility,  and  that 
in  time  it  will  be  generally  adopted  as  our  lands  increase  in 
value  and  we  become  better  farmers,  and  learn  to  appreciate 
the  value  of  manure  and  the  profit  of  heavy  crops. 

Our  system  of  farming  has  been  wasteful  and  improvident,  as 
a  consequence  of  cheap  lands  and  the  boundless  "Out  West,"  to 
which  the  farmer  could  emigrate  after  he  had  used  up  the  avail- 
able plant-food  on  two  or  three  farms.  Hitherto  the  question 
in  farming  has  been  too  generally,  How  can  we  get  the  greatest 
profit  from  the  soil  with  the  least  labor?  and  but  little  thought 
has  been  given  to  restoring  the  fertility  removed.  I  believe 
that  soiling  could  be  now  adopted  with  profit  on  lands  worth 
fifty  dollars  or  more  per  acre,  and  especially  on  small,  fertile 
farms,  and  would  result  in  such  saving  of  expense  and  increase 
of  profit  and  productiveness  of  soil  as  to  far  overbalance  the 
objections  to  the  system.  The  advantages  claimed  by  the  advo- 
cates of  soiling  are  many. 


810  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Saving  of  Land. — It  is  claimed  that  the  same  amount  of 
land  required  to  pasture  one  animal  will  produce  food  enough 
for  three  or  more  if  the  food  is  cut  and  taken  to  them.  This 
would  not,  perhaps,  be  true  if  grass  only  was  depended  upon 
for  food,  but  even  with  this  the  difference  would  be  largely  in 
favor  of  soiling,  as  much  of  the  grass  is  injured  by  the  tramp- 
ing of  the  stock,  by  their  lying  down  on  it,  and  soiling  it  by 
their  droppings,  liquid  and  solid,  and  the  heavier  the  growth 
the  greater  will  be  the  waste. 

Under  the  soiling  system  the  farmer  does  not  depend  on 
grass  alone,  but  can  grow  other  succulent  crops,  and  often  two 
or  more  on  the  same  land  in  a  season.  Mr.  Peer,  in  his  book  on 
soiling,  illustrates  the  saving  of  land  by  increasing  the  amount 
of  stock  it  will  carry,  and  the  increased  productiveness  which 
the  manure  from  the  stock  will  give,  thus :  "  As  in  a  crowded 
city  they  add  to  the  capacity  of  their  houses  and  factories  by 
building  up  story  above  story,  so  the  farmers  of  the  older 
countries  have  been  obliged  to  build  up  their  soil,  till  they  have 
farms  two,  three,  or  four  stories  high;  that  is  to  say,  they  have 
increased  the  productiveness  of  the  soil  until  one  acre  is  made 
to  produce  what  formerly  required  three  or  four." 

I  here  give  the  testimony,  on  this  point,  of  farmers  who 
have  practiced  soiling. 

Hon.  Josiah  Quincy,  who  was  the  first  advocate  of  soiling  in 
this  country,  wrote  on  this  subject  in  1820 :  "  My  experiment 
has  resulted  in  relation  to  the  amount  of  land  required  in  this: 
I  have  kept  the  same  amount  of  stock  by  soiling  on  seventeen 
acres  of  land  which  had  always  previously  required  fifty." 
Over  twenty-five  years  later  he  retired  from  public  life  and 
again  took  charge  of  his  farm,  and  began  again  the  system  of 
soiling,  and  followed  it  for  ten  years,  and  in  1857,  after  an  ex- 
perience in  all  of  eighteen  years,  he  wrote  :  "  Since  1847  I  have 
kept  from  thirty  to  thirty-five  head  of  milch  cows  in  this  way, 
and  have  realized  every  one  of  the  advantages  claimed  for  the 
system  by  European  writers."  As  to  saving  of  land,  one  acre 
soiled  will  produce  as  much  as  three  acres  pastured.  Some  Eu- 
ropean writers  assert  the  benefit  is  equal  to  one  to  seven — this 


CA  TTLE— SOILING  AND  ENSILA GE.  811 

great  difference  arising  from  the  mode  in  which  the  land  is  en- 
riched and  cultivated  for  succulent  products.  Mr.  II.  Stewart, 
in  an  article  in  The  Country  Gentleman,  says :  "  J.  D.  Powell, 
of  Westchester  County,  keeps  one  hundred  cows  on  one  hun- 
dred acres;"  and  adds,  "I  have  kept  fourteen  cows  on  eleven 
acres  the  year  round  by  feeding  brewer's  grains  and  bran 
and  mecil." 

Mr.  Peer,  says :  "  I  kept  for  two  seasons  on  thirty  acres  of 
land,  the  equivalent  of  thirty-six  head  of  one  thousand  pounds 
each.  This  stock  consisted  of  13  cows,  5  yearlings,  4  calves, 
4  horses,  2  colts,  and  70  long-wool  sheep,  a  total  of  98  head." 
Mr.  Peer's  farm  consists  of  one  hundred  acres  of  arable  land, 
and  before  he  began  soiling  he  kept  but  twelve  head  of  stock 
(one  thousand  pounds  each),  and  cultivated  forty  acres.  Under 
his  present  system  he  cultivates  seventy  acres.  An  experiment 
of  Mr.  Peer  in  1880,  contrasts  the  two  systems  :  Twelve  head 
of  cattle  were  pastured  four  weeks  on  four  and  a  half  acres, 
and  ate  it  so  short  as  to  shrink  greatly  in  their  milk ;  they  were 
then  soiled  four  months  from  four  acres.  In  all  Mr.  Peer's  sum- 
mer feeding  no  grain  was  used. 

Mr.  Elliot  W.  Stewart,  in  his  work  on  "  Feeding  Animals," 
says :  "A  full  crop  of  red-clover  will  weigh,  green,  twenty  thousand 
pounds  to  the  acre.  This  fed  in  its  green  state,  will  keep  twenty 
cows  ten  days,  or  one  cow  two  hundred  days,  and  would  furnish 
in  the  second  and  third  cuttings  two-thirds  as  much  more,  or,  in 
all,  food  for  one  cow  a  year.  We  have  raised  clover  that  weighed 
twenty-four  thousand  pounds  per  acre  at  a  single  cutting."  Again, 
he  says :  "  A  neighbor  of  mine  measured  accurately  one  acre 
of  field-corn — grain  in  the  milk — and  fed  to  one  hundred  and 
four  cows,  and  it  gave  full  feed  for  four  days,  or  feed  for  one 
cow  four  hundred  and  sixteen  days.  These  cows  were  in  milk, 
and  yielded  liberally  on  this  ration." 

Saving  of  Fences. — The  plan  of  fencing  our  farms  into 
fields,  which  is  done  only  that  we  may  be  able  to  allow  our 
stock  to  gather  their  food  from  them,  imposes  one  of  the  heaviest 
burdens  on  the  agriculture  of  our  country.  The  adoption  of 
the  soiling  system  by  the  individual  would  at  once  relieve  the 


812  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

farmer  of  the  expense  of  inside  fences,  and  if  generally  adopted, 
the  division  fences  between  farms  could  also  be  abolished.  The 
expense  of  a  fence  is  not  its  only  objection,  for  there  is  a  loss  of 
land,  which  with  a  hedge  or  rail-fence  is  about  an  acre  to  each  half 
mile  ;  the  loss  of  time  in  turning  in  small  fields,  the  labor  in  clean- 
ing out  brush  and  briers  from  fence  rows,  and  the  seeding  of  fields 
with  weeds  allowed  to  ripen  on  them.  In  several  of  our  States 
there  have  been  men  appointed  to  study  and  gather  statistics  in 
regard  to  the  cost  of  fences,  and  repairs  of  the  same,  and  they 
agree  in  their  estimates,  that  under  the  grazing  system  it  will 
cost  an  average  of  on,e  dollar  per  acre  annually  to  keep  up  the 
fences. 

Extermination  of  Weeds  is  another  advantage  claimed 
for  the  system.  On  many  farms  the  pastures  abound  with  noxious 
weeds  which  the  cattle  do  not  eat,  and  they  stand  and  ripen 
seed,  and  so  keep  up  a  succession.  Under  a  system  of  soiling, 
the  crops  would  be  cut  early  and  usually  before  the  seeds  of 
weeds  had  matured,  and  even  if  ripened  and  allowed  to  go  into 
the  manure,  the  composting  of  it  would  kill  them.  In  soiling 
we  should  also  follow  a  rotation  that  would  bring  our  land  under 
the  plow  so  often  as  to  kill  out  the  weeds. 

Saving  of  Food. — This  has  already  been  referred  to  in 
speaking  of  the  food  fouled  and  destroyed  by  the  stock  in  various 
ways.  In  soiling,  each  animal  can  be  fed  just  what  it  will  eat 
clean,  and  can  not  get  access  to  any  more.  It  is  a  fact  well 
established,  that  all  force  expended  by  the  animal  is  at  the 
expense  of  food,  which  acts  in  the  animal  system  much  as  fuel 
does  under  the  steam  boiler,  and  the  animal  that  must  spend  a 
larger  part  of  the  day  foraging  will  require  more  food  than  if 
allowed  to  eat  it  without  this  labor. 

Saving  of  Manure. — All  good  farmers  agree  in  placing  a 
high  value  on  manure.  It  is  the  sheet-anchor  of  agriculture. 
By  an  abundant  supply  of  it  our  crops  can  be  doubled,  and  the 
risk  of  failure  from  nearly  all  sources  greatly  lessened.  Under 
the  pasturage  system  much  of  the  manure  is  wasted.  Some  of 
it  is  dropped  among  rocks  or  in  water  courses.  It  is  exposed 
to  the  sun  and  partly  evaporated,  and  the  residue  dried  into  a 


CATTLE— SOILING  AND  ENSILAGE.  813 

hard  cake,  which  lies  for  a  year  or  more  on  the  land,  killing  out 
the  vegetation  under  it,  and  adding  but  little  to  the  soil.  Much 
of  it  is  washed  away  by  the  rains.  In  soiling  we  have  absolute 
control  of  the  manure,  and  can  apply  it  to  the  crops  which  most 
need  it  and  are  in  the  best  condition  for  immediate  results.  Mr. 
Quincy  found  that  each  cow  made  a  load  of  manure  per  month, 
which  he  valued  at  $1.50,  and  estimated  that  it  would  pay  all 
the  expense  of  the  extra  labor  of  soiling ;  and  Mr.  Stewart,  in 
his  book  on  "  Feeding  Animals,"  says  :  "  From  personal  experi- 
ence of  more  than  twenty  years,  I  regard  the  saving  of  manure 
in  soiling  as  worth  at  least  $6.00  per  cow,  over  that  of  pasture, 
and  fully  agree  with  Mr.  Quincy,  that  it  is  a  full  compensation 
for  all  the  labor,  direct  and  indirect,  of  soiling." 

Greater  Production  of  Milk. — It  is  the  testimony  of 
those  who  have  practiced  soiling,  that  they  get  a  larger  amount 
of  milk  when  the  cows  are  fed  in  the  stable  than  when  allowed 
to  pasture,  particularly  through  the  heat  of  summer,  when  the 
flies  are  troublesome. 

A  test,  extending  over  several  years,  was  made  by  Dr. 
Rhode,  of  Eidena  Royal  Academy  of  Agriculture  of  Prussia. 
"  From  forty  to  seventy  cows  were  kept  and  pastured  for  seven 
years,  and  a  separate  account  kept  with  each  cow.  The  lowest 
average  during  the  years  of  pasturage  was  1,385  quarts  per 
cow,  in  1855,  when  seventy  cows  were  kept,  and  1,941  quarts 
in  1859,  when  forty  cows  were  kept;  and  the  greatest  quantity 
given  by  one  cow,  in  a  year,  was  2,988  quarts.  The  average 
per  cow,  for  pasturing  for  the  whole  seven  years,  was  1,583 
quarts.  During  the  seven  years  of  soiling,  which  began  in 
1860,  from  twenty-nine  to  thirty-eight  cows  were  kept,  and  the 
lowest  average  per  cow  was,  in  1862,  2,930  quarts,  and  the 
highest  in  1866,  when  it  reached  4,000  quarts.  The  largest 
quantity  given  by  one  cow  in  a  year  was  5,110  quarts,  and  the 
average  per  cow  for  the  entire  seven  years  of  soiling  was 
3,442  quarts." 

I  give  the  above  for  what  it  is  worth,  for  it  lacks  the  data 
to  enable  us  to  tell  how  much  of  the  increase  is  due  to  the  soil- 
ing, and  how  much  to  the  fact  that  fewer  cows  were  kept  and 


814  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

better  care  given;  but  it  is  at  least  interesting  to  know  that 
the  average  yield  of  the  cows  was  doubled  when  they  were 
kept  in  the  stable;  and  whatever  the  amount  of  food,  it  is  to  be 
presumed  there  was  a  greater  profit  from  one  cow  yielding 
3,442  quarts  of  milk  than  from  two  yielding  3,166  quarts. 
Mr.  Peer  says:  "With  the  exception  of  May  and  June,  I 
have  never  failed  to  get  better  results  from  soiling  than  from 
pasturing." 

In  the  American  Agriculturist,  Mr.  Waring,  in  an  article  on 
soiling,  says :  "  The  product  of  the  cows  will  be  more  in  soil- 
ing than  in  pasturing.  In  June  I  was  making  a  very  satisfac- 
tory amount  of  butter  (so  were  the  pasture  men  all  around) ; 
now,  that  drought  has  begun  to  affect  the  pastures,  their  pro- 
duct is  falling  off.  My  product  is  increasing,  and  is  now  ten 
per  cent  more  than  in  June." 

The  above  was  written  during  the  latter  part  of  summer. 
There  is  another  point  in  favor  of  soiling,  which  is  that  a  bet- 
ter quality  of  milk  and  butter  can  often  be  produced,  as  neither 
short  nor  weedy  pastures  will  make  the  best  quality  of  butter. 

My  own  experience  in  soiling  extends  over  two  years,  and 
is  perhaps  hardly  worth  quoting  in  support  of  the  system,  as  I 
fed  some  bran  or  meal  every  day  in  connection  with  the  green 
food;  but  I  never  had  cows  more  contented,  or  give  a  more  sat- 
isfactory yield,  both  as  regards  quantity  and  quality.  I  began 
soiling  in  July,  on  account  of  a  breechy  cow  having  led  the 
herd  into  mischief,  a  neighbor  having  a  poor  fence  to  protect 
his  corn-field  adjoining  the  pasture.  At  the  time  we  began  we 
were  making  a  very  unsatisfactory  article  of  butter — soft  and 
oily,  and  of  poor  flavor — as  it  was  a  time  of  drought  and  poor 
pasture.  By  the  time  our  cows  had  been  stabled  a  week,  the 
butter  was  sweet  and  solid. 

Objections  to  Soiling. — The  first  objection  usually  urged 
against  soiling,  is  the  labor  of  cutting  and  handling  the  large 
weight  of  food  necessary  for  the  cattle,  especially  in  wet  weather, 
when  the  fields  are  in  bad  condition  for  the  teams,  and  when, 
as  is  sometimes  the  case^  for  days  together  the  green  crops 
would  not  dry.  This  objection  is  well  worth  considering;  but 


CATTLE— SOILING  AND  ENSILAGE.  815 

to  offset  this,  the  advocates  of  the  system  say  that  no  man  can 
make  more  than  a  living,  in  any  business,  by  his  own  labor,  and 
the  men  who  make  the  most  are  those  who  best  understand  how 
to  wisely  employ  the  labor  of  others. 

The  cost  of  soiling  may  be  considered  under  two  heads — 
direct  and  indirect.  By  the  first  is  meant  the  labor  of  cutting 
and  taking  to  the  animals  the  food  consumed.  This  will  vary 
under  different  circumstances — the  number  of  cattle  to  be  fed, 
distance  that  food  must  be  drawn,  etc.  A  small  number  will 
cost  more  per  head  than  a  larger  number. 

Mr.  Peer,  who  has  soiled  for  several  years,  says :  "  There 
is  no  excuse  for  its  costing  over  two  cents  per  day  for  each 
head."  Mr.  H.  Stewart  says :  "  Soiling  is  a  little  more  labo- 
rious than  pasturing,  but  each  dollar  spent  in  extra  labor  is  re- 
placed ten  times  over  by  the  saving  of  feed,  land,  and  manure. 
I  have  found  labor  very  much  cheaper  than  feed."  Again  he 
says :  "  All  the  feeding,  cleaning,  and  attendance  of  twenty- 
six  head  of  stock,  viz :  fifteen  cows,  seven  heifers,  one  bull,  and 
three  horses,  was  done  by  a  boy  fourteen  years  old,  and  he  had 
considerable  time  to  spend  in  the  field."  Mr.  E.  W.  Stewart,  in 
"  Feeding  Animals,"  gives  his  own  experience  with  thirty-five 
head,  averaging  1,000  pounds  each.  They  were  fed  from  May 
20th  to  December  1st.  An  accurate  account  of  the  labor  was 
kept,  and  it  required  six  hours  per  day  of  one  man  and  two 
hours  of  one  horse.  The  grass  was  cut  with  a  light  mowing- 
machine,  hitched  behind  a  one-horse  cart,  and  two  cart-loads 
were  fed  per  day.  One  hundred  loads  of  manure  was  made, 
which  was  regarded  as  full  compensation  for  all  the  labor. 

Where  soiling  crops,  such  as  rye,  oats,  fodder,  corn,  etc.,  are 
grown,  there  will  be  some  extra  labor  in  preparing  and  seeding 
the  land,  but  this  will  be  repaid  by  the  increased  quantity  of 
food  grown.  The  difficulty  of  providing  against  wet  weather  is 
serious  in  bad  seasons,  but  in  many  cases  a  storm  can  be  antici- 
pated and  an  extra  supply  of  food  secured,  and  occasionally  the 
stock  must  be  fed  for  a  day  or  two  on  dry  food  and  a  little 
bran  or  meal  added  to  the  hay  ration. 

Another  objection  is  the  difficulty  of  providing  a  succession 


816  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

of  green  crops  that  will  last  through  the  season  and  furnish  a 
palatable  ration  at  all  times.  This  will  be  considered  under  the 
head  of  Soiling  Crops. 

Keeping  the  cattle  clean  on  food  that  would  cause  a  large 
amount  of  voidings — especially  cows  that  are  to  be  milked — 
would  seem  to  be  a  difficult  matter.  I  believe,  however,  that 
with  a  properly  constructed  stable  there  would  be  little  diffi- 
culty ;  but  the  floor  must  be  of  just  the  right  length  so  that  the 
manure-ditch  will  receive  the  droppings.  Mr.  Peer  says :  "  I 
have  had  a  solid  white  cow  in  my  stable  for  three  years,  sum- 
mer and  winter,  and  never  remember  seeing  a  manure-stain  on 
her  flanks,  legs,  or  udder,  and  the  same  is  true  of  all  my  cows." 

"Who  Should  Soil? — It  is  rarely  wise  for  a  farmer  to 
make  a  sudden  and  radical  change  in  the  management  of  his 
farm,  and  I  would  not  by  any  means  advise  the  immediate 
general  adoption  of  this  system.  There  can  be  no  question  as 
to  the  wisdom  of  its  adoption  by  the  farmer  of  small  means 
and  a  few  acres,  for  it  would  enable  him  to  largely  increase 
his  profits  and  improve  the  condition  of  his  soil.  The  few 
acres  of  land  which,  under  the  common  plan  of  management, 
would  employ  less  than  half  a  man's  time,  would  keep  him 
profitably  at  work  during  the  entire  summer  if  a  few  cows 
were  soiled.  Most  farmers  should  feel  their  way  into  it.  Let 
them  first  grow  some  extra  crops,  to  be  fed  in  order  that  the 
pastures  may  carry  more  stock,  or  that  they  may  be  able  to 
provide  extra  food  in  case  of  drought. 

I  think  that  on  all  farms  where  there  is  some  land  unsuited 
for  cultivation  it  would  be  found  more  profitable  to  adopt  a  sys- 
tem of  partial  soiling.  The  month  of  May  and  the  first  half  of 
June  is  the  grand  pasture  season,  and  stock  of  all  kinds  will  do 
better  on  pasture  at  this  season  than  anywhere  else ;  but  with 
the  advent  of  summer  heat  and  flies,  every  dairyman  knows  how 
difficult  it  is  to  keep  up  the  flow  of  milk,  or  to  keep  stock  gain- 
ing. By  keeping  one  field  on  the  farm  in  permanent  pasture 
seeded  with  the  grasses  which  start  early  in  spring,  the  slock 
could  be  allowed  to  graze  for  six  weeks — or  two  months  in  an 
early  season — and  the  period  of  soiling  considerably  shortened. 


CATTLE— SOILING  AND  ENSILAGE,  817 

Then  the  pasture  could  be  used  a  day  occasionally  when  there 
was  a  press  of  work  or  bad  weather  made  it  difficult  to  handle 
green  food.  This  would  relieve  soiling  of  some  of  its  greatest 
objections,  for  the  most  difficult  time  to  get  an  abundant  supply 
of  green  food  for  soiling  is  early  in  the  spring,  and  that  is  when 
the  stock  needs  it  most,  after  many  months  on  dry  food;  and 
the  only  really  disagreeable  work  connected  with  it  would  be 
the  necessity  of  cutting  and  handling  the  food  in  the  rain. 
This  plan  would  enable  the  farmer  to  turn  his  stock  to  pasture 
very  early,  for  the  pastures  would  be  left  well  protected  in  the 
fall.  They  could  also  be  stocked  very  heavily  during  this  sea- 
son of  rapid  growth,  for  if  eaten  close  there  would  be  plenty  of 
time  for  the  grass  to  make  a  new  growth.  In  adopting  this  plan 
I  think  it  would  be  best  that  the  stock  be  kept  up  after 
soiling  began,  unless  long-continued  bad  weather  made  it  neces- 
sary to  turn  them  out  for  a  day  or  two. 

In  beginning  soiling  there  are  three  points  which  must  re- 
ceive attention:  First,  enough  food  must  be  grown  to  provide 
against  extraordinary  drought,  failure,  or  deficiency  of  crop 
from  any  cause ;  second,  a  succession  of  food  must  be  provided 
for  the  entire  season  with  as  much  variety  as  possible,  and  the 
more  convenient  to  the  stable  the  better ;  third,  suitable  prepa- 
ration should  be  made  for  taking  care  of  the  stock  and  manure 
and  for  handling  the  food,  with  a  view  to  economy  of  labor  and 
comfort  and  cleanliness  of  the  stock. 

It  is  wise  to  begin  with  a  larger  acreage  of  crops  in  propor- 
tion to  the  stock  kept  than  is  generally  recommended,  for  all 
surplus  of  the  different  soiling  crops  can  be  cured  arid  kept  for 
winter  use,  and  it  is  always  better  to  have  a  surplus  than  to 
run  short.  The  farmer  should  also  keep  on  hand  a  stock  of 
hay  or  other  food  sufficient  for  a  month  or  six  weeks,  so  as  to 
be  sure  the  stock  would  not  suffer  in  case  of  the  failure  of  a 
crop.  A  little  dry  food  will  often  be  found  beneficial  also  when 
feeding  green  succulent  crops,  as  for  example  when  you  change 
from  well-matured  grass  and  clover  to  green  corn.  The  suc- 
cession of  succulent  food  I  shall  treat  under  the  head  of  Soiling 
Crops. 

52 


818  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

The  stable  and  all  the  arrangements  for  the  care  of  stock  is 
a  matter  of  greater  importance  in  soiling  than  in  winter  feed- 
ing, for  cattle  will  eat  three  or  four  times  as  great  a  weight  of 
food  and  produce  a  greater  weight  of  manure  to  be  handled, 
and  the  arrangements  should  be  as  convenient  as  possible  for 
handling  both  food  and  manure.  The  barn  should,  if  possible, 
be  so  arranged  that  the  wagon  could  be  driven  in  with  the  food 
and  it  fed  directly  to  the  stock  without  extra  handling,  and  this 
can  be  best  secured  by  having  the  stables  on  two  or  three  sides 
of  a  floor  or  drive-way  raised  above  the  level  of  the  stable, 
enough  so  that  all  the  cattle  can  eat  directly  from  the  floor. 
With  a  floor  fourteen  feet  wide  and  a  stable  on  each  side,  the 
loaded  wagon  can  be  driven  in  the  center  and  the  feed  pitched 
directly  to  the  stock  on  either  side.  The  floor  and  manure 
ditch  in  the  stable  should  be  arranged  as  described  in  the 
dairy  chapter,  and  there  should  be  a  good  plank  track  for  the 
wheel-barrow  to  the  dumping  place  for  the  manure.  If  a  large 
number  of  cattle  are  kept,  it  will  pay  to  arrange  the  stable 
with  a  drive-way  so  that  the  wagon  can  pass  through  and  the 
manure  be  taken  directly  from  the  manure  ditches  to  the  fields. 

The  nearer  the  crops  used  for  soiling  can  be  grown  to  the 
stable  the  better;  and  if  all  fences  are  removed,  so  that  there 
will  be  no  opening  and  shutting  of  gates,  much  time  will 
be  saved. 

Soiling  Crops. — The  earliest  crop  from  which  we  can  cut 
green  food  is  winter  rye.  It  should  be  sown  early  for  this  pur- 
pose— from  the  first  to  the  fifteenth  of  September  in  the  Eastern 
and  Middle  States.  I  would  recommend  not  less  than  two 
bushels  of  seed  per  acre.  If  it  grows  so  vigorously  in  fall  as 
to  be  in  danger  of  smothering,  it  can  be  pastured  when  the  land 
is  dry,  or  cut  high  with  a  machine.  It  will  do  to  begin  feeding 
before  it  is  in  head,  and  when  cut  thus  early  will  furnish  a  sec- 
ond crop.  I  do  not  find  it  a  perfect  ration,  and  think  it  best 
always  to  give  some  more  nitrogenous  food,  such  as  bran,  with 
it.  It  comes  so  early  that  it  is  of  great  value.  On  good  soil 
from  twelve  to  fifteen  tons  per  acre  can  be  cut,  and  about  three- 
quarters  of  a  square  rod  will  feed  a  cow  a  day.  If  clover-hay 


CATTLE— SOILING  AND  ENSILAGE.  819 

can  be  fed  in  connection  with  rye  it  makes  an  excellent  ration, 
as  one  supplements  the  other. 

Red  clover  alone,  or  mixed  with  orchard  grass,  will  succeed 
rye,  and  of  these  crops  you  should  provide  one  square  rod  per 
day  for  each  full-grown  animal.  The  amount  of  land  required 
will  vary  with  its  quality. 

Oats  will  be  ready  to  feed  before  the  clover  has  become  too 
ripe,  and  it  is  well  to  give  two  or  more  kinds  of  food  at  the 
same  time  when  the  maturing  of  the  crops  will  allow  it.  It 
will  pay  to  begin  feeding  the  oats  before  the  heads  show,  as 
when  cut  this  early  they  will  give  a  good  second  crop.  Three 
bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre  is  recommended  to  be  sown  for 
soiling. 

Perhaps  no  crop  grown  on  the  farm  responds  so  generously 
to  fine  tilth  and  thorough  preparation  of  the  soil  as  oats,  and 
the  crop  will  not  only  be  much  heavier,  but  also  several  days 
earlier  if  great  pains  is  taken.  In  the  more  northern  latitudes 
peas  may  be  sown  with  the  oats,  and  will  furnish  a  large  amount 
of  excellent  food.  It  may  be  cut  from  the  time  the  peas  are 
in  bloom  till  they  are  grown  to  full  size  in  the  pod. 

Before  the  crops  named  are  exhausted,  timothy  will  be  ready 
to  cut.  For  soiling  I  would  always  sow  with  it  the  large  clover 
or  the  alsike,  as  both  of  these  clovers  bloom  late,  and  continue 
in  bloom  for  some  weeks,  and  the  food  will  be  better  and  more 
abundant  from  the  mixture  than  from  either  alone. 

This  will  bring  us  to  the  great  staple  crop  for  green  feeding, 
fodder-corn.  No  other  crop  will  furnish  so  great  an  amount  of 
food,  half  a  square  rod  on  good  land  producing  enough  to  feed 
a  cow  a  day.  Our  Western  field  varieties  will  produce  the 
heaviest  crop,  but  Stowell  Evergreen  is  of  better  quality,  and 
as  it  will  form  ears  when  quite  thickly  planted,  and  remain  for 
a  long  time  in  a  succulent  state,  I  think  it  the  best  variety  for 
this  purpose.  I  do  not  recommend  broad-casting  or  very  thick 
drilling,  but  would  make  the  rows  three  and  a  half  feet  wide, 
and  would  give  thorough  cultivation.  I  believe  two  or  three 
stalks  to  the  foot  will  give  the  best  results. 

To  give  variety,  millet  and  hungarian  grass   and  sorghum 


820  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

may  be  grown  to  feed  with  the  corn.  The  millets  grow  rapidly 
and  yield  abundantly,  but  the  ground  must  be  well  prepared,  or 
the  young  plant  will  not  make  a  thrifty  start,  and  will  be  likely 
to  become  choked  with  weeds.  Sorghum,  when  grown  for  soil- 
ing, should  be  drilled  very  thick  to  prevent  the  stalks  from  be- 
coming too  hard. 

In  all  soiling  it  will  be  found  profitable  to  provide  as  great 
a  variety  of  food  as  possible,  and  by  a  little  care  one  can  usually 
have  two  or  more  kinds  on  hand  at  once.  When  this  is  done,, 
cows  can  be  kept  up  to  a  full  flow  of  milk,  or  the  stock  be 
made  to  gain  in  flesh  on  the  green  crops  alone;  but  when  such 
food  as  immature  corn-fodder  is  fed,  it  will  be  found  profitable 
to  give  a  few  quarts  of  bran,  or  a  pound  or  two  of  linseed  or 
cotton-seed-meal  daily,  to  each  animal,  as  it  will  pay  in  the  im- 
proved condition  of  the  stock  and  the  increased  value  of  the 
manure. 

It  is  best  to  feed  frequently  and  a  small  quantity  at  a  time ; 
for  if  a  large  quantity  of  food  is  given  at  once,  much  will  be 
wasted,  as  an  animal  will,  though  hungry,  reject  food  which  it 
has  breathed  upon  and  nosed  over.  If  any  food  remains  before 
the  cattle  after  they  have  done  eating,  it  is  better  to  throw  it  out 
in  the  barn-yard  or  to  the  hogs.  The  stock  should  be  fed  five 
times  a  day,  and  the  food  for  the  two  morning  feeds,  five  and  eight 
o'clock,  should  be  brought  in  the  night  before,  as  it  is  not  best 
to  cut  when  the  dew  is  on.  They  should  be  fed  again  at  noon, 
at  four  o'clock,  and  at  seven.  One  will  soon  learn  how  much 
to  give,  which  should  always  be  only  what  they  will  eat  clean. 

Double-cropping  in  Soiling. — One  great  advantage  of 
the  soiling  system  is,  that  it  enables  the  farmer  to  grow  two 
crops  in  a  season  on  much  of  his  land,  and  furnishes  so  much 
manure  that  this  can  be  done  without  injury  to  the  soil.  The 
land  on  which  the  rye  is  grown  can  be  planted  in  sweet- 
corn,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  clover.  Millet  may  be  sown 
after  either  of  these  crops,  or  it  or  corn  after  the  oats.  Where 
beets  are  grown,  as  I  recommend  in  the  chapter  on  hogs,  alternate 
rows  can  first  be  fed,  and  corn  drilled,  and  the  remaining  rows 
of  beets  fed  out  before  the  corn  is  large  enough  to  need  the 


CATTLE-SOILING  AND  ENSILAGE.  821 

land.  If  the  soil  is  rich  and  in  good  condition,  the  planting 
season  may  continue  till  August.  It  is  better  to  keep  the  land 
cultivated  than  to  allow  it  to  become  seeded  with  weeds,  even 
if  only  a  light  crop  is  grown,  but  in  favorable  autumns  a  heavy 
crop  of  fodder-corn  can  be  grown  from  as  late  seeding  as  this. 

Silos  and  Ensilage. — The  above  terms  have  lately  become 
familiar  to  all  readers  of  agricultural  papers,  but  in  our  own 
country  few  farmers  ever  saw  a  silo,  and  many  have  no  definite 
idea  of  what  ensilage  is.  A  silo  is  a  pit,  cistern,  or  bin,  in 
which  green  food  can  be  preserved  for  feeding  farm-stock  through 
the  winter,  and  ensilage  is  the  name  given  to  the  food  thus  pre- 
served, without  regard  to  what  crop  it  is  made  from. 

Practically  it  is  the  same  system  as  that  by  which  we  pre- 
serve fruit  by  canning,  the  silo  being  a  huge  can,  but  as  it  can 
not  be  so  perfectly  sealed  as  a  fruit-can,  there  is  always  a  slight 
degree  of  fermentation  in  the  food,  which  has  led  some  farmers 
to  give  to  ensilage  the  name  of  "  cow-krout."  The  first  thing 
which  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  system  of  ensilage  was 
attempts  to  preserve  the  beet-pulp  at  the  sugar  factories  in 
France ;  it  was  pitted  as  we  bury  potatoes,  and  kept  for  months 
in  this  way.  It  was  found  that  all  that  was  necessary  was  an 
economical  plan  to  exclude  the  air.  After  it  had  been  demon- 
strated that  beet-pulp  could  be  kept  in  this  way,  a  trial  was 
made  with  green  corn.  Trenches  five  feet  deep  were  dug  in  dry 
earth  and  filled  with  green  corn-stalks,  packed  in  flat  and  carried 
up  a  few  feet  above  the  surface ;  this  was  covered  with  straw 
and  weighted  down  with  earth,  and  as  it  settled,  more  earth  was 
added  to  exclude  the  air.  It  was  found  that  fodder  could  be 
preserved  in  this  way  so  that  cattle  would  eat  it  readily,  but 
there  was  more  fermentation  than  desirable.  This  mode  of  pre- 
serving fodder  was  practiced  for  many  years  in  Germany  and 
France. 

Experience  soon  showed  that  the  closer  the  fodder  was 
packed  the  better  it  would  keep,  and  the  next  step  was  to  run 
it  through  a  cutting  box,  cutting  it  into  lengths  of  half  an  inch 
or  less.  It  was  found  that  it  could  be  thus  packed  more  closely, 
requiring  less  space,  and  keeping  better.  Finally  a  Frenchman 


822  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

built  a  pit  with  air-tight  walls,  ten  or  twelve  feet  deep,  and  stored 
the  cut  fodder  in  it,  covered  it  with  boards,  and  weighted  it  down 
with  five  hundred  pounds  to  the  square  yard.  He  found,  that 
by  this  means  the  fodder  was  preserved  in  good  condition 
throughout. 

The  fact  that  fodder-corn  can  be  preserved  in  this  way  has 
been  fully  established,  and  also  that  these  green  crops,  cut  at 
the  point  in  their  growth  when  they  are  most  succulent  and 
nutritious,  will  retain  all  their  feeding  value,  and  not  only  be 
palatable  to  the  stock,  but  also  have  a  good  effect  upon  the 
health  and  growth  of  the  animal. 

It  has  perhaps  been  unfortunate  for  the  system  that  those 
among  the  first  to  experiment  on  it  in  our  country  allowed  their 
enthusiasm  to  run  away  with  their  judgment,  and  put  forth  ab- 
surd claims  which  led  farmers  to  look  with  suspicion  upon  the 
process.  The  first  silos  built  were  also  generally  expensive, 
and  the  impression  made  upon  farmers  was,  that  they  must  be 
built  of  concrete  or  solid  masonry  and  made  below  ground.  It 
has  been  found,  however,  that  a  very  cheap  silo  can  be  made 
that  will  preserve  the  crops  as  well  as  the  more  expensive  ones. 
How  to  make  a  cheap  silo  will  be  described  in  this  chapter. 

There  are  now  enough  silos  in  the  United  States,  and  in  the 
hands  of  such  men  that  a  few  years  will  put.  us  in  possession 
of  facts  which  will  enable  us  to  definitely  settle  the  question  of 
profit  connected  with  this  method  of  feeding.  With  such  men 
as  Professor  Henry,  of  the  State  University  of  Wisconsin,  and 
Professor  Roberts,  of  Cornell  University,  of  New  York,  and  oth- 
ers, who  are  experimenting,  not  for  the  purpose  of  establishing 
some  pet  theory,  but  to  ascertain  the  relative  merits  of  dried 
fodder  and  ensilage,  we  may  be  sure  of  an  impartial  and  prac- 
tical treatment  of  the  subject. 

Conceding  that  the  question  is  already  settled  that  green 
fodder  can  be  preserved  in  a  silo,  and  that  stock  will  eat  it  and 
thrive  on  it,  there  are  still  several  questions  to  be  considered 
before  farmers  should  adopt  the  system. 

Among  these  questions  are:  1st,  Cost  of  a  silo;  2d, 
Comparative  cost  and  risk  of  damage  in  curing  fodder,  or  in 


CATTLE— SOILING  AND  ENSILAGE.  823 

ensilaging  it;  3d,  Comparative  value  for  food  of  dry  fodder  and 
ensilage;   4th,  Relative  labor  of  feeding  by  the  two  systems. 

The  cost  of  a  stone  or  concrete  silo  is  estimated  at  about 
$1.25  for  each  tori  of  capacity.  A  cubic  foot  of  ensilage  will 
weigh  about  forty-five  pounds,  and  about  twelve  tons  can  be 
stored  in  the  space  which  one  ton  of  hay  would  occupy.  In 
building  a  silo,  you  will  need  to  provide  about  two  cubic  feet  of 
space  per  day  for  each  animal  of  one  thousand  pounds  weight, 
if  they  are  to  be  fed  all  they  will  eat.  In  Professor  Henry's 
experiment,  two  cows,  weighing  two  thousand  six  hundred 
pounds,  ate  an  average  of  one  hundred  and  five  pounds  per 
day  for  twenty-one  days,  and  two  cows,  weighing  two  thousand 
pounds,  ate  an  average  of  ninety  pounds  each  per  day.  These 
cows  were  giving  milk,  and  were  each  fed,  in  addition  to  the 
ensilage,  two  pounds  of  bran,  two  pounds  of  corn-meal,  and 
three  pounds  of  oil-meal  per  day.  Mr.  Peer  estimates  that  if 
cattle  are  to  be  kept  for  six  months  on  ensilage  without  hay  or 
other  coarse  fodder,  that  five  hundred  cubic  feet  should  be  al- 
lowed for  each  head. 

How  to  Make  a  Silo. — If  the  farmer  decides  to  follow 
the  system  of  ensilage  feeding,  it  will  pay  him  to  build  a  per- 
manent silo ;  but  for  the  purpose  of  experimenting,  a  cheap  one 
may  be  made.  A  silo  like  an  ice-house  can  be  made  of  any  ma- 
terial that  will  exclude  the  air,  and  a  bay  in  the  barn,  boarded  up 
so  as  to  allow  a  four-inch  space  to  pack  with  earth,  will  answer; 
but  in  case  a  space  in  the  barn  is  used  for  this  purpose,  one 
must  remember  the  great  weight,  and  not  run  the  risk  of  losing 
the  crop  by  breaking  down  the  floor.  It  would  probably  be  bet- 
ter to  take  out  the  floor  and  lay  down  loose  boards  on  the 
earth,  so  that  all  the  weight  would  rest  on  the  ground.  In  this 
case  it  would  be  necessary  to  make  the  double  wall  the  width  of 
the  sills,  as  there  must  be  no  projection  to  impede  the  settling 
of  the  ensilage.  For  the  same  reason  the  inside  of  the  silo 
must  be  made  smooth,  so  that  the  plank  covering  may  fit  closely 
and  settle  without  hindrance,  and  for  the  same  reason  it  should 
be  boarded  up  and  down. 

Several  points  must  be  considered  in  building  the  silo.     It 


824  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

should  be  easy  of  access,  so  that  it  can  be  filled  with  a  mini- 
mum of  labor;  corivenient  to  the  stable,  so  as  to  avoid  unneces- 
sary labor  in  feeding.  If  partly  or  wholly  below  ground,  it 
must  be  so  arranged  that  no  water  can  enter  it.  There  should 
be  but  one  door  to  the  silo,  and  this  should  be  at  the  point  most 
convenient  to  the  stable,  and  it  must  be  closed  and  made  double 
and  packed  like  the  other  walls,  until  the  ensilage  has  settled 
and  is  fit  for  use.  This  door  may  be  on  a  level  with  the  bot- 
tom of  the  silo,  as  in  feeding  there  is  no  necessity  of  taking 
out  the  ensilage  from  the  top,  but  it  can  be  cut  down  in 
sections  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  as  it  is  needed  for  feed- 
ing, and  when  ready  for  use,  it  will  be  packed  so  closely  that  no 
air  can  penetrate  it,  and  a  double  door  will  not  be  necessary.  It 
is  advisable,  for  several  reasons,  that  the  silo,  if  large,  should  be 
partitioned  off  into  smaller  ones.  The  advantages  are:  1st, 
A  small  silo  can  be  filled  more  rapidly  and  sealed  sooner  than  a 
large  one,  and,  when  uncovered,  less  ensilage  is  exposed ;  2d, 
With  several  small  silos,  one  can  put  in  a  crop  at  any  time 
through  the  summer;  3d,  If  a  drought  occurs  during  the  sum- 
mer, and  the  stock  need  it,  a  small  silo  can  be  fed  out,  when  it 
would  not  be  economical  to  open  a  large  one. 

To  show  how  cheaply  an  experimental  silo  can  be  made,  I 
give  a  description  of  one  which  can  be  easily  understood.  In 
the  report  for  1882  of  the  experiments  at  the  university  farm, 
at  Madison,  Wisconsin,  Professsor  Henry  describes  his  silo,  con- 
structed for  experiment,  as  follows  : 

"About  the  buildings  of  the  experimental  farm  the  land  is 
comparatively  level,  but  in  one  place  not  far  from  the  barns, 
there  is  an  embankment  about  seven  feet  in  height.  An  exca- 
vation was  made  in  the  face  of  this  embankment,  extending 
back  fifteen  feet  and  having  a  width  of  twelve  feet.  The  bot- 
tom of  the  excavation  was  on  a  level  with  the  ground  at  the 
foot  of  the  embankment.  About  the  sides  of  this  excavation 
two  by  four  scantlings,  ten  feet  in  length,  were  placed  upright 
as  studding  (narrow-ways)  against  the  earth  wall,  and  also  at 
the  open  front.  Upon  the  inside  of  these,  studding  boards  were 
nailed.  These  boards  were  carried  up  to  the  top  of  the  stud- 


CATTLE— SOILING  AND  ENSILAGE.  825 

ding,  so  that  it  gave  a  room  twelve  by  fifteen  feet,  and  ten  feet 
high.  This  box,  as  will  be  understood  from  the  previous  expla- 
nation, stood  about  seven  feet  in  the  ground  on  two  sides,  but 
had  an  exposed  front.  Where  it  extended  above  the  ground 
and  at  the  front,  boards  were  nailed  upon  the  outside  of  the 
studding  also.  The  four-inch  space  thus  formed  was  filled  with 
earth  so  as  to  exclude  air.  Studding  were  then  placed  on  end 
lengthwise  through  the  middle  of  this  box,  and  boards  nailed  to 
both  sides  of  these  and  earth  placed  in  the  four-inch  space  as 
before.  This  gave  two  small  silos,  each  about  fifteen  feet  long, 
nearly  six  feet  wide,  and  ten  feet  deep.  In  putting  the  boards 
on  no  care  was  taken  to  make  them  fit  closely,  and  they  were 
full  of  cracks  and  nail-holes,  as  old  lumber  was  used,  but  as 
most  of  the  silo  was  below  ground,  and  that  part  which  ex- 
tended above  had  a  four-inch  space  filled  with  earth  there  was 
little  chance  for  the  passage  of  air.  Such  a  silo  is  far  from 
having  air-tight  walls,  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word.  This  silo 
had  only  the  natural  earth  floor.  The  roof  was  made  of  old 
boards  well  lapped  to  keep  out  the  rain.  The  labor  required 
for  excavation  was  one  team,  ten  hours ;  farm  hands,  thirty-four 
hours.  For  building  the  silo,  farm  hands,  fifty  hours.  Allow- 
ing fifteen  cents  per  hour  for  team  and  hands,  the  cost  of  the 
silo  for  labor  was  fourteen  dollars  and  ten  cents.  About  two 
thousand  feet  of  old  lumber  was  used  in  its  construction. 

Filling  the  Silo. — The  green  fodder  used  for  filling  the 
silo  must  be  cut  fine,  the  object  being  to  insure  compact  stor- 
ing and  consequent  exclusion  of  air.  About  three-eighths  of  an 
inch  is  recommended  as  the  best  length  to  cut. 

It  should  be  placed  at  once  in  the  silo  and  thoroughly 
packed.  Where  the  size  and  location  of  the  silo  will  admit  of 
it  a  horse  or  mule  can  be  used  to  tramp  it.  The  usual  cus- 
tom is  to  have  one  or  two  men  to  tramp  it,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  silo  and  the  amount  of  ensilage  cut  each  day,  and 
if  provided  with  light  rammers  they  will  do  better  work  and 
easier  than  to  tramp  all  the  time. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  the  silo  should  be  filled  in  a  single 
day,  but  the  filling  should  be  as  near  continuous  as  possible,  not 


826  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

less  than  two  feet  in  depth  being  put  in  each  day.  When 
filled  very  rapidly  the  ensilage  will  settle  more,  but  if  there  is 
too  much  delay,  an  injurious  amount  of  fermentation  is  likely 
to  ensue. 

When  the  silo  is  full,  it  must  be  covered  immediately  with 
boards,  and  weighted  down  with  from  five  hundred  to  nine 
hundred  pounds  to  the  square  yard.  If  stone  can  be  had  con- 
veniently they  will  furnish  cheap  material  for  this  purpose,  but 
boxes  filled  with  earth  will  do  as  well.  The  ensilage  will  set- 
tle considerably,  even  when  well-packed  during  filling,  and 
where  the  silo  is  located  so  that  it  can  be  done,  it  is  well  to 
set  a  temporary  frame  round  it  so  as  to  fill  a  few  feet  above 
the  top,  as  it  will  soon  settle  down  into  the  silo.  It  is  well 
to  spread  a  foot  of  straw  over  the  top  before  putting  on  the 
boards. 

The  cover  must  be  put  on  so  that  nothing  will  interfere  with 
its  settling,  and  the  weights  should  be  put  on  so  as  to  admit  of 
a  part  of  the  cover  being  removed  without  disturbing  the  rest. 
The  ensilage  will  begin  to  heat,  but  if  properly  covered  the  heat 
will  pass  off. 

Cost  of  Bnsilage. — The  cost  of  growing  rye,  clover,  corn- 
fodder,  or  other  crops  for  ensilage  the  farmer  can  readily  esti- 
mate for  himself,  but  I  have  some  data  as  to  the  cost  of  cutting 
and  filling  the  silo.  The  first  year  that  Professor  Henry  put 
up  ensilage  the  amount  was  but  about  ten  tons,  and  the  cost  of 
cutting  and  storing  was  one  dollar  and  sixty  cents  per  ton. 
The  next  year,  with  over  thirty  tons  and  better  facilities  for 
handling,  the  cost  was  eighty-nine  cents  per  ton.  Dr.  Tanner, 
of  Orange  County,  New  York,  estimates  that  with  a  large  quan- 
tity it  can  be  cut  and  put  in  silo  for  seventy-five  cents  per  ton, 
and  Mr.  Chaffce,  of  the  same  county,  estimates  the  cost  of  rais- 
ing and  putting  in  the  silo  at  two  dollars  per  ton.  All  of  these 
estimates  are  where  corn  is  used  as  the  ensilage  crop,  which  in 
my  judgment  can  be  handled  cheaper  than  any  other  used  for 
this  purpose. 

Crops  for  Ensilage. — Any  green  succulent  crop  can  be 
stored  in  this  way,  but  from  all  I  can  learn  on  the  subject,  corn 


CA  T TLE— SOILING  AND  ENSILA  GE.  827 

is  the  crop  which  furnishes  the  greatest  bulk  of  food,  and  the 
one  most  to  be  relied  on  for  ensilage.  It  is  my  judgment  that 
the  best  feeding  results  will  be  found  by  the  use  of  ensilage  in 
connection  with  other  food,  and  that  it  will  be  best  to  cure  for 
hay  the  grasses  that  are  easily  preserved  in  this  way,  and  ensi- 
lage the  succulent  clover  and  corn,  which  are  difficult  to  cure. 
Most  extravagant  and  absurd  statements  have  been  made  as  to 
the  yield  of  fodder  corn  per  acre.  Dr.  Baily  says  and  repeats 
it  in  his  "  Book  of  Ensilage : "  "I  do  not  think  it  will  be  at  all 
difficult  to  raise  forty  to  seventy-five  tons  per  acre  on  good 
corn  land." 

Such  statements  are  misleading,  and  from  my  own  experi- 
ence I  estimate  that  on  good  corn  land,  without  manure,  we 
could  not  average  above  twelve  tons,  and  I  have  found  that 
on  a  rich  manured  soil  it  takes  a  heavy  growth  to  produce 
twenty  tons. 

Clover  on  good  land  may  make  ten  to  twelve  tons  at  the 
first  cutting,  and  in  favorable  seasons  the  two  subsequent  cut- 
tings sometimes  make  eight  tons,  but  this  will  not  be  reached 
under  ordinary  culture.  Millet  on  good  land  will  make  eight 
to  ten  tons  per  acre.  Oats,  or  oats  and  peas  mixed,  will  be 
found  a  valuable  crop  for  this  purpose,  and  will  give  a  heavy  yield. 
Sorghum  will  doubtless  prove  an  excellent  crop  for  ensilage,  and 
will  produce  as  heavy  a  crop  as  corn,  and  if  cut  early,  it  will 
produce  a  second  crop.  Winter  rye  will  produce  from  twelve 
to  sixteen  tons  to  the  acre,  and  ought  to  average  ten  tons. 

All  crops  for  ensilage  should  be  cut  somewhat  greener  than  if 
to  be  cured.  Clover  should  be  cut  in  full  bloom.  Millet  and  oats, 
as  soon  as  the  blossom  falls ;  corn  should  be  past  the  blossom- 
ing and  approaching  the  milky  stage.  Sorghum  should  be  cut 
before  heading,  as  the  stalk  has  too  hard  a  sheath  when  approach- 
ing maturity,  and  by  early  cutting  a  second  crop  will  be  pro- 
duced. Rye  should  be  cut  as  soon  as  the  heads  begin  to  show, 
as  the  straw  becomes  hard  very  soon  after  heading.  In  a  recent 
conversation  with  Professor  Roberts,  of  Cornell  University,  he 
told  me  that  he  lost  a  silo  of  ensilaged  rye  from  allowing  it  to 
become  too  mature ;  the  straws  were  too  hard  to  yield  to  pressure, 


828  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

and  many  of  them  remained  whole — little  tubes  filled  with  air — 
and  spoiled  the  ensilage. 

We  can  take  no  food  value  out  of  the  silo  that  we  do  not  put 
in,  and  it  must  be  remembered  that  corn-fodder  is  not  a  complete 
ration,  particularly  if  it  has  been  grown  thick  on  the  ground 
and  cut  when  immature.  The  best  results  from  ensilage  will 
probably  be  when  it  is  used  as  a  substitue  for  roots,  and  fed  in 
connection  with  grain  and  some  hay.  Perhaps  common  field- 
corn  planted  and  cultivated  so  as  to  produce  ears  and  ensilaged 
when  in  the  roasting-ear  stage,  would  be  one  of  the  best  crops 
for  ensilage.  It  would  yield  a  very  heavy  weight  to  the  acre, 
and  would  be  more  nearly  a  complete  ration  than  if  planted 
thick  and  cut  green. 

Experiments  With  Ensilage. — The  cheap  silo  built  by 
Professor  Henry,  which  I  have  described,  was  filled  on  September 
4th  and  5th,  from  a  plot  of  corn  grown  for  the  purpose  of  test- 
ing the  relative  value  of  ensilage  and  corn-fodder.  Eighteen 
rows,  three  feet  apart,  forty-eight  rods  long,  were  planted  with 
common  yellow  corn,  and  eight  rows,  fifty  rods  long,  with  ensilage 
corn,  making  in  all  about  one  and  a  quarter  acres.  Half  of  this 
corn  was  put  in  the  silo,  and  at  the  same  time  the  other  half 
was  cut  and  shocked.  The  weight  of  the  ensilage  was  twenty- 
one  thousand  two  hundred  and  twenty  pounds  as  put  in  the  silo. 
On  the  25th  of  October,  when  the  corn-fodder  was  in  good  condi- 
tion, it  was  bound  in  bundles  and  put  under  cover.  It  weighed  six 
thousand  six  hundred  and  forty-three  pounds.  The  ensilage  when 
first  put  in  filled  the  silo  to  the  top,  but  had  settled  nearly  one-half 
when  feeding  was  begun,  the  16th  of  November.  At  this  date 
four  cows  were  selected  that  had  been  giving  milk  for  nearly 
the  same  length  of  time,  and  two  of  them  were  fed  for  twenty- 
one  days  on  ensilage  all  they  would  eat,  and  the  other  two  on 
the  fodder.  Then  the  food  was  changed,  and  the  two  that  had 
eaten  fodder  were  fed  ensilage,  and  vice  versa,  and  after  pre- 
liminary feeding  for  a  week,  another  trial  of  twenty -one  days 
was  had.  These  cows  were  each  fed  two  pounds  of  bran,  two 
pounds  of  corn-meal,  and  three  pounds  of  oil-meal  per  day, 
during  the  trial. 


CATTLE-SOILING  AND  ENSILAGE.  829 

The  result  of  these  two  trials  showed  that  thirteen  rows  of 
ensilaged  corn  lasted  two  cows  seventy  days.  Thirteen  other 
rows,  equal  in  all  respects  when  cut,  shocked,  bound,  and  housed, 
lasted  two  cows  forty-seven  days.  In  length  of  time  it  fed  the 
cows,  the  value  of  the  ensilage  exceeded  that  of  the  corn-fodder 
by  nearly  fifty  per  cent. 

The  following  table  shows  the  milk  and  butter  product  of 
forty-two  days  ration  of  fodder  and  ensilage  for  two  cows: 

Milk  from  fodder-corn,         .....  1,322  ft.  15  oz. 

Butter  from  fodder-corn,           .         .         .         .  .     53  ft.     5  oz. 

Milk  from  ensilage,      ......  1,456  ft.     8  oz. 

Butter  from  ensilage,        .         .         .         .         .  .     59  ft.     8  oz. 

From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  cows  fed  on  ensilage 
produced  one  hundred  and  thirty-three  pounds  nine  ounces  more 
milk,  and  six  pounds  three  ounces  more  butter  than  when  fed  on 
fodder-corn. 

The  corn-fodder  when  put  under  cover  in  October,  weighed 
6,643  pounds,  but  as  fed  out,  only  4,615  pounds,  showing  a  loss 
of  about  thirty  per  cent  from  drying  in  the  mow.  The  loss  in 
weight  of  the  ensilage  was  about  twenty-five  per  cent,  21,220 
pounds  being  put  in,  and  15,963  pounds  taken  out  of  the  silo. 
From  three  to  six  inches  of  the  top  of  the  silo,  the  ensilage 
weighing  2,183  pounds,  was  rotten  and  unfit  for  use.  There 
was  also  446  pounds  of  the  fodder  molded  and  thrown  out. 

The  ensilage  made  from  the  large  ensilage-corn  was  eaten 
clean  by  the  cattle,  while  the  fodder  from  this  corn  gave  noarly 
fifty  per  cent  of  waste — 2,393  pounds  of  it  were  fed,  and  1,137 
pounds  weighed  back.  With  the  common  yellow  corn  the 
waste  was  but  about  twenty-nine  per  cent — 1,481  pounds  being 
fed,  and  431  pounds  weighed  back.  The  cows  were  weighed 
at  the  beginning  and  close  of  each  trial,  and  the  result  was 
that  in  the  first  the  cows  fed  on  fodder  gained  ten  pounds,  and 
those  fed  on  ensilage  twenty-four  pounds.  In  the  second  trial, 
those  fed  on  fodder  lost  eighteen  pounds,  and  those  fed  on  en- 
silage lost  thirty-nine  pounds.  All  the  details  of  this  experi- 
ment were  carried  out  with  the  utmost  care.  The  milking  was 
done  with  perfect  regularity  at  half-past  four,  morning  and 


830  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

night.  Every  article  of  food  was  carefully  weighed,  and  all  re- 
jected was  weighed  back.  The  water  was  also  weighed,  and 
the  milk  of  each  cow  weighed  separately,  and  recorded.  The 
churning  was  done  twice  a  week.  It  is  a  question  whether  the 
fodder  or  the  ensilage  was  the  more  profitable,  as,  when  the  cost 
of  building  the  silo  and  the  extra  cost  of  ensilaging  the  crop  is 
taken  into  account,  it  might  over-balance  the  advantage. 

We  have  no  estimate  of  the  cost  of  securing  the  corn-fod- 
der, but  as  its  weight  was  less  than  one-third  as  much  as  the 
ensilage,  and  it  was  not  run  through  the  cutter,  it  is  safe  to 
say  that  would  not  exceed  one-third  the  cost  of  the  ensilage. 
Then  the  labor  of  feeding  to  each  cow  an  average  of  nearly 
one  hundred  pounds  of  ensilage  must  have  been  considerably 
more  than  that  of  feeding  the  fodder,  of  which  only  thirty-five 
pounds  per  cow  per  day  was  fed. 

From  Professor  Henry's  report  I  also  take  the  account  of 
feeding  hay  and  ensilage  to  calves.  "Two  calves  were  placed 
in  one  box-stall,  and  three  in  another.  The  food  allowed  each 
calf  was  two  pounds  of  oil-meal,  two  of  bran,  and  four  of  oats, 
per  day,  divided  into  two  feeds.  In  addition  to  this,  the  two 
animals  in  the  first  lot  received  all  the  ensilage  they  could  eat, 
while  those  in  the  second  lot  were  fed  blue-grass  hay  of  me- 
dium quality.  One  calf  in  each  lot  was  a  full-blood  Holstein, 
the  others  were  full-blood  Short-horns.  All  were  born  in  May 
or  June  of  the  previous  spring.  They  had  been  raised  on  skim- 
milk,  and  were  in  good  condition.  The  weights  of  the  several 
animals,  on  January  7th,  were  as  follows: 

LOT  1. 
Holstein  heifer,   ........         550 

Short-horn  bull, 522 

LOT  2. 

Holstein  heifer,  ........  476 

Short-horn  bull, 474 

Short-horn  heifer, 448 

"  They  were  fed,  carded,  watered,  and  weighed  regularly  each 
day  during  the  experiment,  and  in  fine  weather  allowed  exer- 
cise in  the  open  air. 


CATTLE— SOILING  AND  ENSILAGE.  831 

"The  experiment  began  January  7,  1882,  and  continued  to 
January  30th,  when  hay  was  substituted  for  ensilage  with  lot 
one,  and  lot  two  were  fed  ensilage  in  place  of  hay,  the  other 
part  of  the  ration  remaining  the  same.  After  this  change  the 
experiment  continued  twenty-two  days  longer.  It  will  be  seen 
that  two  ate  ensilage  while  three  were  eating  hay,  in  the  first 
trial,  and  in  the  second,  three  were  eating  ensilage  and  two  hay. 
The  equivalent  would  be,  five  calves  twenty-two  days  on  ensil- 
age, and  five  twenty-two  days  on  hay.  During  the  first  trial 
of  twenty-two  days,  lot  one  ate  995  i  pounds  of  ensilage,  and 
gained  74  pounds.  The  same  time  lot  two  ate  266  pounds  of 
hay,  and  gained  92  pounds.  During  the  second  trial  of  twenty- 
two  days,  lot  one  ate  333  pounds  of  hay  and  gained  112  pounds. 
Lot  two  ate  1,355  \  pounds  of  ensilage  and  gained  148  pounds. 

"A  summary  of  the  two  trials  would  give  us  the  following: 

IST — ENSILAGE. 

Total  amount  eaten  in  the  two  trials,  .         .  2,351  Ibs. 

Total  gain  iu  the  two  trials, 222  " 

Pounds  of  ensilage  to  one  of  gain,        .         .         .  lOA" 

2D— HAY. 

Total  amount  eaten  in  the  two  trials,      .         .  .       599  Ibs. 

Total  gain  in  the  two  trials 204  " 

Pounds  of  hay  eaten  to  one  of  gain,          .         .         .       2iV 

"  From  this  it  appears  that  one  pound  of  the  hay  was  equal 
to  three  and  six-tenths  pounds  of  ensilage.  The  appearance  of 
both  lots  of  calves  at  the  close  of  the  experiment  was  excel- 
lent, and  the  impression  gained,  aside  from  the  test  of  the 
scales,  was  very  favorable  to  ensilage  all  the  way  through  the 
experiment.  That  calves  will  eat  it  with  avidity,  and  thrive, 
when  properly  fed,  is  beyond  all  question." 

These  experiments  were  conducted  in-  all  fairness,  not  to 
bolster  up  a  theory,  but  to  ascertain  the  value  of  ensilage. 
They  seem  to  show  conclusively  that  a  given  weight  of  green 
food  ensilaged  is  worth  more  than  the  same  amount  dried,  but 
do  not  show  so  great  an  increase  in  value  as  has  been  claimed 
by  some  advocates  of  the  system.  There  are  doubtless  both 
advantages  and  disadvantages  connected  with  it.  Among  the 


832  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

former  may  be  enumerated  the  increased  value  of  food  pre- 
pared in  this  way;  the  good  effect  on  the  health  of  the  ani- 
mal— if  it  is  properly  prepared — the  ensilage  being  a  substitute 
for  roots ;  the  fact  that  a  crop  of  corn  may  be  grown  after  clover 
or  barley,  and  saved  in  this  way  late  in  the  season  when  it 
would  be  difficult  to  cure  it  at  all;  and  the  economy  in  storage 
room.  The  disadvantages  are  the  increased  labor  and  extra 
expense  of  handling  so  great  a  weight  of  food,  both  in  putting 
it  in  and  taking  it  from  the  silo ;  the  expense  of  making  a 
silo;  the  disagreeable  work  of  feeding  ensilage  in  cold,  freezing 
weather. 

Further  experiments  will  be  necessary  to  settle  the  question 
as  to  whether  it  will  be  profitable  to  adopt  the  system  or  not, 
and  in  the  mean  time  nothing  will  be  gained  by  extravagant 
claims  in  its  favor,  or  by  denouncing  it  as  a  humbug.  Several 
cases  have  come  to  my  notice  where  the  milk  of  cows  fed  on 
ensilage  has  been  rejected  at  condensing  factories  or  creameries, 
as  it  was  found  to  contain  acids  which  prevented  its  making  a 
good  article  of  condensed  milk  or  butter. 


CATTLE— THE  DAIRY.  833 


XI. 

— THE    DAIRY. 

THE  annual  butter  product  of  the  United  States  has  been 
estimated  at  about  one  thousand  million  pounds,  and  a  com- 
mittee appointed  by  the  New  York  Butter  and  Cheese  Ex- 
change to  investigate  the  matter,  reported  that  the  statistics 
were  incomplete  and  defective,  and  that  from  the  best  data  at 
their  command  they  believed  the  annual  product  would  reach 
fourteen  hundred  million  pounds.  Probably  in  no  other  country 
on  the  globe  is  the  consumption  of  butter  so  great  per  capita 
as  with  us. 

As  co-operative  or  factory  dairying  will  be  treated  under  a 
separate  head,  I  shall  confine  myself  at  present  to  farm  dairying. 
Aside  from  providing  for  the  wants  of  the  family,  under  what 
circumstances  will  it  pay  to  run  a  butter  dairy  ? 

I  answer :  First,  only  when  there  is  sufficient  help  in  the 
house  to  enable  the  work  to  be  done  at  the  right  time  and  well 
done.  A  woman  can  not  have  the  care  of  a  family  of  children, 
do  the  cooking,  mending,  making,  sweeping,  and  the  thousand 
things  that  devolve  on  a  mother,  and  be  a  good  dairymaid,  or 
if  she  is,  it  is  more  than  one  woman  ought  to  do.  Second,  there 
will  be  no  profit  in  butter-making  unless  a  superior  article  is 
produced,  and  this  can  not  be  done  without  suitable  apparatus 
and  conveniences,  and  no  one  should  attempt  it  unless  these  are 
provided. 

In  other  words,  in  running  a  butter  dairy  there  will  be 
much  hard  work,  which  can  not  be  postponed,  as  the  cows  must 
be  milked,  the  milk  put  away,  skimmed,  and  churned,  the  butter 
worked  and  prepared  for  market  every  day,  and  this  must  be 
done  in  the  freezing  weather  of  winter,  and  the  hot,  sultry  days 

53 


834  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA 

of  summer.  Before  deciding  to  engage  in  the  business,  one 
should  take  all  these  matters  into  consideration,  for  it  is  better 
to  let  the  calves  run  with  the  cows  than  to  have  all  this  work 
for  no  profit. 

To  make  a  butter  dairy  profitable,  not  only  must  a  superior 
article  be  produced,  but  it  must  be  sold  above  the  average  mar- 
ket price.  Fortunately,  the  consumption  of  butter  increases  as 
the  quality  improves,  and  the  farmer  who  makes  a  first-class 
article  is  not  likely  to  hunt  long  for  a  market. 

Selecting  the  Cows. — It  will  be  a  work  of  time  to  get  a 
herd  of  good  butter  cows,  and  my  experience  in  buying  leads 
me  to  advise  that  the  cows  be  bought  largely  with  reference  to 
what  they  will  bring  for  beef,  so  that  if  they  prove  unprofitable 
for  dairy  purposes,  you  can  get  your  money  back  from  the 
butcher.  In  looking  back  over  my  own  experience,  I  see  that 
I  have  rarely  found  it  profitable  to  buy  high-priced  cows,  and 
that  many  of  the  best  I  have  ever  owned  were  bought  at  a 
moderate  price.  There  are  many  farmers  who  have  excellent 
butter  cows  and  do  not  know  it.  They  do  not  feed  well  enough 
to  make  a  cow  profitable,  and  the  milk  of  each  cow  is  not  tested 
separately  to  ascertain  which  gives  the  richest. 

Buy  young,  thrifty  cows ;  feed  liberally,  so  that  if  they  do 
not  give  rich  milk,  or  enough  of  it,  they  will  soon  fatten,  and 
then  cull  out  all  that  are  unprofitable.  It  will  pay  to  raise  the 
heifer  calves  from  your  best  cows,  and  in  time  you  can  raise 
the  standard  of  your  herd,  and  largely  increase  the  profits  of 
the  business.  If  a  cow  will  pay  for  her  keeping  on  a  weekly 
product  of  four  pounds  of  butter  for  a  season  of  six  months, 
one  that  will  produce  seven  pounds  will  give  a  good  profit. 
Mr.  Williard,  in  his  Butter  Book,  says  :  "  The  average  annual 
product  of  good  cows  in  herds  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five 
animals,  in  good  dairy  districts,  is  about  two  hundred  pounds. 
Occasionally  an  extra  herd  will  produce  two  hundred  and  fifty 
to  three  hundred  pounds  per  cow,  while  individual  cows  often 
yield  a  much  larger  product." 

Testing  the  Cows. — As  the  quantity  of  milk  required  to 
make  a  pound  of  butter  varies  from  eight  to  twenty  quarts,  it 


CATTLE— THE  DAIRY.  835 

will  pay  the  dairyman  to  be  at  considerable  pains  to  test  his  cows. 
The  points  of  a  desirable  dairy  cow  are,  that  she  should  give  a 
good  quantity  of  milk,  that  it  be  of  good  quality,  that  she  continue 
in  milk  for  a  long  period,  that  she  milk  easy,  and  is  of  a  quiet, 
gentle,  disposition.  In  ascertaining  the  quantity  of  milk  it  is 
necessary  to  keep  a  record  of  the  product  of  each  cow,  and  the  eas- 
iest way  is  to  have  a  platform-scale  in  the  stable,  and  weigh  the 
milk.  Then  there  should  be  a  large  sheet  of  paper  and  a  pencil  se- 
jured  by  a  string,  so  as  to  put  down  at  each  milking  the  amount  of 
milk  from  each  cow.  Such  a  record  could  be  kept  with  very  little 
trouble,  and  would  furnish  valuable  data  in  determining  the  value 
of  any  particular  cow.  By  a  glance  at  it  you  could  see  which 
cows  were  shrinking  most  in  their  milk.  If  any  change  is  made 
in  quantity  or  quality  of  feed,  the  record  would  be  of  value  in 
determining  the  effect  of  such  change.  The  sheet  of  paper  used 
for  the  records  should  have  as  many  horizontal  lines  as  there  are 
cows,  and  perpendicular  lines  to  last  a  month.  The  cows  can  be 
designated  by  number  or  by  name.  I  would  never  record  frac- 
tions of  a  pound,  but  if  the  fraction  was  less  than  eight  ounces 
make  no  account  of  it,  but  if  more  than  eight  ounces 
call  it  a  full  pound.  This  would  give  a  fair  average, 
and  make  it  easier  to  keep  the  record  and  strike  the 
averages. 

The  next  matter  to  test  is  the  quality  of  the  milk, 
and  for  this  purpose  a  test  or  percentage  glass  will  be 
needed.  This  is  a  glass  tube,  or  cup,  with  a  gradu- 
ated scale  marked  on  it,  each  mark  representing  one 
hundredth  of  its  depth,  or  one  per  cent.  The  glass 
is  nine  inches  deep  and  two  in  diameter,  and  has  a 
broad,  flat  base  like  an  ordinary  goblet,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent its  tipping  over  easily.  In  using  it,  fill  care- 
fully, so  that  there  shall  be  no  foam  on  the  milk, 
and  see  that  the  milk  conies  exactly  to  the  top  mark 
of  the  scale.  It  should  be  allowed  to  stand  thirty- 
six  hours.  The  per  cent  of  cream  will  often  appear  greater  at 
the  end  of  twelve  or  twenty-four  hours  than  at  the  longer 
period,  for  the  cream  condenses  somewhat  by  standing.  One  of 


836  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

these  glasses  should  be  kept  in  every  dairy.  They  can  be 
ordered  through  any  druggist,  as  wholesale  dealers  in  surgical 
supplies  keep  them. 

The  daily  record  of  milk  will  show  whether  the  cow  holds 
out  well  in  her  milk,  or  begins  soon  to  fail,  and  by  adopting  these 
tests  one  can  soon  determine  the  value  of  his  cows,  and  decide 
which  to  keep  and  which  to  sell. 

Breeds. — It  is  not  my  purpose  to  recommend  any  one 
breed  of  cattle  above  all  others,  for  the  farmer  must  judge  for 
himself  what  will  best  suit  his  farm  and  circumstances.  On  a 
hilly  farm  the  smaller  breeds  will  be  likely  to  give  the  best  sat- 
isfaction, and  as  a  rule  they  give  the  richest  milk.  The  Jersey 
and  Devon  are  noted  for  the  quality  of  their  product.  There 
are  some  strains  of  Short-horns  noted  for  their  excellence  for 
the  dairy,  but  as  a  rule  they  are  deficient  in  the  points  which 
make  cows  valuable  for  this  purpose,  as  they  come  from  a  line 
of  ancestry  which  has  been  bred  for  meat  rather  than  milk  or 
butter.  A  few  Jersey  cows  in  a  herd,  or  an  admixture  of  Jer- 
sey blood,  will  often  be  found  profitable,  as  it  will  improve  the 
quality  of  the  butter.  A  single  cross  with  the  Jersey  will  not 
materially  reduce  the  size  or  meat-producing  qualities  of  the 
animals.  It  is  doubtful  if  it  is  desirable,  or  would  be  found 
profitable,  to  attempt  to  secure  a  herd  for  dairy  purposes  of 
pure-bred  animals.  The  best  results  will  be  attained  by  careful 
testing  of  all,  and  weeding  out  of  those  which  do  not  come  up  to 
the  standard,  and  the  use  of  thorough-bred  bulls  selected  from 
such  a  breed  as  possesses  the  points  you  wish  to  improve,  and 
from  a  strain  noted  for  its  dairy  qualities. 

When  butter  is  to  be  sold  in  the  market  with  no  contract  as 
to  price,  I  think  a  greater  profit  can  be  made  from  cows  fresh 
in  the  fall.  I  have  known  small  dairies  managed  in  this  way 
that  gave  good  satisfaction.  The  price  of  butter  from  October 
to  May  is  usually  considerably  higher  than  through  the  sum- 
mer, and  where  one  is  so  situated  that  calves  can  be  had  to  put 
with  the  cows  in  the  spring,  they  will  often  give  a  greater  profit 
than  to  make  butter  through  the  hot  weather,  when  flies  are 
troublesome,  and  it  is  so  difficult  to  make  good  butter.  Good 


CA TTLE—  THE  DAIRY.  837 

butter  can  be  made  during  the  seven  months,  October  to  April 
inclusive,  without  ice,  and  the  cows,  although  beginning  to  fail 
in  their  milk  at  the  end  of  this  period,  will  increase  when  they 
go  on  fresh  pasture  so  as  to  give  a  calf  a  good  start,  if  you  wish 
to  raise  it,  or  make  of  it  a  good  veal  before  they  go  dry. 

Even  if  butter  is  to  be  made  the  entire  year,  I  recommend 
that  half  the  cows  or  more  be  bred  for  fall  calves.  It  is  much 
easier  to  have  the  cow  in  good  condition  in  the  fall  than  after  a 
winter  on  dry  feed,  and  the  cow  that  comes  in  at  this  season 
will  give  quite  a  per  cent  more  of  milk  in  a  year  than  one  that 
is  fresh  in  the  spring,  for  at  the  time  the  latter  naturally  begins 
to  fail  in  milk,  the  season  of  flies  and  short  pasture  comes, 
followed  by  the  transition  to  dry  feed,  and  it  is  very  difficult  to 
prevent  a  large  falling  off.  On  the  other  hand,  the  cow  fresh 
in  the  fall  goes  on  fresh  pasture  just  at  the  time  she  begins  to 
fail,  and  as  a  result,  the  flow  of  milk  is  largely  increased. 

The  best  authorities  agree  that  it  is  better  that  a  cow  should 
be  dry  not  less  than  six  weeks,  not  only  because  her  system  re- 
quires rest,  but  the  mixture  of  old  and  new  milk  is  liable  to  cause 
garget.  It  is  not  best  for  the  calf  that  the  cow  be  milked  con- 
tinuously, for  nature  provides  in  the  colostrum  or  first  drawn 
milk  after  calving  medicinal  qualities  to  cleanse  the  young  calf, 
and  free  its  bowels  from  the  matter  always  existing  in  them  at 
birth,  and  if  the  cow  is  milked  continuously  the  milk  does  not 
undergo  this  change. 

If  you  have  the  necessary  conveniences  so  that  you  can  be 
sure  of  making  first-class  butter  in  all  weather,  and  can  get  a 
yearly  contract  at  a  price  that  will  pay,  I  would  advise  that 
butter  be  made  the  entire  year,  but  if  you  must  depend  on  the 
groceries  for  a  market  and  come  in  competition  with  all  sorts  of 
butter,  then  the  plan  of  fall  and  winter  butter-making  will  save 
labor  and  be  likely  to  give  the  greatest  profit. 

Gilt-edged  Butter. — We  have  seen  much  in  the  agricul- 
tural papers  during  the  last  few  years  about  "gilt-edged  butter," 
and  I  have  received  many  letters  from  farmers  asking  what  it 
is  and  how  made.  It  can  scarcely  be  classed  as  a  farm  prod- 
uct, for,  as  I  understand  the  term,  to  produce  it  requires  such 


838  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

careful  selection  of  cows,  such  care  in  their  feed,  and  nicety 
of  manipulation  of  the  milk,  cream,  and  butter,  that  it  becomes 
a  fine  art.  It  must  be  perfect  in  texture,  grain,  color,  and  fra- 
grance, and  is  made  up  in  small  pats  of  one-fourth  pound,  each 
in  a  linen  cloth,  and  delivered  to  the  customer  with  the  very 
odor  of  a  clover-blossom. 

Such  butter  as  this  sells  for  $1.00  per  pound  in  some  of 
our  city  markets,  and  customers  for  it  can  only  be  found  among 
the  wealthy  classes.  It  can  only  be  made  after  serving  an  ap- 
prenticeship, and  under  a  combination  of  circumstances  so  favor- 
able that  practically  it  is  out  of  reach  of  the  farmer.  I  am  of 
the  opinion  that  there  would  be  a  greater  profit  in  first-class 
dairy  butter  at  less  than  half  the  price,  and  this  can  by  proper 
care  be  produced  on  any  farm.  What  I  mean  by  first-class  dairy 
butter  is,  that  it  be  sweet  and  free  from  all  bad  odors  or  flavors, 
of  good  color  and  grain,  and  free  from  butter-milk.  A  product 
of  this  kind  can  be  made,  and  if  we  do  not  make  it,  the  fault 
must  be  looked  for  in  the  feed,  the  stable,  or  milk-room.  An 
artist  who  was  chiseling  at  a  block  of  marble,  when  asked  what 
he  was  doing,  replied,  that  there  was  a  lamb  shut  up  in  it,  and  he 
was  letting  it  out.  So  there  is  in  the  milk,  drawn  from  cows 
that  have  been  properly  fed,  sweet  fragrant  butter,  but  it  can  be 
spoiled  by  unskillful  handling  as  surely  as  could  the 'marble  statue. 

Pastures  and  Food. — All  dairymen  agree  that  a  pasture 
of  mixed  grasses  gives  the  best  results  for  dairy  stock.  In 
seeding  down  permanent  pastures  for  this  purpose  I  would  use 
timothy,  orchard-grass,  blue-grass,  red-top,  and  white  and  red 
clover.  A  pasture-field  sown  with  a  number  of  varieties  of 
grass  will  not  only  produce  more  food,  but  a  better  quality  of 
milk  and  butter,  than  if  but  a  single  variety  is  used.  In  addi- 
tion to  this,  if  there  is  good  shade  and  an  abundent  supply  of 
pure  water,  we  have  all  the  elements  of  success  so  far  as  the 
production  of  milk  is  concerned.  Williard  in  his  Butter  Book, 
says  :  "  Different  kinds  of  food  have  more  or  less  influence  on 
the  flavor  of  milk.  Some  kinds  are  much  more  efficient  than 
others,  not  only  in  promoting  good  flavor  in  the  milk,  but  in 
maintaining  health  and  thrift  in  the  animal. 


CATTLE— THE  DAIRY.  839 

"  For  butter  making  it  is  essential  that  cows  have  an  abun- 
dance of  rich  and  nutritious  food.  Food  should  be  abundant 
and  easy  of  access,  because  much  traveling  or  exercise  in 
obtaining  it  checks  the  milk  secretion,  the  food  going  to  supply 
the  waste  of  tissue  lost  in  extra  labor  rather  than  for  milk.  I 
know  of  no  better  food  for  milk  cows  than  rich  old  upland  pas- 
tures, where  there  is  a  variety  of  grasses,  and  the  herbage  thick, 
sweet,  and  nutritious ;  where  a  cow  can  get  her  fill  without  much 
labor;  where  good,  sweet  water  is  convenient,  and  where  there 
is  shade,  under  which  she  can  rest  and  ruminate.  These,  in  my 
opinion,  will  be  about  the  best  conditions  in  which  the  animal 
can  be  placed  for  yielding  much  and  very  fine  butter ;  and  under 
these  favorable  circumstances  I  do  not  think  any  profit  will  be 
realized  by  giving  grain  or  meal  of  any  kind  as  a  supplemen- 
tary food." 

If  the  pastures  are  weedy  or  short  so  that  the  cows  can  not 
fill  themselves  readily,  it  will  pay  to  give  additional  food,  and  I 
have  found  that  a  moderate  feed  of  meal  is  of  as  much  advan- 
tage to  the  quality  as  to  the  quantity. 

The  acreage  to  a  cow  varies  so  greatly  on  different  soils  and 
in  different  seasons  that  no  rule  can  be  laid  down.  Our  best 
lands,  when  well  set  with  a  variety  of  grasses  and  clover,  will 
in  favorable  seasons  pasture  a  cow  to  the  acre,  but  where  no 
provision  is  made  for  drought  and  no  extra  food  is  given,  it 
would  not  be  prudent  on  most  farms  to  stock  so  heavily,  and 
two  and  a  half  acres  to  the  cow  would  not  be  too  much.  It  is 
a  matter  of  interest  to  ascertain  whether  it  would  not  often  be 
cheaper  to  stock  heavily,  and  feed  meal  and  bran  regularly 
through  the  summer,  thus  doubling  the  number  of  cows  and 
often  improving  the  quality  of  the  product. 

As  we  are  liable  to  drought  at  some  time  during  the  pasture 
season,  the  dairyman  should  always  grow  some  green  crops,  to  be 
fed  if  necessary;  and  as  the  dry  weather  is  more  frequently 
late  in  the  summer,  and  no  other  crop  will  yield  so  much  food  as 
corn  with  the  same  labor,  I  recommend  this  for  the  main  crop. 
I  think  the  planting  of  corn  for  late  feeding  should  never  be 
neglected,  for  no  matter  how  favorable  the  autumn,  the  grass  is 


840  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

less  nutritious  than  in  spring  and  usually  less  abundant,  and  a 
feed  of  green  corn  will  be  of  great  benefit. 

If  the  season  proves  good,  so  that  the  corn  is  not  needed 
for  green  feeding,  all  the  early  plantings  can  be  cured  for 
winter  feed.  For  late  green  feeding  planting  may  be  done  any 
time  in  July,  and  if  the  land  is  rich,  and  cultivation  frequent 
and  thorough,  a  very  large  crop  may  be  grown.  This  can  stand 
out  through  quite  heavy  frosts  without  injury,  and  in  the  lati- 
tude of  Southern  Ohio  we  can  usually  feed  it  from  the  field  till 
the  middle  of  November,  and  often  later. 

Full  Feeding  Profitable. — I  think  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  more  profit  will  be  had  and  a  better  article  obtained  from 
full  feeding,  but  I  do  not  advocate  heavy  grain  feeding.  The 
feed  should,  however,  be  at  all  times  abundant,  sweet,  and  nu- 
tritious. It  should  also  be  varied  and  have  the  proper  bulk. 
Sweet  clover  or  June  grass  hay  and  well-cured  corn-fodder  I 
consider  best  for  the  bulky  food,  and  bran  and  corn-meal  for  the 
condensed  food.  Every  year  of  feeding  adds  to  my  appreciation 
of  bran,  and  as  a  milk  producer  it  is  superior  to  corn-meal,  but 
I  think  we  get  a  better  ration  from  the  two  mixed  than  from 
either  alone.  The  best  mixture  is  half  and  half  by  weight, 
which  gives  nearly  two  bulks  of  bran  to  one  of  corn-meal.  As 
long  as  there  is  soft  corn  to  feed  in  the  fall  or  a  supply  of 
pumpkins,  or  when  feeding  beets  or  carrots,  I  would  not  care  to 
grind  the  corn,  but  would  feed  whole,  and  think  just  as  good  re- 
sults can  be  had  as  by  grinding,  and  much  trouble  and  expense 
saved.  I  can  usually  effect  quite  a  saving  by  laying  in  a  stock 
of  bran  soon  after  harvest.  The  demand  is  less  at  this  season  of 
the  year  and  the  mills  are  often  over-stocked,  and  I  have  fre- 
quently bought  at  ten  dollars  per  ton,  when  had  I  waited  till 
winter  it  would  have  cost  fourteen  or  fifteen  dollars.  Bran  will 
keep  perfectly  sweet  when  stored  in  a  large  bulk,  so  there  is  no 
risk  in  buying  a  winter  supply  at  this  season  of  the  year. 

The  Stable. — Where  a  considerable  herd  of  cows  is  kept 
the  milking  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  should  be  done  in  the 
stable,  for  a  fractious  cow  or  one  in  heat  will  often  make  trouble 
with  the  entire  herd.  There  will  sometimes  be  wet  weather 


CATTLE— THE  DAIRY.  841 

when  the  cows  will  be  dripping,  and  you  can  not  without  great 
trouble  tie  up  a  lot  of  cows  unless  they  are  accustomed  to  it 
daily,  and  the  flies  will  not  be  so  troublesome  in  the  stable  as 
in  a  lot.  This  stable  should  be  conveniently  arranged  with  a 
manure  ditch,  and  short  partitions  between  the  cows,  coming 
back  far  enough  so  that  they  can  not  disturb  each  other,  but 
not  so  far  as  to  be  in  the  way  of  the  milker.  I  would  always 
have  stanchions  to  hold  the  cows  while  being  milked,  but  would 
fasten  with  rope  and  snap  for  the  night.  These  stanchions  can 
be  fastened  to  a  long  strip  so  that  a  number  can  be  closed  at 
once,  which  will  save  time.  The  stable  should  be  wide  enough 
to  allow  a  passage-way  back  of  the  manure  ditch,  and  shelves 
for  the  buckets  and  stools. 

The  milking  stable  must  be  kept  clean  if  you  expect  first- 
class  butter,  for  milk  will  be  tainted  if  foul  odors  are  allowed 
here.  There  should  always  be  a  little  bedding  in  the  ditch  to 
absorb  the  urine,  and  the  floor  on  which  the  cows  stand  should 
be  cleaned  and  fresh  littered  before  each  milking.  A  barrel  of 
land  plaster  should  always  be  kept  in  the  cow-stable,  to  be  used 
as  a  disinfectant,  as  it  will  not  only  keep  the  stable  sweet  but 
add  to  the  value  of  the  manure. 

Milking. — The  milking  should  be  done  as  quickly  as  pos- 
sible and  at  the  same  time  gently.  No  striking  or  yelling  at 
the  cows  should  be  allowed ;  and  it  is  best  that  the  same  per- 
son as  far  as  possible  milk  the  same  cows.  A  cow  will  give 
considerably  more  milk  if  quiet  and  undisturbed,  and  milked 
rapidly,  than  if  excited  and  worried. 

Milking  three  times  a  day  is  recommended  by  some  writers 
and  practiced  in  some  dairies,  but  with  the  exception  of  now 
and  then  a  cow  that  gives  an  extraordinary  amount  of  milk  I 
should  doubt  if  it  would  pay,  as  to  drive  cows  up  in  the  heat 
of  the  day  and  milk  them  would  be  a  disagreeable  job.  I  have 
for  many  years  practiced  milking  but  once  a  day,  when  the 
cows  were  giving  but  from  four  to  six  quarts  a  day,  as  is  often 
the  case  in  the  winter.  It  takes  but  little  if  any  longer  to 
milk  the  cow  once  for  the  day  than  each  milking  would  if  she 
was  milked  twice,  as  most  of  the  time  is  spent  in  waiting  for 


842  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

her  to  give  down  the  milk  and  in  stripping.  With  scales  in  the 
stable  you  can  soon  settle  the  question,  and  if  you  find  as  much 
milk  can  be  had  by  milking  once  a  day  it  is  wise  to  adopt  the 
plan.  I  greatly  prefer  a  one-legged  stool,  as  if  the  cow  moves 
a  little  you  can  lean  and  keep  near  without  lifting  it. 

Regular  hours  for  milking  are  important,  as  the  cows  will 
give  more  milk  than  if  sometimes  milked  early  and  at  others 
late.  If  accustomed  to  milk  at  seven  o'clock  in  the  evening  and 
six  in  the  morning,  and  you  occasionally  vary  to  five  at  night 
and  not  till  seven  the  next  morning,  the  scales  will  reveal  the 
fact  that  the  extra  milk  in  the  morning  will  not  make  up  for 
the  loss  at  night.  If  you  find  you  have  a  fractious,  kicking 
cow,  or  one  that  milks  hard,  dispose  of  her  at  once,  even  at  a 
loss.  To  whip  a  cow  in  the  stable  will  often  excite  all  the 
others  and  reduce  the  amount  of  milk  from  each  of  them. 

There  are  times  when  the  cows  are  liable  to  cracked  teats, 
particularly  in  the  spring  or  fall,  and  especially  when  the  calves 
are  sucking.  Prompt  attention  to  the  teats  at  the  first  sign  of 
soreness  will  save  much  trouble.  Always  keep  in  the  stable 
some  good  salve  for  the  teats.  I  prefer  vaseline  to  any  thing 
I  have  ever  used;  but  mutton-tallow  or  glycerine  is  good.  If 
the  teats  seem  tender,  or  show  any  sign  of  cracks,  moisten  the 
palms  of  the  hands  with  a  little  of  one  of  these  preparations, 
and  it  will  soften  the  teats,  and  in  many  instances  cure  them 
in  a  day  or  two. 

I  think  the  plan  of  washing  the  teats  in  milk  a  filthy  .prac- 
tice, and  that  in  cold  weather  it  is  likely  to  make  them  crack. 
There  should  always  be  a  towel  in  the  stable,  and  a  basin  or 
bucket,  to  be  used  for  washing  the  bag  if  any  cow  gets  it 
soiled,  and  it  should,  after  washing,  be  dried  with  the  towel, 
as,  unless  this  is  done,  the  dirty  water  is  likely  to  drip  into 
the  milk. 

Milking  Tubes. — I  have  never  seen  milking  tubes  that 
I  should  be  willing  to  use  regularly,  or  that  could  draw  the  milk 
from  a  cow  as  rapidly  as  a  good  milker,  but  I  should  not  be 
willing  to  be  without  a  set  of  them.  Occasionally,  with  the 
best  of  care,  a  cow's  teats  will  become  so  cracked  and  inflamed 


CATTLE— THE  DAIRY.  843 

that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  milk  her,  or  a  severe  cut  may 
make  it  quite  so.  Before  I  had  milking  tubes  I  was  obliged 
more  than  once  to  allow  a  teat  to  dry  up,  and  the  cow  was  per- 
manently injured  from  an  accident  of  this  kind;  but  with  a 
tube  I  have  drawn  the  milk  from  a  badly-cut  teat  till  it  was 
thoroughly  healed. 

These  tubes  are  made  of  silver,  so  as  to  not  be  liable 
to  rust,  and  have  openings  on  opposite  sides  to  admit 
the  milk,  which  flows  through  the  tube  into  the  bucket. 
They  have  also  a  slide  on  them  which  enables  one  to 
adjust  them  to  different  teats  and  prevents  them  from 
going  too  far  up  into  the  teat.  They  should  always  be 
washed  after  using,  or  they  will  soon  become  stopped. 
These  tubes  are  small  and  can  be  carried  in  the  pocket- 
book  or  vest-pocket. 

The  best  results  will  follow  a  thorough  mixing  of 
the  milk.  The  theory  has  been  advanced  that,  as  the 
milk  of  different  cows  takes  different  periods  to  churn,  there 
would  be  a  loss  of  butter  from  mixing  the  milk.  An  experiment 
at  the  Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station  showed  just  the  opposite 
result.  The  milk  of  four  cows  was  carefully  weighed  and  di- 
vided for  one  week  in  January.  Half  of  the  milk  of  each  cow  was 
put  in  a  common  milk-pan  and  allowed  to  stand  thirty-six  hours 
before  skimming.  The  other  half  was  thoroughly  mixed  and  then 
treated  exactly  the  same  as  the  first,  in  every  respect.  The  re- 
sult was  that  the  mixed  milk  produced  sixteen  pounds  six 
ounces  of  butter,  and  that  kept  separate,  thirteen  pounds  eleven 
ounces. 

How  to  Manage  the  Milk. — Aside  from  cleanliness  in 
handling  milk,  there  is  no  question  of  greater  importance  than 
that  of  temperature.  The  sooner  the  animal  heat  can  be  expelled 
from  the  milk  the  sweeter  and  better  the  butter  will  be  The 
best  temperature  for  the  milk-room  is  from  fifty  five  to  sixty  de- 
grees, and  it  should  not  be  allowed  to  get  above  sixty-five 
degrees.  The  old  method  of  setting  in  shallow,  open  pans  is 
rarely,  if  ever,  practiced  now  in  dairies,  as  experience  has 
proved  that  a  better  article  of  butter  can  be  made  with  less 


844  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

labor  by  deep  setting.  I  have  had  ten  years  experience  in 
deep  setting,  and  can  heartily  recommend  it,  and  I  could  not 
be  induced  to  go  back  to  the  old  system  of  open,  shallow  pans. 
The  advantages  of  the  deep-can  system  are :  Economy  of 
space  and  labor,  easy  control  of  temperature,  perfect  security  of 
the  milk  from  contamination  by  atmospheric  influences,  a  larger 
quantity  and  better  quality  of  cream  and  butter. 

There  are  two  opinions  generally  held  which  I  have  found 
to  be  erroneous,  viz :  that  cream  will  rise  better  in  shallow  ves- 
sels than  in  deep  ones,  and  that  there  is  an  animal  odor  about 
milk  which  must  be  expelled  or  the  butter  will  have  a  bad 
flavor.  Some  writers  on  dairy  matters  have  declared  that  milk 
shut  up  close  as  soon  as  drawn  from  the  cow  would  become 
putrid  and  unfit  for  human  food.  No  mistake  could  be  greater, 
for  milk  may  be  shut  up  air-tight  with  all  the  animal  heat,  and 
if  cooled  rapidly  down  to  sixty  degrees  or  less,  you  will  find  on 
opening  it  that  there  is  no  offensive  odor  about  it,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  it  is  fragrant  as  new-mown  hay.  I  have  also  found 
in  using  cans  twenty  inches  deep,  that  the  cream  would  rise 
just  as  quickly,  and  in  larger  quantity,  than  when  set  three 
inches  deep  in  open  pans. 

The  form  of  the  can  which  I  have  found  best  and  most  con- 
venient is  shown  in  the  cut.  These  cans  are  twenty  inches 
deep  and  eight  in  diameter,  and  hold  four  gal- 
lons each.  If  made  more  than  twenty  inches 
long,  the  bottom  will  strike  the  ground  when 
carrying  them  by  the  bail.  The  handle  shown 
on  the  side  is  to'be  used  in  emptying  the  can,  and 
should  be  four  inches  from  the  bottom.  The  lids  to 
these  cans  should  shut  over  the  outside,  and  this 
must  be  borne  in  mind  in  arranging  for  the  bails. 
The  ears  to  which  the  latter  are  attached  should  be 
set  low,  and  should  stand  out  well,  so  as  to  not  in- 
terfere with  putting  on  the  lid.  Make  the  lids  quite  flaring,  so 
that  they  will  go  on  readily,  and  when  crowded  down  will  be 
as  nearly  air-tight  as  possible.  If  the  lid  is  made  to  shut  in- 
side the  can  it  can  not  be  shut  so  tight,  and  when  ice  is  used 


CATTLE— THE  DAIRY.  845 

some  water  will  be  likely  to  enter  the  can.  The  cans  should 
be  made  of  the  best  tin,  and  this  will  be  much  cheaper  in  the 
long  run,  as  they  will  be  more  durable.  I  have  some  made  of 
what  is  called  four-cross  tin,  which  have  been  in  constant  use  for 
ten  years,  and  are  still  good.  A  can  made  in  this  way  takes 
but  little  space  for  the  amount  of  milk  it  holds,  and  presents  so 
much  surface  to  the  water  or  ice-cooled  air  that  the  temperature 
of  the  milk  can  be  reduced  rapidly.  There  are  two  methods  of 
cooling  the  milk — well  or  spring  water,  and  ice.  Cold  water, 
where  it  is  to  be  had  in  abundance,  is  cheaper  than  ice,  and  if 
one  has  a  well  from  which  can  be  pumped  an  unlimited  supply, 
it  will  cost  but  little  to  arrange  for  setting  the  milk.  A  cheap 
milk-house  may  be  made — merely  a  board  shanty  to  keep  off 
sun  and  rain — and  in  this  place  a  box  or  trough  for  water,  so  ar- 
ranged that  it  can  be  pumped  directly  into.  The  house  may,  if 
necessary,  be  some  distance  from  the  pump,  but  the  trough  must 
be  lower,  so  that  the  water  can  be  conducted  to  it.  This  box 
should  be  made  wide  enough  so  that  two  cans  can  be  placed  side 
by  side,  and  be  a  little  deeper  than  the  cans.  It  will  be  neces- 
sary to  arrange  some  way  of  fastening  the  cans  down,  or  they 
will  float  and  be  likely  to  tip  over  when  the  water  rises  near  the 
top ;  but  this  can  easily  be  done  by  the  use  of  small  iron  pins, 
or  by  wooden  strips  nailed  to  the  inside,  under  which  blocks 
or  strips  of  boards  can  be  slipped,  so  as  to  press  on  the  cans 
and  prevent  the  water  from  lifting  them. 

Have  an  arrangement  for  drawing  off  the  waste  water,  so 
that  it  will  run  away  through  tile  under  ground,  and  not  make 
a  mud-hole  near  the  milk-house.  In  the  hottest  weather  you 
will  need  to  change  the  water  once  or  twice  during  the  day. 

Of  course  one  may  make  a  brick  or  stone  milk-house,  and 
use  water  in  it  as  I  describe,  but  as  the  temperature  of  the  air 
will  affect  the  milk  but  little  when  managed  on  this  plan,  and 
neither  cats,  dogs,  nor  insects  can  get  access  to  it,  a  cheap  build- 
ing, or  even  a  grape  arbor  that  will  furnish  shade,  will  enable 
one  to  keep  the  milk  cool  and  raise  the  cream  successfully. 

I  have  spoken  of  using  water  from  wells  rather  than  springs, 
because  the  springs  in  so  few  instances  are  conveniently  located. 


846 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


I  would  rather  pump  water  to  cool  the  milk  than  to  have  the 
spring-house  fifty  or  a  hundred  yards  away,  and  perhaps — as  I 
have  often  seen — down  a  hill.  If  a  cold  spring  can  be  had,  con- 
veniently located,  it  will  be  better  than  ice-house  or  well.  If 
the  well  has  an  unfailing  supply  of  cold  water,  a  cheap  wind 
engine  can  be  used  for  raising  it  so  to  give  all  the  advantages 
of  a  spring-house,  or  the  water  of  a  spring  may  by  a  hydraulic 
ram  be  forced  to  a  higher  level,  and  brought  to  where  it  is 
wanted. 


ICK    HOUSE. 


Unless  the  supply  of  water  is  cold  and  abundant,  ice  will 
be  found  a  necessity  in  summer  butter-making.  The  ice-house 
may  be  made  with  some  regard  to  taste  and  architectural  ap- 
pearance, or  it  may  be  a  rough  board  shanty  made  by  setting 
posts  in  the  ground  and  boarding  up  with  cheap  lumber.  All 
that  is  necessary  to  keep  ice  successfully  is,  that  it  be  cut  true 
arid  square  so  that  it  can  be  closely  packed  ;  that  there  be  a  suffi- 
cient bulk  (I  think  that  a  body  ten  feet  square  and  the  same 


CATTLE— THE  DAIRY.  847 

height  is  as  little  as  can  be  relied  on  to  keep  all  summer,  and 
the  larger  the  bulk  the  less  the  waste);  that  there  be  sufficient 
packing  around  it  of  good  non-conducting  material  to  keep  it 
from  the  air,  thorough  drainage,  and  good  ventilation.  Double 
walls  are  not  necessary,  but  as  less  saw-dust  will  be  required 
with  them,  it  may  be  profitable  to  have  them.  To  secure  drain- 
age, fill  the  bottom  of  the  ice-house  with  stone  to  the  depth  of 
a  foot,  and  then  cover  this  with  six  or  eight  inches  of  saw-dust 
before  putting  in  the  ice. 

A  large  window  in  each  gable  will  give  sufficient  ventilation, 
and  the  ventilator  shown  in  the  roof  may  be  built  or  omitted 
at  pleasure.  The  windows  in  the  gable  should  be  always  open 
to  prevent  the  accumulation  of  heated  air  under  the  roof.  The 
house  should,  if  possible,  be  protected  from  the  direct  rays  of 
the  sun  by  trees.  If  this  can  not  be  done,  it  is  well  to  have  a 
grape-vine  arbor,  or  some  similar  protection  on  the  south  and 
west  sides.  If  there  are  double  walls  with  a  space  of  four  or 
six  inches,  a  foot  of  space  between  the  ice  and  the  inner  wall 
will  be  sufficient,  but  if  a  building  with  single  wall  is  used  I 
would  leave  sixteen  or  eighteen  inches. 

Saw-dust  is  the  best  material  for  packing  ice,  as  it  is  clean 
and  not  likely  to  heat  or  mold.  The  space  between  the  ice  and 
wall  must  be  filled  with  this,  tightly  packed,  and  the  top  cov- 
ered to  the  depth  of  eighteen  inches.  It  will  be  necessary  to 
visit  the  ice-house  daily  as  spring  approaches,  for  there  will 
often  be  an  air-hole,  and  waste  will  begin  even  before  the  weather 
is  very  warm.  Tramp  round  over  the  top,  feel  round  the  edges, 
and  see  that  there  are  no  cavities.  It  is  advisable  late  in  the 
season  to  remove  part  of  the  saw-dust,  as  that  packed  round 
the  sides  will  fall  as  the  ice  is  taken  out,  and  the  large  mass 
of  wet  saw-dust  makes  it  hard  work  to  get  at  the  ice,  and  I 
have  known  it  to  heat  and  cause  the  ice  to  melt. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  one  side  of  the  ice-house  be 
arranged  on  hinges,  so  it  can  be  let  down  to  permit  the  more 
easy  storage  of  the  ice.  How  this  can  be  done  is  shown  in  the 
engraving.  This,  however,  is  not  essential.  Place  the  ice-house 
where  it  will  be  as  convenient  to  the  house  as  possible. 


848  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Ice-chests. — Most  ice-chests  I  have  seen  are  expensive, 
heavy  to  move,  and  difficult  to  ventilate  and  clean,  and  when 
lined  with  metal  they  soon  rust  out  and  must  be  renewed.  I 

think  the  only  advantage  they  have 
over  a  plain  box  is,  that  they  econ- 
omize ice;  and  if  the  farmer  puts 
up  his  own  ice  it  is  better  to  build 
a  larger  ice-house  and  use  more  ice 
than  to  save  by  the  use  of  an  expen- 
sive chest. 

The  cut  shows  an  ice-chest  which 
is  made  with  sides  packed  with  non- 
conducting material,  and  lined  with 
sheet-iron  so  that  the  water,  as  the 
ice  melts,  flows  down  the  iron  and 
ICE-CHEST.  cools  the  air  inside.  I  give  this  be- 

cause with  very  slight  modifications  it  will  exactly  represent 
the  ice-box  which  I  use  for  the  deep  cans.  All  the  change 
necessary  is  to  remove  the  shelves  or  slats  on  which  the  pans 
are  placed,  lower  the  upper  floor  so  as  to  make  the  lower  space 
two  feet  high  and  leave  the  upper  apartment  sixteen  inches 
deep.  This  ice-box  can  be  made  of  common  matched  flooring, 
and  a  size  large  enough  for  fifty  or  sixty  gallons  of  milk  will 
cost  less  than  five  dollars.  It  should  be  made  deep  enough 
from  front  to  rear  to  hold  two  rows  of  cans  without  crowding, 
which  will  require  about  twenty  inches  of  space  inside  measure. 
The  floor  on  which  the  ice  is  placed,  ^between  the  upper  and 
lower  part,  should  be  of  hard  wood-slats,  one  by  three  inches, 
with  cracks  one  and  a  half  inches  wide  between  them.  I 
think  it  best  not  to  nail  these  slats,  but  let  them  rest  on 
strips  nailed  to  the  inside  of  the  box,  with  notches  cut  in  them 
to  hold  the  slats  in  place.  As  the  lumber  will  swell  consider- 
ably when  wet  by  the  melting  ice,  the  doors  should  be  made 
with  a  crack  of  half  an  inch  or  more  in  width  between  them,  and 
a  batton  fastened  to  one  of  them  so  as  to  project  far  enough  to 
close  the  crack.  In  using  this,  set  the  cans  in  the  lower  part 
and  place  the  ice  on  the  slatted  floor;  as  the  ice  melts,  the  cold 


CATTLE—THE  DAIRY.  849 

water  drips  down  on  the  cans,  but  as  the  lids  fit  over  the  can, 
none  of  it  can  enter.  The  upper  part  among  the  ice  can  be  used 
for  butter,  fruit,  meats,  and  vegetables,  which  can  be  set  on  or 
between  the  cakes  of  ice  in  tin-pans  or  other  vessels. 

When  the  box  needs  cleaning,  by  taking  out  the  slats  and 
opening  the  doors,  it  is  easy  to  get  at  every  part  of  it.  Such 
an  ice-box  can  be  used  in  an  out-building,  or  a  small  room  can  be 
made  adjoining  the  ice-house,  which  will  save  work  in  carrying 
the  ice.  If  this  ice-box  is  to  be  used  in  the  house,  proper 
arrangement  should  be  made  for  conveying  the  waste  water  to  a 
tub  or  drain.  If  the  weather  is  very  hot,  or  a  large  amount  of 
milk  is  put  in  warm  from  the  cows,  it  is  best  to  set  a  cuke  of 
ice  on  edge  between  the  cans  in  the  lower  part  in  addition  to 
that  placed  on  the  slat  floor. 

Causes  of  Bad  Flavor  in  Butter. — There  are  butter- 
makers  who  know  that  every  thing  used  in  their  dairies  is  sweet 
and  clean,  and  that  their  cows  are  properly  fed,  who  yet  fail  to 
make  good  flavored  butter,  but  do  not  perhaps  know  the  reasons. 
There  may  be  several,  for  milk  and  cream  are  so  sensitive  that 
they  can  easily  be  damaged  at  any  stage  of  the  process  of  manu- 
facture. One  common  cause  of  "  off-flavor,"  is  allowing  the  milk 
to  stand  too  long  before  skimming.  What  is  gained  in  quantity 
will  not  compensate  for  the  loss  of  quality,  for  the  first  cream 
that  rises  is  the  richest,  and  each  successive  layer  becomes 
poorer.  I  would  not,  under  any  circumstances,  allow  the  milk 
to  stand  more  than  thirty-six  hours,  and  think  there  is  more 
loss  than  gain  after  twenty-four  hours. 

Another  cause  of  bad  flavor  is  keeping  cream  too  long  before 
churning  ;  this  is  more  common  when  but  one  or  two  cows  are 
kept  than  in  a  larger  dairy.  Cream  should  be  thoroughly  stirred 
every  time  any  is  added  to  it,  and  should  be  churned  before 
becoming  so  sour  as  to  begin  to  separate,  or  "  whey  off,"  as 
our  dairy  maids  express  it.  Perhaps  the  most  common  cause  of 
bad  flavor  is  failure  to  get  rid  of  the  buttermilk,  for  no  butter 
can  long  remain  sweet  unless  this  is  thoroughly  removed. 

Skimming. — When  the  deep  cans  are  used  for  setting  the 
milk,  a  ladle  with  a  rather  long  handle  is  better  to  take  off  the 

54 


850 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


cream  than  a  skimmer.  The  cream  is  so  deep  that  little  milk 
will  be  dipped  up  with  it,  and  what  is  will  be  no  disadvantage. 
The  handle  to  the  ladle  should  be  nearly  perpendicular  to  the  bowl 
so  as  to  enable  one  to  use  it  easily  when  a  can  is  not  full  of  milk. 
There  is  a  style  of  can  on  the  market  which  dispenses  with 
skimming,  as  it  is  provided  with  a  cock  at  the  bottom  to  draw 
off  the  milk,  the  cream  being  left  in  the  can;  but 
when  made  with  flat  bottom,  I  would  not  recommend 
them,  as  they  have  two  objections.  First,  the  diffi- 
culty of  keeping  it  sweet.  Milk  is  so  difficult  to 
remove  from  tubes  or  pipes,  and  these  sour  so 
quickly  and  become  so  offensive  if  not  thoroughly 
cleansed,  that  all  vessels  used  for  milk  should  be 
made  plain,  with  every  part  easy  of  access.  Second. 
With  the  greatest  care  there  will  sometimes  be 
foreign  matter  in  the  milk,  which  will  settle  and 
adhere  to  the  bottom  of  the  can,  and  this  would 
be  left  in  the  cream.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  a  cow 
to  give  a  small  amount  of  bloody  milk  from  one 
teat  when  you  first  begin  to  milk,  and  if  the  milk- 
ing is  done  in  a  dark  stable  or  at  twilight  the  milker 
may  not  observe  it,  and  it  will  be  found  at  the 
bottom  of  the  can,  and  if  the  milk  is  drawn  off  and 
the  cream  left  in  the  can,  it  will  be  likely  to  con- 
taminate it. 

In  the  best  cans  now  in  use,  the  bottom  is  made  funnel- 
shaped,  like  the  skimmer  shown  in  the  cut,  and  any  sediment 
in  the  milk  will  gather  in  this  and  be  drawn  off  first.  They 
are  also  arranged  with  a  glass  tube  for  the  milk  to  flow  through, 
so  that  you  can  at  once  see  when  the  cream  begins  to  come,  and 
stop  the  flow. 

It  is  an  excellent  plan  for  those  who  keep  but  one  or  two 
cows  to  save  stoppings  and  add  to  the  cream,  so  as  to  give  bulk 
enough  to  enable  them  to  churn  every  other  day  in  hot  weather. 
Churns  and  Churning. — Probably  no  household  im- 
plement has  been  the  subject  of  so  much  study,  or  has  so 
taxed  inventive  genius,  as  the  churn.  Churns  of  every  conceiv- 


8KIMMER  FOB 
DEEP  CAN. 


CATTLE— THE  DAIRY.  851 

able  shape  and  mode  of  operation  have  been  made, — rocker 
churns,  swing  churns,  pump  churns,  crank  churns,  and  churns 
invented  by  cranks,  who  either  promise  good  butter  in  three 
minutes  or  twice  as  much  as  the  cream  contains.  It  is 
doubtful,  however,  if  there  has  ever  been  a  churn  invented 
superior  to  the  old  dash  churn,  so  far  as  making  good  butter 
is  concerned,  although  there  are  others  which  are  more  easily 
operated. 

It  is  generally  conceded  by  all  dairymen  that  it  is  not  de- 
sirable to  churn  too  rapidly,  and  fifty  minutes  is  the  quickest 
time  in  which  they  wish  the  churning  done,  and  many  prefer  an 
hour  and  a  half.  The  moderate,  long-continued  agitation,  pro- 
duces butter  of  a  firmer,  more  waxy  consistency,  than  more 
rapid  churning.  As  the  dash  churn  is  too  laborious  for  the 
dairy,  I  would  recommend  the  square  box  or  rectangular  churn. 
I  used  one  of  them  for  several  years,  and  found  it  easy  to 
operate,  and  that  it  produces  butter  of  excellent  quality.  It  is 
simply  a  square  box,  with  no  dash  or  paddles  of  any  kind.  It 
is  hung  by  two  opposite  corners  and  slowly  revolved,  the  cream 
falling  from  corner  to  corner.  It  turns  almost  as  easily  with 
several  gallons  of  cream  in  it  as  when  empty.  After  the  butter 
comes  the  buttermilk  is  drawn  off,  and  the  salt  thrown  into  the 
churn,  and  by  turning  the  churn  slowly  the  butter  is  gathered 
and  much  of  the  buttermilk  worked  out  and  the  salt  well 
mixed. 

Some  prefer  to  churn  the  cream  sweet,  but  more  butter  can 
be  made  if  it  is  allowed  to  sour  slightly  or  "ripen,"  and  it  is 
claimed  that  the  butter  has  better  keeping  qualities  than  when 
made  from  sweet  cream.  If  the  cream  is  to  be  kept  after  sour- 
ing, sprinkle  a  handful  of  fine  salt  over  the  top. 

The  temperature  at  which  the  best  butter  can  be  made  is 
from  fifty-five  to  sixty-five  degrees ;  in  summer  a  lower  temper- 
ature is  required  than  in  winter,  for  it  will  rise  several  degrees 
while  churning.  Always  regulate  the  temperature  of  the  cream 
by  a  thermometer,  as  the  quality  of  the  butter  depends  very 
much  on  temperature,  and  no  one  can  tell  by  the  finger  whether 
it  is  right  or  not.  If  the  cream  is  too  cold  it  will  take  a  much 


852  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

longer  time  to  churn,  and  if  too  warm,  the  butter  will  be  soft 
and  white. 

Firm,  solid  butter  can  be  made  in  the  hottest  weather  if  the 
milk  is  quickly  cooled  and  the  temperature  kept  uniform.  Food 
also  will  affect  the  texture  of  the  butter,  and  a  feed  of  grain 
each  day  will  soon  improve  the  butter,  when  the  cows  are  on 
pasture  and  the  quality  is  not  satisfactory. 

Washing  and  Working. — All  the  buttermilk  must  be 
removed  or  the  butter  can  not  be  kept  sweet  for  any  length  of 
time.  Some  wash  with  cold  water,  while  others  are  of  the 
opinion  that  butter  will  keep  better  that  has  never  had  any 

water  about  it.  Either  method  will 
leave  the  butter  in  good  condition  if 
the  buttermilk  is  all  removed.  The 
hands  should  never  be  used  in  work- 
jng?  an(j  jf  a  ]arge  amount  of  butter  is 
to  be  worked  the  butter  ladle  is  not  sufficient,  and  a  butter- 
worker  will  be  needed. 

The  worker  shown  in  the  cut  is  perhaps  as  good  as  any,  and 
is  simple  and  cheap,  and  can  be  made  by  any  carpenter.  It  can 
be  made  of  any  size  to  suit,  but  should  be  two  feet  wide  at  the 
upper  end  and  taper  to  four  inches  at  the  lower  end.  It  should 
not  be  less  than  three  feet  long.  It  should  be  made  of  hard 
wood  and  planed  and  polished  till  perfectly  smooth.  A  beech 
slab  will  answer  for  the  bottom.  The  sides  should  be  three 
inches  high  and  leaned  or  flared  out  a  little,  and  the  legs  should 
be  so  made  that  it  will  slope  towards  the  narrow  end,  where 
there  should  be  an  opening  for  the  buttermilk  to  run  off.  The 
lever  can  be  made  six  or  eight  sided,  and  should  be  hung  with  a 
swivel  hinge. 

One  method  of  washing  the  butter  is  to  place  it  on  the  but- 
ter-worker after  it  is  gathered,  and  as  it  is  worked  apply 
water  from  a  sprinkler  until  it  runs  off  clear.  Another  way  to 
wash  it  is  to  stop  churning  as  soon  as  the  butter  granulates  and 
before  it  has  gathered ;  remove  the  buttermilk  by  pouring  it  off 
through  a  hair  sieve,  so  as  to  save  any  butter  that  runs  off 
with  the  milk.  When  the  buttermilk  has  all  drained  off,  take 


CATTLE-TIIE  DAIRY.  853 

a  bucket  of  cold  water,  hold  it  as  high  as  you  can,  and  pour 
it  upon  the  butter  in  a  stream  large  enough  to  force  its  way 
all  through  the  particles,  and  fill  up  the  churn  until  the  butter- 
milk is  so  diluted  that  the  water  will  not  need  to  be 
changed. 

When  the  butter  has  hardened  sufficiently,  take  it  out  on 
to  the  butter-worker  and  add  the  salt  and  work  it  in.  The 
amount  of  salt  to  be  used  is  a  matter  of  taste,  and  will  vary 
from  one-half  to  one  ounce  to  the  pound.  The  salt  should 
be  finely  crushed  under  a  roller  and  sifted.  Careful  experi- 
ment has  shown  that  the  addition  of  a  teaspoonful  of  saltpeter 
and  a  tablespoonful  of  powdered  white  sugar  to  each  twenty 
pounds  of  butter  adds  to  the  keeping  quality  and  flavor  of  the 
butter.  The  saltpeter  and  sugar  should  be  crushed  and  sifted 
with  the  salt  and  thoroughly  mixed.  Butter  can  be  worked 
too  much,  so  as  to  destroy  the  grain  and  make  it  sticky,  and 
this  must  be  avoided. 

If  the  butter  is  not  washed  the  buttermilk  must  be  all 
worked  out,  and  a  large  sponge,  covered  with  a  napkin,  to 
press  on  the  butter,  will  be  a  great  help  in  removing  it.  To 
have  the  butter  uniform  in  appearance  it  should  be  worked  a 
second  time  after  standing  twenty-four  hours,  as  there  will  often 
be  white  streaks — where  the  butter  has  not  taken  salt — if  this 
is  neglected. 

Keeping  Butter. — Although  it  is  desirable  to  have  the 
butter  contracted  and  delivered  fresh  to  customers,  it  is  some- 
ttimes  necessary  to  hold  for  a  higher  price,  and  there  are  several 
methods  of  putting  it  down  for  this  purpose.  Whatever 
method  is  used,  all  the  buttermilk  must  first  be  removed  by 
thorough  working. 

One  method  is  to  add  sugar  and  saltpeter,  as  before  de- 
scribed, and  pack  tight  in  firkins.  Do  not  fill  them  quite  full. 
Cover  the  butter  with  two  or  more  thicknesses  of  cloth  which 
has  been  wet  in  brine,  and  then  fill  the  firkin  to  the  top  with 
finely  powdered  salt. 

Another  method  is  to  make  the  butter  up  into  rolls,  and  en- 
velop each  one  in  paper  prepared  for  the  purpose  by  coating 


854  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

with  albumen  made  from  the  white  of  eggs.  A  small  amount 
of  salt  should  be  beaten  up  with  the  white  of  the  eggs,  and 
after  it  is  applied  the  paper  should  be  ironed  with  a  hot  smooth- 
ing iron.  A  fine,  tough  article  of  Manilla  paper  will  be  best 
for  this  purpose.  These  rolls  should  be  closely  packed  in  a 
stone  jar  and  covered  with  fine  salt. 

Brining  Butter. — By  this  method  the  butter  is  made  up 
in  small  rolls,  and  each  wrapped  in  two  or  more  muslin  cloths 
and  packed  in  a  stone  jar,  and  then  brine  poured  over  it.  Brine 
for  this  purpose  should  be  made  hot  and  skimmed,  then  allowed 
to  cool  and  settle,  and  strained  before  being  poured  over  the 
butter.  It  is  best  that  the  rolls  be  made  oblong,  and  weigh 
from  two  to  four  pounds  each.  The  muslin  should  be  soaked 
in  strong  brine  before  using,  and  must  be  put  on  the  roll  wet. 

Rancid  butter  can  be  greatly  improved  by  churning  it  in 
new  milk  and  washing  thoroughly  with  cold  water.  Another 
plan  is  to  add  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  fresh  lime  to  two  gallons 
of  water,  beat  it  thoroughly,  and  after  it  settles  pour  off  the 
clear  portion  and  wash  the  butter  with  it. 

Family  Cheese  Making. — The  making  of  cheese  for 
market  can  be  better  and  more  economically  done  in  factories 
than  in  the  family,  but  I  see  no  reason  why  a  family  supply 
should  not  be  made  at  the  farm-house  now  as  easily  as  forty 
years  ago,  when  it  was  quite  common.  In  1852  I  had  charge 
of  a  dairy  of  twenty  cows,  and  did  all  the  work  of  making  and 
caring  for  the  cheese,  and  I  think  I  can  describe  the  process  so 
that  any  one  can  soon  lenrn  to  make  good  cheese. 

But  a  small  outlay  will  be  necessary  for  fixtures,  as  the  wash- 
tubs  can  be  used  for  the  whey,  but  a  new,  clean  tub  should  be 
bought  in  which  to  set  the  milk.  A  cheese-basket,  or  drainer, 
with  flaring  sides  and  perforated  bottom,  will  be  needed  to  set 
over  a  tub  to  drain  off  the  whey.  A  hoop,  in  which  to  press 
the  cheese,  which  is  best  made  of  tin ;  a  dozen  cloths,  which 
should  be  a  yard  square  and  made  of  cheap,  coarse  muslin;  a 
press,  a  thermometer,  a  wooden  bowl  and  chopping  knife,  a 
cheese  ladder,  a  curd-knife,  and  a  few  smooth,  wide  shelves,  on 
which  to  cure  the  cheeses,  makes  up  the  inventory. 


CHEESE  BASKET. 


CA TTLE—  THE  DA IRY.  855 

The  form  of  the  cheese  basket  is  shown  in  the  cut.  The 
sides  should  be  flared,  so  that  it  can  be  used  on  tubs  of  differ- 
ent sizes.  The  holes  in  the  bottom  should  be  one  inch  in  di- 
ameter, arid  there  should  be  enough 
of  them  to  give  quick  and  free  escape 
to  the  whey.  The  hoop  should  be  of 
heavy  tin,  and  is  precisely  like  a  peck 
measure  with  the  bottom  out;  a  good 
size  for  from  five  to  eight  cows  would 
be  ten  inches  in  diameter  and  eight 
deep.  It  is  best  to  have  two  sizes,  as 
the  quantity  of  curd  will  often  vary. 
A  "follower"  must  be  made  for  the  hoop,  by  which  is  meant  a 
round  piece  of  board  made  to  fit  loosely  inside  of  it  to  settle 
and  follow  up  the  cheese  as  it  is  pressed.  It  should  be  cut 
fiom  a  two-inch  board,  and  have  a  strip  screwed  on  to  the  top 
across  the  grain  of  the  wood  to  keep  it  from  splitting.  This 
strip,  if  grooved  at  the  sides,  makes  a  good  handle  by  which  to 
lift  the  follower  out  of  the  hoop. 

The  press  may  be  a  cheap  affair,  and  the  simplest  and  best 
form  is   made  with   a  lever,  on  which  weights   are  hung  to  in- 
crease  the   pressure   as  the   cheese  needs  it. 
A  screw  press,  however,  will  answer  for  the 
purpose.     A  common  hash-knife  will  answer 
to  chop  the  curd  to  get  it  ready  for   salting. 
A   cheese   ladder   consists   of  four  pieces  of 
wood,  one  by  one  and   a  half  inches,  put  to- 
gether  as  shown   in  the    cut.      It  is  conven- 
ient for  holding  the  strainer,  and  also  to  keep 
the  cloth  out  of  the  milk  when  the  rennet  is  first  added.     A 
strip  of  tin  will  do  for  a  curd-knife. 

You  will  need  to  provide  rennet,  and  that  which  is  a  year 
old  is  considered  the  best.  The  best  rennet  is  from  a  calf  from 
one  to  four  weeks'  old.  It  should  be  emptied  of  its  contents, 
thoroughly  salted,  and  dried  without  any  washing  or  scraping, 
and  when  dry  should  be  put  away  in  a  dry  place  where  it  can 
be  kept  from  flies  and  insects.  To  prepare  for  use,  soak  for 


856  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

twenty-four  hours  in  one  gallon  of  warm  water,  rubbing  and 
working  often  to  get  out  the  strength.  Add  as  much  salt  as  the 
liquor  will  dissolve,  strain,  let  settle,  and  it  is  ready  for  use.  If 
to  be  kept  some  time  add  the  juice  of  a  small  lemon  and  about 
one-fourth  ounce  each  of  cloves,  cinnamon,  and  sage.  Bottle  it 
and  keep  in  a  cool,  dark  place.  The  rennets,  if  dried  and 
salted,  will  gain  strength  and  can  be  used  a  second  time. 

In  setting  the  milk,  the  temperature  should  be  about  ninety- 
six  degrees.  The  new  milk  will  be  nearly  the  right  tempera- 
ture, but  the  milk  which  has  stood  over  night  must  be  warmed, 
and  the  better  way  to  heat  it  is  by  setting  a  tin  pail  of  boiling 
water  into  the  tub.  The  cream  may  be  remove^  from  the  night's 
milk  and  used  for  making  butter.  The  night's  milk  should  be 
heated  while  the  cows  are  being  milked,  so  that  the  rennet  can 
be  put  in  before  breakfast,  as  it  is  important  to  get  the  work 
done  during  the  cool  of  the  day. 

It  will  require  some  little  experimenting  to  ascertain  how 
much  of  the  rennet  liquid  to  use;  but  if  made  as  directed,  try 
a  table-spoonful  for  each  three  gallons  of  milk.  If  it  is  much 
over  a  half-hour  in  "coming,"  increase  the  quantity;  if  much 
less,  decrease  it.  The  tub  should  be  covered  with  a  cloth,  to 
keep  it  from  cooling  while  the  milk  is  curdling,  and  it  should 
not  be  jarred  by  walking  over  a  springy  floor.  When  the  milk 
has  curdled,  so  as  to  appear  solid,  cut  carefully  with  the  curd- 
knife  into  strips  an  inch  wide,  and  then  across,  so  that  at  the 
top  it  will  look  as  though  divided  into  inch  squares.  In  many 
dairies  a  knife  with  horizontal  blades  an  inch  apart,  like  the 
bars  of  a  gridiron,  is  used  to  cut  the  curd  so  as  to  divide  it 
into  cubes  an  inch  square.  As  such  a  knife  would  cost  but  lit- 
tle, I  would  advise  that  it  be  procured.  It  could  be  made  of 
tin;  or  a  light  frame,  with  fine  wires  stretched  across,  would  an- 
swer. I  only  used  the  strips  of  tin  for  a  knife,  and  then,  after 
the  whey  began  to  separate,  and  the  curd  hardened  a  little, 
lifted  it  gently  from  the  bottom  with  a  ladle. 

All  the  handling  of  the  curd,  in  the  early  stages,  must  be 
done  with  great  care,  or  the  whey  will  be  milky  in  appearance, 
showing  that  the  cream  is  being  washed  out.  As  the  whey  be- 


CATTLE— THE  DAIRY.  857 

gins  to  separate,  spread  the  cloth  over  the  top,  and  begin  dip- 
ping it  off  as  it  comes  through.  As  soon  as  you  can  dip  up  a 
half-gallon  of  whey,  let  it  stand  on  the  cloth  in  a  dipper,  as  this 
will  give  about  as  much  pressure  as  is  needed  at  this  stage. 
Heat  some  of  the  first  whey  dipped  to  a  little  above  one  hun- 
dred degrees,  and  pour  over  the  curd.  By  increasing  the  pres- 
sure, and  an  occasional  cutting  with  the  curd-knife,  and  careful 
stirring,  the  curd  will  harden  so  that  in  about  an  hour  from  the 
first  cutting  it  can  be  dipped  into  the  cheese-basket.  You  will 
first  spread  one  of  your  cloths  in  the  basket,  and  dip  the  curd 
carefully  into  it,  and  then,  by  gently  lifting  the  corners  and  draw- 
ing them  to  the  center,  you  will  press  the  curd  and  drain  off  the 
whey.  As  the  curd  hardens,  you  will  occasionally  slice  it  both 
wrays  and  increase  the  pressure  by  drawing  up  the  corners  of  the 
cloth,  and  folding  them  over  the  curd  and  placing  a  square  piece 
of  board  on  it  and  a  weight — a  smooth  stone,  of  twenty  or 
thirty  pounds  weight,  can  be  kept  for  the  purpose.  In  from  one 
to  two  hours  after  dipping  up,  the  curd  will  be  solid  enough  for 
the  press.  It  should  be  of  such  consistence  that  it  can  be 
crumbled  between  the  thumb  and  finger.  It  should  now  be 
chopped  fine,  and  one  ounce  of  salt  added  for  each  five  pounds 
of  curd,  and  it  is  ready  for  the  press. 

It  is  desirable  that  the  cheese  be  of  sufficient  size,  and  if  one 
has  but  four  or  five  cows,  the  curd  can  be  kept  over  till  the  next 
day,  and  two  put  together.  It  can  be  kept  on  ice  or  in  a  cold 
spring-house,  by  spreading  it  out  in  slices  in  pans.  A  better 
way,  however,  is  for  two  neighbors  to  co-operate  and  put  their 
milk  together,  each  making  a  cheese  on  alternate  days. 

Place  one  corner  of  a  cheese-cloth  over  the  hoop,  so  that 
when  settled  to  the  bottom  it  will  cover  the  sides  and  leave 
enough  to  spread  over  the  top.  The  edges  must  be  folded  over 
nicely  and  the  follower  put  on.  The  pressure  must  be  gentle  at 
first,  or  the  cream  will  run  out  and  leave  the  cheese  poor;  but 
it  may  be  gradually  increased,  and  in  a  few  hours  the  cheese  is 
ready  to  turn.  Take  the  cheese  from  the  hoop  and  spread  a 
clean  cheese-cloth  over  it  and  press  the  hoop  down  around  the 
cheese.  Have  the  cloth  placed  so  that  there  will  be  width 


858  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

enough  at  one  side  to  spread  over  the  top  of  the  cheese.  Now 
lift  the  cheese  and  hoop  together  and  invert  it,  so  that  what  was 
the  top  of  the  cheese  at  the  first  pressing  will  be  turned  down. 
Spread  the  cloth  over  the  top  smoothly,  and  with  the  left  hand 
hold  the  narrow  edge  of  the  cloth  while,  with  a  common  table- 
knife,  you  tuck  down  inside  of  it  the  edges  of  the  cloth  that  cov- 
ers the  top  of  the  cheese.  The  object  of  this  is  to  give  a  good 
smooth  edge  to  the  cheese  and  preserve  a  good  shape.  Part  of 
the  cloth  will  now  hang  outside  of  the  hoop,  while  at  the  first 
pressing  it  was  all  folded  under  the  follower.  If  the  cheese  re- 
mains in  press  more  than  twenty-four  hours,  it  should  be  turned 
a  second  time,  for  if  left  too  long  the  cloth  will  be  likely  to 
stick  to  it  and  tear  the  rind. 

Curing. — The  operation  requiring  the  greatest  care  is  the 
curing  of  the  cheese.  They  should  he  kept  in  a  warm  room, 
but  must  not  be  exposed  to  drying  currents  of  air,  or  they  will 
crack.  When  taken  from  the  press,  each  cheese  should  be 
rubbed  with  lard,  and  a  bandage  of  new  muslin  pinned  loosely 
around  it.  The  spreading  of  the  cheese  will  soon  tighten  the 
bandage.  The  great  danger  during  the  drying  process  is  that 
the  cheese-fly  will  find  some  crack  in  which  to  deposit  its  eggs, 
and  the  cheese  be  ruined  by  skippers.  Nothing  but  vigilance 
and  watchfulness  will  prevent  this.  They  must  be  kept  on 
smooth  shelves,  and  turned  and  greased  every  day,  the  bandage 
being  left  on  and  the  grease  applied  to  the  bandage.  The  cheese 
should  be  carried  to  a  table  to  grease,  and,  before  it  is  put  back, 
the  shelf  scraped  and  wiped  clean.  When  the  cheeses  crack  in 
curing,  strips  of  tough  Manilla  paper  can  be  stuck  on  with  lard 
to  cover  the  cracks.  The  cheese  will  do  for  the  table  in  about 
four  weeks,  and  by  this  time  should  have  a  rind  hard  enough 
so  that  there  will  be  but  little  danger  from  flies. 

The  Factory  System  and  its  Variations.* — It  matters 
not  by  what  plan  or  system  dairying  is  conducted,  success  can 
only  be  secured,  and  maintained,  by  a  close  selection  and  breed- 
ing of  cows,  and  that  with  reference  to  their  qualities  as  milkers, 
and  the  adaptation  of  the  milk  to  the  requirements  demanded  of 

*  Contributed  by  JOHN  GOULD,  Agricultural  Editor  Cleveland  Herald. 


CATTLE— THE  DAIRY.  859 

it  in  manufacture.  The  care  and  feeding  of  cows  to  secure 
profitable  returns  of  milk,  the  continuance  of  the  flow,  the  study 
of  the  market,  and  a  purpose  to  place  before  the  consumer  the 
exact  product  called  for,  are  at  the  foundation  of  the  dairy  in- 
dustry. Beyond  this  lies  the  department  of  mechanical  skill,  a 
knowledge  of  the  manipulation  of  milk,  and  its  results  of  butter 
and  cheese,  that  a  perfect  article  shall  be  placed  upon  the  market. 

To  accomplish  this,  dairying  is  naturally  divided  into  two 
great  departments,  individual  and  co-operative.  The  advan- 
tages of  co-operation  in  dairying  are  that  the  labor  is  greatly 
reduced,  as  in  the  factory  two  or  three  hands  will  easily  man- 
ufacture the  milk  of  several  hundred  cows;  and  while  here  and 
there  in  a  private  dairy  a  better  article  of  butter  will  be  made, 
and  better  prices  realized,  as  a  general  rule  the  factory  will 
excel  in  both  price  and  quality,  and  the  patron  receive  the 
cash,  while  the  family  dairy  will  often  be  obliged  to  barter  at 
the  grocery.  As  long  as  the  products  of  the  dairy  were  very 
largely  of  local  consumption,  the  manufacture  of  butter  and 
cheese  would  be  an  individual  industry;  but  when  they  became 
a  matter  of  extended  commerce,  method  and  system  would  follow 
as  a  result,  and  from  this  would  come  a  massing  of  material — 
first,  to  produce  as  uniform  a  result  as  possible ;  and,  second,  to 
reduce  the  cost  of  production  to  its  lowest  limit.  To  this  end, 
since  1868,  we  find  all  sorts  of  associate  dairying  springing 
up — co-operative,  patron,  cream-gathering,  milk-buying,  and  other 
kindred  ways,  each  system  and  plan  having  variations  of  its 
own  to  suit  the  locality  in  which  operations  are  carried  on. 

The  new  methods  at  once  called  for  yet  larger  dairies,  and 
the  great  demand  for  the  better  and  more  uniform  quality  of 
goods  called  for  a  great  increase  of  dairy  territory,  and  now 
not  only  the  original  dairy  districts  of  New  York  and  Ohio,  but 
nine  or  ten  other  States  are  largely  engaged  in  the  dairy  in- 
dustry, and  the  butter  and  cheese  of  the  United  States,  instead 
of  being  articles  of  local  consumption,  find  their  way  into  every 
market  on  the  globe. 

Milk. — The  discussion  of  the  different  systems  of  conduct- 
ing the  dairy  industry  of  this  country  can  better  be  understood  by 


860  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

asking  what  are  the  elements  of  good  milk.  The  question  of 
breeds  will  not  be  considered  here,  other  than  to  state  that  the 
breeders  art  and  skill  has  given  us  breeds  of  dairy  stock  specially 
adapted  to  butter,  cheese,  and  a  general-purpose  cow,  the  latter 
being  of  particular  value  for  sale  in  villages  and  cities. 

Milk  is  at  its  best  estate  at  the  moment  of  milking,  and 
success  in  manufacture  is  based  upon  extending  this  period  of 
perfection,  at  least  until  the  milk  has  been  converted  into  the 
practical  use  for  which  it  was  intended.  Milk  may  be  said  to  be 
made  up  of  butter-fats  and  caseine,  with  other  minor  elements, 
like  sugar  and  organic  or  mineral  matter.  The  caseine  in  milk 
does  not  vary  to  any  considerable  extent.  So  many  pounds  of 
milk  will  contain  as  a  rule  about  so  large  a  per  cent  of  caseine. 
But  the  butter  per  cent  varies  very  largely.  Breed,  feed,  sur- 
rounding conditions,  all  have  an  influence,  so  that  the  amount 
of  fatty  matter  in  several  samples  of  milk  will  vary,  four  per 
cent  of  butter-fats  making  a  very  rich  milk,  while  two  and  a 
half  per  cent  may  be  regarded  as  average  quality. 

The  cream  may  vary  greatly  in  production  of  butter.  Different 
samples  of  cream,  to  the  eye  of  similar  appearance,  will  produce 
butter  varying  in  quantity  as  three  to  one.  In  this  respect 
the  Jersey  cow,  well-fed,  has  her  claim  for  superiority  founded ; 
for  the  best  cream  from  native  cows  will  only  churn  out  from 
forty-five  to  fifty  per  cent  of  butter,  while  Jersey  cream  will 
give  in  return  nearly  sixty-five  per  cent  of  butter ;  so  that  the 
weight  of  cream  is  not  a  safe  conclusion  in  respect  to  the  butter 
yield ;  and,  lastly,  if  a  cow  is  not  naturally  a  good  milker  and 
butter-maker,  no  system  of  feeding  can  force  her  to  become  one; 
though  perhaps  an  increase  may  result,  it  will  not  overcome  the 
inherited  or  natural  milking  tendency. 

A  Good  Cow. — What  is  a  good  cow?  Taking  the  average, 
the  Ohio  dairy  cow  may  be  said  to  give  twenty  pounds  of  milk 
per  day  for  two  hundred  days,  or  four  hundred  factory  gallons 
at  ten  pounds  each,  which  at  ten  cents  per  gallon  would  repre- 
sent an  income  of  $40.  To  this  should  be  added  forty  pounds 
of  butter  made  at  the  two  extremes  of  the  season,  worth  $10;  a 
calf,  $2.50  more;  total,  $52.50.  Many  dairies  go  far  above  this 


CATTLE— THE  DAIRY.  861 

sum,  $70  per  cow  not  being  infrequent,  while  many  poorly  kept 
and  cared-for  dairies  go  even  below  $40  per  head.  There  can 
be  no  definite  sum  fixed  upon  as  a  point  of  profit,  for  the  condi- 
tions under  which  milk  is  produced,  the  expense  in  production, 
and  the  circumstances  of  its  disposal  can  not  be  fixed  or  regu- 
lated by  commercial  laws  of  supply  and  demand. 

Maintainance. — The  old  plan  was  to  allow  five  acres  of 
land  for  the  yearly  maintainance  of  a  cow,  but  the  value  of 
fodder-corn  is  being  so  rapidly  recognized  that  the  day  is  not 
far  distant  when  this  proportionment  will  be  ample  for  two  cows, 
which  would  double  the  income  of  the  dairy,  without  a  corre- 
sponding increase  of  capital,  save  in  an  increased  number  of 
cows,  and  the  added  labor  that  this  increase  would  demand. 

That  dairying  is  profitable  is  demonstrated  by  the  rapidity 
with  which  it  is  being  adopted  by  different  sections  throughout 
the  Union,  and  that  once  adopted  it  is  never  abandoned  as  a 
whole.  As  methods  of  manufacture  are  improved,  and  the 
quality  of  the  products  bettered,  fine  butter  and  cheese  come 
to  be  regarded  as  indispensable  articles  of  diet  rather  than  lux- 
uries, and  hence  are  salable  at  any  and  all  times  and  with  a 
steady  demand. 

Handling  of  Milk. — The  handling  of  milk,  as  stated,  is  by 
individual  and  co-operative  systems,  the  last  having  the  subdi- 
vision of  the  patron  method  of  manufacture  and  sale.  While 
the  individual  plan  is  far  in  the  minority,  yet  it  is  the  individual 
dairyman  who,  if  he  rightly  conducts  his  affairs,  obtains  the 
extreme  or  quoted  "fancy"  prices,  prices  that  he  himself  estab- 
lishes and  then  maintains  by  his  superior  methods  of  excellence. 
By  his  individualism  the  private  dairyman  is  enabled  to  control 
all  his  circumstances,  have  only  the  choicest  cows,  and  make  an 
article  of  butter  exactly  in  accordance  with  the  wishes  of  the 
customers  he  serves;  while  by  co-operation  there  is  a  massing 
of  collected  material,  and  final  selling  in  the  general  market, 
that  has  a  tendency  to  lower  quality  and  prices. 

Modern  Invention. — Modern  inventive  genius  has  been 
so  active,  and  that  with  special  reference  to  the  wants  of  the 
dairyman  who  seeks  to  improve  his  methods,  that  to  describe 


862  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

the  private  dairy  is  to  introduce  the  reader  at  once  to  cabinet 
creameries,  revolving  churns,  and  patent  butter-workers,  rather 
than  tin  milk-pans,  float  and  crank  churns,  and  butter  worked 
by  hand.  It  is  possible  for  butter  to  be  made  quite  as  per- 
fectly with  the  old  process  of  open  pans  and  dash  churns  as 
by  the  more  modern  methods;  but  by  these  last  there  is  a  con- 
venience of  working,  a  controlling  of  conditions  of  temperature 
and  exactness  in  churning,  that  makes  a  uniform  product  at  any 
time  that  can  not  be  warranted  by  the  other.  Each  element 
that  enters  into  the  securing  of  uniformity  lessens  the  labor  of 
manufacture,  and  at  the  same  time  makes  yet  more  sure  the 
quality,  texture,  and  flavor  of  the  product. 

Lowering  Temperature. — The  first  decided  step  in  prog- 
ress in  butter-making  was  secured  when  it  was  ascertained 
that  a  lowering  of  temperature  was  a  more  perfect  way  to  sep- 
arate the  butter  fats  from  the  milk  than  by  either  maintaining 
it  at  the  natural  temperature,  or  by  increasing  it  by  artificial 
means,  and  then  allow  it  to  fall  to  sixty  degrees.  To  heat  the 
milk  was  to  make  yet  more  fluid  in  substance  the  serums  of 
the  milk,  and  allow  the  fatty  globules  to  ascend  with  less  ob- 
struction; while  to  lower  the  temperature  to  forty -five  degrees 
by  the  use  of  ice  was  to  rapidly  widen  relative  or  specific 
gravities  between  the  serums  and  the  fats,  for  cold  would 
affect  the  caseinous  portions  the  most  in  proportion,  so  that  the 
density  of  the  serums  would  increase  so  fast  that  the  cream 
would  be  forced  upward  by  the  caseine  as  well  as  rise  by  the 
nutural  laws  of  gravity.  The  result  in  effect  was  even  more 
than  this,  for  not  only  was  this  increased  difference  in  gravities 
conducive  to  a  larger  per  cent  of  cream,  but  it  also  made  out- 
side influences  almost  wholly  inoperative,  and  thus  secured  what 
had  been  before  unattainable,  uniformity  in  weight,  texture,  fla- 
vor, and  quality  of  the  product. 

Deep  or  Shallow  Setting. — While  the  inventors  all  had 
the  one  goal  in  view,  perfect  separation  of  the  butter  fats  from 
the  milky  fluid,  they  have  pursued  different  ways  in  attaining  it, 
resulting  in  patents  innumerable,  and  infringements  unnumbered. 
The  plan  of  setting  milk  in  cold  air  has  but  few  advocates,  and 


CATTLE— THE  DAIRY.  863 

the  Ferguson  cabinet  creamery  is  the  only  apparatus  now  sold 
that  employs  the  agency  of  cold  air,  and  wide,  shallow  pans  in 
which  to  set  the  milk. 

The  usual  method  is  to  set  the  milk  in  cans  about  eight  to 
twelve  inches  in  diameter,  and  from  twelve  to  twenty  inches  in 
depth,  holding  about  three  to  six  gallons  of  milk  each,  and  sur- 
round the  can  with  either  very  cold  running  water  or  ice  and 
water ;  so  that  the  temperature  will  be  reduced  to  at  least  forty 
or  forty-five  degrees,  and  there  maintained  for  about  twelve 
hours,  when  all  the  cream  will  have  been  forced  to  the  surface. 
One  of  these  patent  cans  is  furnished  with  a  conical  cover,  the 
edges  of  which  pass  down  the  outside  of  the  can,  and  are  then 
fastened,  when  the  can  is  wholly  submerged  in  water.  As  air  and 
water  can  not  occupy  the  same  place  at  the  same  time,  the  cover 
is  secured  from  floating  and  the  evaporization  which  rises  from 
the  encased  milk  is  condensed  upon  the  inner  surface  of  the 
cover,  and  there  collecting,  runs  down  until  it  meets  and  min- 
gles with  the  water.  This  excludes  all  outside  influences  of 
the  air,  and  still  affords  ventilation  by  contact  with  the  rapidly 
changing  water. 

Other  patentees  merely  set  the  cans  in  water,  allowing  the 
surface  of  the  milk  full  contact  with  the  air.  Other's  pack  ice 
about  the  upper  half  of  the  can,  and  by  a  metal  partition  al- 
low the  lower  half  to  be  surrounded  by  the  air.  Other  cans 
have  tube  cores  that  allow  the  water  to  circulate  through  the 
center  of  the  milk,  and  thus  promote  more  rapid  cooling,  and 
so  on  to  the  end  of  the  chapter  of  the  inventor's  imagination. 
Some  very  successful  butter-makers  avoid  all  patents  by  using  a 
common  twelve-quart  tin  pail,  and  set  it  nearly  full  of  milk  into 
a  tank  of  cold,  running  spring  water,  which  is  the  Swedish 
method,  the  original  method  of  deep,  cold  setting. 

The  Centrifugal. — Within  the  past  few  years  several  can- 
didates for  dairymen's  favor  in  the  form  of  centrifugal  cream 
separators  have  been  brought  out,  the  best  known  of  which  are 
the  Danish-Weston  centrifugal  and  the  DeLaval  cream  sepa- 
rator, both  alike  in  principle,  yet  differing  in  details.  The  prin- 
ciple employed  is  a  rapidly  revolving  cylinder  filled  with  milk, 


864  THE  PEOPLE 'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

whirling  at  about  two  thousand  five  hundred  revolutions  per 
minute.  The  rapid  revolutions  causes  the  caseine  and  the  min- 
eral matters  of  the  milk,  by  their  greater  specific  gravity,  to  seek 
the  larger  circumference  of  revolution,  and  this  separation  forces 
the  cream,  which,  at  the  natural  temperature  of  milk,  is  several 
degrees  lighter  in  specific  gravity,  to  the  center  of  the  cylinder, 
where  it  is  found  perfectly  separate  from  the  rest  of  the  fluid. 
Experiments  show  that  the  cream  thus  obtained  is  perfectly 
pure,  for  the  separation  has  been  secured  by  an  agency  that 
discriminates  between  weights  with  exact  precision,  and  that 
the  separation  has  resulted  in  a  per  cent  of  cream  shown  to  be 
9  per  cent  greater  than  by  the  most  perfect  cold  system  yet 
invented,  and  16  J  per  cent  greater  than  by  the  open-pan  system 
of  cream-raising. 

Why  the  cold  system  is  superior  to  the  open-pan  plan  is, 
that  the  cream  globules  of  the  milk  vary  in  size,  and  are  forced 
to  the  surface  exactly  in  the  same  proportion.  The  larger  glob- 
ules, by  their  greater  diameter  and  consequent  cubical  contents, 
are  quickly  acted  upon,  but  as  the  resistance  is  exactly  inverse 
to  their  diameters,  that  as  the  globules  diminish  in  size  their 
cubical  contents  diminish  faster  than  their  surfaces,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  smaller  ones  meet  with  a  resistance  that  they  can 
not  overcome,  and  are  thus  held  in  suspension.  The  cold-set- 
ting plan  so  contracts  the  serums  that  more  are  liberated  than 
by  open-setting,  and  when  acted  upon  by  centrifugal  forces,  the 
density  is  yet  more  pronounced,  and  another  per  cent  escapes, 
making  the  difference  in  one  case  9  per  cent,  and  in  another 
16 £  per  cent.  In  cheese-making  this  would  tend  to  make  skim- 
cheese  still  poorer  by  subtracting  16  i  per  cent  more  of  fatty 
matter;  but  if  for  feeding  purposes,  it  could  be  fully  and  very 
cheaply  compensated  for  by  feeding  a  ration  of  oil-meal,  for  the 
saving  of  half  a  ton  of  butter  by  this  method  would  buy  ten 
tons  of  oil-meal. 

Superiority  of  the  Centrifugal. — In  brief,  the  superior- 
ity of  the  centrifugal  consists  first,  in  a  perfect  separation  of 
the  fats  (for  force  is  employed,  rather  than  gravity) ;  the  cream 
is  longer-keeping,  owing  to  its  complete  aeration;  is  uniform  in 


CATTLE— THE  DAIRY.  865 

texture;  contains  no  clots,  or  solid  matters,  and  effects  of  con- 
tamination from  outside  accidents,  and  the  like.  By  immediate 
separation  after  milking,  rather  than  subject  to  the  delay  of 
hours,  the  usual  risks  of  "muggy"  weather,  thunder  storms, 
illy-constructed  milk-rooms,  etc.,  are  avoided,  and  their  ill  effects 
are  not  perpetuated  in  the  butter,  as  is  the  case  with  any  other 
system  of  cream  separation.  The  improvements  that  are  con- 
stantly being  made  in  the  centrifuge,  and  the  great  reduction 
in  price,  is  making  them  an  article  that  may  soon  be  found  in 
both  private  and  patron  factories. 

Noticeable  Results. — One  thing  is  noticeable  about  the 
results  obtained  by  the  centrifuge.  It  does  not  matter  how 
cleanly  the  process  of  milking  may  have  been  performed,  it  will 
be  found  that  after  passing  a  couple  of  thousand  pounds  of  milk 
through  the  machine,  a  quantity  of  dark,  dirty  slime  will  collect 
upon  the  inner  walls  of  the  cylinder,  and  most  offensive  to  the 
smell.  As  it  can  not  be  dirt  or  foreign  substances,  it  is  fair  to 
infer  that  in  milk  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  impurities  which 
might  properly  be  termed  "  dead "  matter,  or  excremental  mat- 
ter, from  the  lacteal  glands — a  fact  which  would  indicate  the 
extended  keeping  qualities  of  butter  manufactured  under  the 
centrifugal  process. 

Associated  Dairying. — Associated  or  co-operative  dairy- 
ing, in  the  United  States,  has  assumed  such  proportions  that  it 
may  be  accepted  as  a  fact,  soon  to  be  verified,  that  the  system 
will  soon  become  general,  and  thus  supersede  the  individual  plan, 
except  in  the  case  of  milk-selling  to  the  cities,  and  the  supply- 
ing of  favorite  customers  who  are  willing  to  pay  fancy  prices 
for  an  unquestioned  article  of  butter.  In  the  West,  beyond  a 
line  drawn  north  and  south  through  Elgin,  Illinois,  the  cream- 
gathering  system  of  butter-making  is  the  general  rule,  and  is 
practiced  with  great  success,  from  the  fact  that  to  the  farmers 
in  that  great  beef  and  pork-producing  territory,  milk,  to  feed 
live-stock,  is  worth  more  than  it  could  possibly  be  if  made  into 
cheese.  East  of  that  line,  the  joint  production  of  butter  and 
cheese  is  more  general,  and  the  subject  will,  therefore,  be  given 
separate  description. 

55 


866  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

The  Patron  Cheese  Factory. — The  most  common  sys- 
tems of  cheese  factories  are  the  patron  and  stock,  the  first 
owned  by  the  cheese-maker,  who  is  sole  owner  and  director. 
He  makes  the  butter  and  the  cheese  ready  for  the  salesman,  for 
a  stipulated  sum  per  hundred  pounds,  this  sum  being  subtracted 
pro  rata  from  each  man's  butter  and  cheese  each  time  a  sale  is 
effected.  The  dairyman  delivers  the  milk  at  the  factory  once 
or  twice  per  day,  as  the  patrons  may  agree  among  themselves 
at  the  monthly  meeting.  The  custom  at  all  such  factories  is  to 
make  half-skims — the  night's  milk  being  set  and  skimmed  at  the 
farm,  and  then  mixed  with  the  morning's  new  milk,  and  brought 
to  the  factory.  Often,  when  butter  commands  a  better  propor- 
tionate price  than  cheese,  the  farmer  skims  all  the  milk,  leaving 
the  morning's  mess  at  home.  The  patrons  elect  a  salesman,  or 
often  a  committee  of  three,  who  sell  the  cheese,  strike  the  divi- 
dends, and  divide  the  net  proceeds  among  the  patrons. 

The  Stock  Factory. — The  stock  factory  differs  somewhat 
in  detail  from  this.  The  factory  and  its  equipment  is  built  by 
a  number  of  persons,  who  subscribe  shares  of  $25  each  to  the 
amount  of  $1,500,  or  the  estimated  cost.  Officers  are  chosen 
(but  more  frequently  an  executive  committee),  who  build  the 
factory,  equip  it,  canvass  for  patrons,  and  work  up  the  matter 
in  detail.  They  hire  a  foreman  and  assistants,  and  have  official 
oversight ;  and  the  absolute  cost  of  manufacture  is  charged  to  all 
patrons  alike,  proportioned  to  their  patronage.  They  sell  to 
local  buyers,  or  consign  to  well-known  commission  houses  in  the 
general  markets ;  and,  after  deducting  expenses,  and  allowing 
six  per  cent  interest  annually  on  capital,  the  net  result  is  di- 
vided. This  reduces  cost  of  manufacture  to  the  lowest  possible 
point,  and  at  the  same  time  secures  the  outside  quotations  of 
the  supposed  best  markets. 

The  third  example  is,  for  a  large-dealing  firm,  whose  integ- 
rity is  undoubted,  to  organize  their  own  factory,  receive  the 
milk,  manufacture  it,  place  it  on  the  market,  and  charge  the 
farmers  so  much  per  hundred  pounds  for  the  whole  transaction, 
including  commission,  freight,  insurance,  usually  about  two  dol- 
lars per  hundred  pounds  of  cheese. 


CATTLE— TEE  DAIRY.  867 

Milk  Selling. — A  most  popular  way,  and  one  that  is  rap- 
idly superseding  all  other  plans  upon  the  Western  Reserve  of 
Ohio,  is  the  system  of  milk  selling.  The  milk  buyer  either 
builds  or  rents  an  already  existing  patron  factory,  and  proceeds 
to  buy  milk,  he  making  such  disposition  of  it  as  his  judgment 
may  warrant.  The  price  is  based  upon  New  York  quotations, 
the  price  of  a  gallon  of  milk  being  fixed  about  two  cents  below 
quotations  for  prime  cheese,  and  made  subject  to  rises  and  falls 
corresponding  with  the  market.  The  payment  for  the  milk  is 
made  monthly,  usually  ten  days  after  the  close  of  a  month. 
This  enables  the  farmer  to  know  what  his  cows  are  doing  each 
day,  and  their  exact  performance  for  the  month.  The  farmer 
then  has  no  interest  in  the  result  of  cheese  sales.  The  buyer 
fixes  the  price,  but  taken  one  year  with  another  the  milk  seller 
usually  fares  quite  as  well  as  the  patron  factory  man. 

Private  Factories. — Occasionally  a  private  factory  is  met 
with  where  the  farmer  has  a  large  number  of  cows  of  his  own, 
and  he  equips  a  factory  and  makes,  to  all  intents  and  purposes, 
a  strictly  prime  factory  cheese  and  creamery  butter.  The  ex- 
tent of  manufacture  in  these  factories  varies  from  the  actual  farm 
dairy  up  to  the  near  approach  to  the  general  factory,  for  where 
private  factories  are  established  it  is  usual  to  accommodate 
those  who  desire  it  by  allowing  them  to  bring  their  milk  and 
pay  a  sum  for  the  making  and  selling  the  combined  products. 
There  are  great  numbers  of  these  "  one  vat "  factories  and  cream- 
eries, but  their  transactions  are  generally  with  the  local  buyer 
of  dairy  produce. 

Different  Factory  Systems. — The  practices  of  the  fac- 
tory men  in  the  handling  of  milk  vary  greatly  with  the  different 
sections  in  which  dairying  is  carried  on.  A  large  number  of 
factories  make  full  stock  cheese  exclusively,  and  allow  no  pa- 
tron to  skim  the  milk,  either  in  whole  or  part,  making  at  all 
seasons  a  market  cheese  known  as  full  stock.  Another  factory 
will  make  half-skims  at  the  extremes  of  the  season,  and  full 
stock  for  the  four  or  five  summer  months.  A  class  of  factories, 
usually  milk-buying  concerns,  follow  the  indications  of  the  mar- 
ket. When  butter  quotes  high,  the  production  of  butter  is 


868  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

made  the  object,  and  the  residue  of  the  milk  is  made  into  skim- 
cheese.  When  the  quotations  of  factory  cheese  are  favorable, 
the  milk  is  only  skimmed  at  the  rate  of  two  pounds  of  butter  to 
the  one  hundred  pounds  of  milk,  and  if  full  stock  cheese  promises 
a  fine  showing,  the  making  of  butter  is  wholly  abandoned  for  the 
time.  In  certain  localities  the  milk  is  drawn  to  the  factory 
twice  per  day,  and  butter  is  the  prime  object,  full  skim-cheese 
being  made  the  year  round. 

At  a  Creamery. — At  the  creamery,  for  these  factories 
are  called  creameries,  the  milk  is  received  and  weighed,  and 
credit  given  to  the  patron,  when  it  is  run  into  a  small  vat,  and 
thence  drawn  into  the  small  cans  and  placed  in  tanks  of  water 
cooled  with  ice,  where  they  remain  twelve  hours,  when  the 
cream  is  removed  and  the  milk  placed  in  the  usual  working  vats, 
holding  about  six  thousand  pounds  of  milk  each,  and  made  into 
cheese.  The  attempt  has  been  made  at  various  times  and  places 
to  substitute  lard  fats  and  oleomargarine  oils  in  the  place  of  the 
removed  butter  fats  of  the  milk,  but  with  indifferent  success. 
To  make  an  artificial  cream,  a  small  quantity  of  skim-milk  is 
taken  and  heat  applied  to  it  until  it  indicates  one  hundred  and 
thirty  degrees.  The  lard  is  melted  and  the  two  elements  are 
then  mixed  at  the  rate  of  two  pounds  of  milk  to  one  of  lard, 
and  put  into  an  agitator,  which,  by  rapid  revolutions,  in  a  time 
will  reduce  the  two  elements  to  a  lathery  cream,  or  "emulsion." 
About  two  pounds  of  this  cream  is  added  to  each  one  hundred 
pounds  of  milk,  and  the  cheese  made  much  as  usual,  except 
that  the  milk  is  set  at  ninety  degrees,  and  sufficient  rennet  added 
to  produce  coagulation  in  fifteen  minutes.  The  curd,  after 
having  been  "cut"  and  worked,  is  next  cooked,  the  temperature 
is  raised  to  ninety-eight  degrees,  and  manipulated  in  the  usual 
way,  the  time  consumed  being  upon  the  average  about  one  and 
a  half  hours.  After  the  curd  has  been  drained,  it  is  salted  at 
the  rate  of  two  and  a  half  pounds  to  each  one  thousand  pounds 
of  milk.  The  after  care  of  the  cheese  is  not  essentially  differ- 
ent from  the  ordinary  makes. 

A  Full  Stock  Cheese. — The  process  of  making  the  full 
stock,  or  cream  cheese,  is  one  of  exact  nicety,  and  only  a  gen- 


I/ 

CATTLE— THE  DAIRY.  869 

oral  idea  can  be  gleaned  from  books,  for  the  art  of  making  the 
best  cheese  is  one  that  must  be  learned  by  dint  of  labor  and 
acquired  by  long  practice.  To  make  full  stock  cheese,  the 
night's  milk  is  not  cooled  any  more  than  is  necessary  to  keep 
it  from  changing,  and  in  the  morning  the  morning's  mess  is 
added  to  it,  and  the  mass  is  warmed  up  to'  eighty-four  degrees, 
when  the  rennet  is  thoroughly  stirred  into  the  milk,  and  after 
coagulation  takes  place,  which  should  not  be  sooner  than  from 
thirty  to  forty-five  minutes,  it  is  cut  up  and  partially  wheyed 
off.  It  is  then  scalded  up  to  ninety-six  degrees,  the  mass  being 
constantly  stirred  to  even  and  thoroughly  cook  the  curds.  Be- 
fore acidity  shows,  which  it  is  sure  to  do  after  a  certain  time, 
the  whey  is  drawn  off  and  the  curd  "  banked  up "  to  take  on  a 
slight  acidity  and  "break"  down  by  the  action  of  the  air.  The 
curd  is  then  cut  in  pieces  about  the  size  of  loaves  of  bread  and 
run  through  a  curd  mill,  which  cuts  it  in  small  cubes,  and  is  then 
salted  at  the  rate  of  three  pounds  to  each  one  hundred  pounds 
of  curd.  The  custom  of  developing  acidity  in  curds  before  re- 
moving from  the  whey  is  being  modified  to  a  great  extent,  and 
it  is  now  held  that  the  most  perfect  acidity  is  obtained  by  ex- 
posure to  the  air,  a  process  called  by  Professor  Arnold  "  oxida- 
tion." If  the  whey  is  run  off  sweet,  any  bad  flavors  or  influ- 
ences which  might  have  existed  in  the  milk  is  carried  with  it, 
and  not  cooked  into  curds.  If  the  curds  sour  in  the  whey,  the 
developed  acid  neutralizes  in  part  the  fats,  and  a  proportion  of 
the  mineral  matters  are  released,  detracting  both  from  its  di- 
gestibility and  richness,  arid  a  dryer,  harder  cheese  results. 

The  Curing  Room. — The  furnishing  of  factories  with 
special  curing  rooms  is  essential,  for  the  perfect  curing  of  cheese 
demands  a  room,  not  abounding  in  light,  one  that  is  not  subject 
to  changes  of  temperature,  but  so  arranged  that  the  thermometer 
will  indicate  without  much  change  seventy  degrees.  The  air 
must  not  be  dry,  but  a  free  circulation  needs  to  be  maintained. 
The  devices  of  the  curing  room  have  been  many,  but  as  yet  the 
shelf  made  of  a  wide,  white-wood  board  is  holding  its  own 
against  all  patented  improvements,  as  a  table  or  rack  on  which 
to  cure  cheese,  though  they  need  frequent  scraping  and  scouring. 


870  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Supply  Houses. — The  furnishing  and  equipment  of  facto- 
ries and  creameries  was  once  the  province  of  local  tin-smiths 
and  machinists,  but  the  business  has  been  made  a  specialty  by 
several  great  manufacturing  firms,  and  the  best  method  in  erect- 
ing a  factory  or  creamery  is  to  invite  from  them  proposals  to 
furnish  the  supplies ;  and  they  knowing  the  exact  needs,  will 
make  far  better  terms  than  can  be  secured  by  any  other  plan. 

The  Exclusive  Creamery. — The  erection  of  cream  gath- 
ering butter  factories  all  over  the  country,  and  at  the  rate  of 
nearly  six  hundred  per  year,  has  elevated  this  special  class  of 
dairying  to  a  most  prominent  place,  and  it  is  a  most  popular 
specialty.  In  the  essential  features  of  organization  these  cream- 
eries do  not  materially  differ  from  plans  detailed  in  previous 
pages,  except  in  this,  that  the  cream  gathering  plan  is  especially 
adapted  for  dairying  in  new  sections,  or  where  factories  are  not 
common.  The  making  of  cheese  supposes  the  patronage  of  at 
least  five  hundred  cows  within  a  radius  of  three  miles,  but  with 
cream  gathering,  the  bulk  and  weight  of  freightage  is  reduced 
to  about  one-twelfth  of  the  milk  total  of  a  cheese  factory.  The 
cream  gathering  can  thus  be  extended  over  a  very  large  terri- 
tory, and  as  dispatch  is  not  so  necessary  as  when  milk  is  taken, 
the  cream  gatherer  may  extend  his  route  over  twenty  miles  and 
collect  the  cream  of  at  least  two  hundred  cows  daily. 

The  General  Plan. — The  most  common  plan  pursued  by 
the  patrons  of  this  system,  is  for  some  one  to  erect  and  equip 
the  factory,  and  buy  and  collect  the  cream,  paying  a  stipulated 
price  per  inch  for  the  same,  an  inch  of  cream  being  a  basis  of 
calculation  for  one  pound  of  butter.  An  inch  of  cream  is  the 
depth  rising  on  a  can  of  certain  diameter,  113  cubic  inches  in 
amount  being  taken  to  make  one  pound  of  butter.  This  is  not 
perfectly  accurate,  for  one  inch  of  cream  from  well-fed,  high- 
grade  cows,  will  make  twenty  ounces  of  butter,  while  another 
dairy  will  produce  cream  so  poor — that  is,  the  caseine  element 
so  predominating — that  a  like  amount  of  cream  will  not  make 
over  twelve  ounces. 

The  plan  of  gathering  is  as  follows :  All  the  patrons  are  pro- 
vided with  milk-cans  of  one  make,  "  Standard,"  "  Fairlamb," 


CATTLE— THE  DAIRY.  871 

"  Cooley,"  "  Wilhelm,"  or  other  pattern,  and  each  farmer  provides 
facilities  for  cooling  the  milk,  either  with  ice-water,  or  an  ample 
supply  of  well  or  spring  water.  Rules  govern  the  feeding  and 
milking  of  cows,  the  idea  being  to  secure  at  the  start  as  great 
uniformity  as  possible.  The  milk  is  strained  into  cans,  which 
are  at  once  placed  in  the  water-tank  to  cool.  The  cans  remain 
undisturbed  until  the  cream  gatherer  arrives,  who  makes  a  rec- 
ord of  the  inches  of  cream  upon  the  cans  by  the  means  of  a 
glass  gauge  let  into  the  side  of  the  vessel.  The  cream  is  then 
deftly  dipped  off  by  the  use  of  a  conical  cup  and  long  handle. 
The  milk  is  then  at  the  disposal  of  the  farmer,  and  the  cream 
gatherer  drives  to  the  next  farm.  There  are  other  ways  of  deter- 
mining the  usual  amount  of  cream,  the  next  best  way  being  to 
collect  all  the  cream  from  the  cows  of  one  dairy  in  a  pail  with  a 
diameter  of  twelve  and  one-half  inches,  and  thus  measure  the 
mixed  cream  by  the  depth  in  inches.  One  other  plan  is  to  buy 
cream  by  the  gallon,  assuming  that  such  an  amount  will  make 
two  pounds  of  butter. 

Nearly  all  cream  buyers  sample  the  cream  of  the  patrons, 
and  by  churning  a  small  quantity  (a  measured  quart  of  cream), 
ascertain  to  a  nicety  the  exact  butter  value,  and  figure  this 
cream  account  accordingly,  as  by  this  process  it  is  found  that  some 
dairies  only  require  ninety-five  cubic  inches  to  make  a  pound  of 
worked  butter,  while  others  demand  one  hundred  and  twenty 
cubic  inches  to  accomplish  the  same  result.  By  this  system  a 
dairy  is  credited  with  its  exact  performance,  and  establishes 
equable  relations  between  dairies  that  have  never  before  been 
possible,  and  proportions  to  each  patron  his  exact  share,  no  more 
and  no  less. 

Co-operative  Creameries. — In  the  Eastern  States  a  large 
number  of  cream-gathering  factories  are  run  strictly  upon  the 
co-operative  plan.  A  stock  company  erect  the  creamery,  and 
the  cream  is  either  collected  and  the  butter  made  by  contract, 
or  skilled  labor  is  employed  so  that  the  cost  of  manufacture  is 
reduced  to  the  lowest  possible  limit.  The  butter  is  consigned 
to  the  Boston  market,  and  the  returns  are  divided  pro  rata,  after 
deducting  all  expenses,  interest,  and  wear  and  tear  of  apparatus, 


872  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Where  creameries  are  at  comparatively  short  distances  from  the 
principal  markets,  this  is  a  very  satisfactory  method  of  conduct- 
ing the  establishment. 

A  New  System. — In  some  sections  a  yet  different  system 
is  being  introduced  in  regard  to  the  management.  Instead  of 
collecting  the  cream,  the  new,  fresh  drawn  milk  is  taken  to  the 
creamery  morning  and  evening,  and  is  accurately  weighed.  The 
seller  accepts  a  contract  price  for  his  milk,  or  agrees  to  the 
market  price,  a  price  paid  at  the  milk  buying  factories,  or  yet 
a  proportionate  price  to  the  butter  value  of  the  milk.  The 
creamery  man  extracts  the  cream  and  returns  the  skim-milk  to 
the  producer  without  cost.  This  enables  the  farmer  to  realize 
market  prices  for  his  milk,  and  yet  have  its  feeding  to  augment 
the  growth  of  his  young  stock  upon  the  farm. 

Creamery  Butter. — The  process  of  making  butter  at  a 
creamery  is  very  interesting,  not  only  from  the  dispatch  and 
skill  noticed,  but  also  the  systematic  treatment  of  the  material 
during  the  entire  process.  The  person  who  visits  the  different 
farms  to  collect  the  cream  has  a  suitable  spring  wagon,  and  a 
cream-can  so  constructed  that  the  cream  can  not  be  agitated 
while  in  the  transit,  as  "churning"  the  cream  while  gathering 
en  route  would  be  to  defeat  the  object  of  high-grade  butter. 

When  the  cream  arrives  at  the  creamery,  it  is  placed  in 
cream  vats,  holding  often  several  hundred  gallons,  where  it  is 
frequently  stirred  to  thoroughly  mix  the  cream  from  the  different 
dairies,  and  thus  divest  it  of  its  identity  so  to  speak,  and  se- 
cure ripening.  This  last,  as  distinguished  from  souring,  is  to 
promote  acidity  in  a  mild  degree  by  the  action  of  the  air,  rather 
than  to  secure  another  form  of  acidity  by  the  ferment  of  the 
milk  which  the  cream  contains,  the  ripening  being  conducive  to 
a  delicate  aroma  so  distinctive  of  choice  butter,  and  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  higher,  sharper  flavor  that  naturally  results 
from  souring  the  cream — the  formation  of  lactic  acid  from  the 
sugar  of  the  milk  being  the  cause  of  the  latter. 

The  first  appearance  of  the  acidity  is  the  time  chosen  for 
churning.  In  all  creameries  the  churning  is  done  with  revolving 
churns  of  some  pattern,  ample  in  capacity  to  produce  at  least 


CA  TTLE—  THE  DAIR  Y.  873 

one  hundred  pounds  of  butter,  though  many  are  much  larger. 
It  is  now  more  generally  recognized  that  a  more  perfect  separa- 
tion of  the  butter  takes  place  at  a  somewhat  lower  temperature 
than  formerly  employed,  and  fifty-eight  degrees  may  now  be 
said  to  be  the  accepted  temperature  for  churning.  The  process 
of  churning  should  occupy  nearly  one  hour,  and  should  be  con- 
tinued with  regular  revolutions  of  the  churn. 

The  theory  of  churning  is  now  held  by  advance  scientists 
to  be  not  a  rupture  of  membraneous  sacks  inclosing  the  butter 
globule  which  can  not  be  proven  to  exist,  but  by  the  developing 
of  a  new  agency  by  the  concussion  produced  by  agitation  of  the 
cream,  named  "  Hydrate  of  Caseine."  This  new  element  pro- 
motes adhesion  among  the  butter  particles  and  visible  butter  re- 
sults as  soon  as  the  development  is  active  enough.  Be  this  as 
it  may,  the  churning  at  low  temperatures  is  best,  for  undue 
heat  excites  cohesion  in  the  caseinous  elements,  which  by  greater 
heat  attach  themselves  to  the  butter  globules,  and  a  butter 
highly  charged  with  caseine,  and  white,  soft,  streaky  in  appear- 
ance, is  thus  made  from  sound,  well-produced  cream,  and  as  a 
rule  the  result  of  excessive  warmth  in  the  churned  cream. 

As  soon  as  the  butter  has  arrived  at  the  granular  stage,  the 
operation  of  churning  should  be  suspended,  and  the  buttermilk 
drawn  off.  This  can  be  best  facilitated  by  first  adding  to  it  a 
few  gallons  of  weak  brine  or  pure  cold  water  to  the  butter,  and 
allowing  it  to  permeate  through  the  mass,  aided  by  a  few  turns 
of  the  churn.  This  "  cuts "  the  caseinous  matter  and  makes 
more  perfect  separation.  As  soon  as  the  buttermilk  is  drawn 
off  (and  all  escape  of  fine  particles  of  butter  can  be  avoided  by 
the  use  of  a  fine  wire  or  hair  sieve),  the  butter  is  submitted  to 
the  washing  process  with  very  cold  water,  to  remove  the  re- 
maining traces  of  buttermilk.  This  may  be  continued  until  the 
fluid  runs  clear,  when  the  salt  may  be  added  and  worked  in  by 
the  revolutions  of  the  churn.  The  butter  is  then  removed  and 
allowed  to  stand  for  about  four  hours  in  a  temperature  not 
above  fifty  degrees,  when  it  is  placed  upon  a  butter-worker  and 
worked  free  of  moisture,  and  then  packed  into  well-soaked  ash 
packages  for  market. 


874  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

The  Keeping  of  Butter. — The  keeping  of  butter  is  more 
dependent  upon  its  perfect  separation  from  the  caseine  than  any 
one  other  condition,  and  it  is  now  asserted  by  the  highest  living 
dairy  authorities  that  this  separation  is  more  perfectly  obtained 
by  washing  with  pure  cold  water,  with  or  without  salt,  than  by 
any  process  of  working  to  expel  this  undesirable  element.  Only 
the  purest  water  should  be  employed  for  washing,  and  if  a  suspi- 
cion exists  that  the  water  is  even  slightly  defective,  salt  should 
be  used  to  neutralize  such  contamination. 

Working  Butter. — In  working  over  butter  great  care  must 
be  taken  to  avoid  any  process  analogous  to  grinding,  or  that 
would  in  any  way  break  down  the  grain  of  the  butter,  for  such 
treatment  has  the  effect  of  giving  butter  a  waxy,  greasy  appear- 
ance that  detracts  from  its  value. 

Packing  Butter. — In  packing  butter  for  market,  the  utmost 
care  must  be  taken  to  have  the  butter  salted  to  meet  the  demands 
of  the  consumer,  a  half  ounce  to  the  pound  being  ample  for  some 
consumers,  and  with  others  a  full  ounce  will  be  required.  The 
office  of  salt  is  not  to  preserve  the  butter,  but  to  hold  in  check 
the  other  elements  that  it  contains  in  spite  of  all  efforts  to  re- 
move them,  and  if  possible  prevent  ferment,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  acids  and  gases  that  first  manifest  themselves  in  "  off 
flavor,"  then  "strong"  flavor,  and  next  "rancidity,"  the  last  step 
being  the  soap-grease  stage  of  worthlessness ;  hence  great  caution 
should  be  exercised  in  having  not  only  the  buttermilk  fully 
expelled  as  possible,  but  also  to  have  the  surplus  moisture  ab- 
sorbed so  that  only  the  butter  remains,  thirteen  per  cent  of 
moisture  being  the  maximum  amount  of  water  in  prime,  well- 
made  butter. 

Sweet  and  Sour  Cream  Butter. — The  question  now  of 
sweet  and  sour  cream  butter  is  beginning  to  become  a  prominent 
one,  and  many  erroneous  impressions  and  suppositions  exist  even 
among  butter-makers  who  regard  themselves  as  well-informed. 
The  common  error  is  in  supposing  that  sour  cream  makes  the 
most  butter.  Accurate  tests  do  not  warrant  the  belief,  nor  that 
sour  cream  butter  is  the  longest  keeping  article.  It  is  true,  how- 
ever, that  butter-makers,  as  a  rule,  succeed  best  with  acid  cream, 


CATTLK—THK  DAIRY.  875 

and  from  the  fact  that  they  have  pursued  the  same  method  in 
both  cases,  and  attempted  to  make  sweet  cream  butter  by  the 
same  process  as  with  the  sour,  inviting  failure  from  the  very 
nature  of  the  conditions  existing. 

It  needs  no  proof  when  it  is  said  that  acidity  is  one  of  the 
processes  of  decay,  though  decay  is  not  necessarily  immediate, 
and  that  souring  can  not  create  a  better  flavor  than  the  natural 
one,  though  the  consumer  by  habit  may  have  come  to  acquire 
the  preference  for  an  artificial  flavor  in  butter,  just  as  one  often 
prefers  fruit  pickled  to  give  it  a  smart,  acrid  taste,  or  flavor. 
The  great  difficulty  in  succeeding  with  sweet  cream  butter  will, 
as  a  rule,  be  found  in  imperfect  churning,  resulting  from  churning 
at  the  same  temperature  used  with  sour  cream,  so  as  to  make 
the  one  come  as  soon  as  the  other.  This  high  temperature 
curdles  the  caseine,  and  causes  it  to  adhere  to  the  butter  instead 
of  being  made  independent  of  it.  The  butter  thus  charged 
with  caseine  gives  it  a  light  color,  prevents  solidity,  and  does  not 
give  sufficient  length  of  time  in  churning  to  bring  the  smaller 
butter  globules  into  adhesion  with  the  larger  ones,  and  they 
go  off  in  the  buttermilk,  making  a  double  loss,  for  the  butter 
is  weighted  down  with  undesirable  caseine,  and  the  buttermilk  is 
rich  in  butter  globules.  If  churned  at  fifty-six  degrees,  it  would 
have  taken  a  longer  time,  it  is  true,  to  bring  the  butter,  but 
natural  adhesion  would  have  united  the  butter  globules,  and  the 
lower  temperature  would  have  held  the  uniting  of  the  caseine 
and  fats  in  check,  and  a  perfect  separation  without  loss  would 
have  resulted. 

Another  serious  defect  in  the  usual  course  pursued  with 
sweet  cream,  is  to  mingle  creams  of  different  ages  or  skimmings 
under  the  impression  that  they  are  alike  unchanged,  but  when 
together  each  will  have  its  own  period  of  granulation,  and  to 
churn  all,  overchurns  the  oldest,  and  in  this  way  defective  butter 
must  result.  When  the  amount  of  cream  at  each  skimming  is 
sufficient  for  a  churning,  a  uniform  butter  can  be  made,  but  only 
under  rare  circumstances  with  mixtures. 

If  acidity  is  allowed  the  souring  strikes  through  the  entire 
mass,  and  makes  it  uniform,  for  the  uniformity  to  be  secured  is 


876  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

not  in  the  butter  globule,  which  is  not  easily  affected,  but  in  the 
serums  of  the  cream.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  to  get  good, 
sweet  cream  butter,  imposes  several  conditions  that  are  not  de- 
manded with  acid  cream,  and  with  a  great  mass  of  producers 
outside  of  the  creameries  it  will  be  found  that  the  making  of 
butter  from  slightly  acid  cream  will,  in  a  majority  of  cases,  be 
attended  with  the  most  satisfactory  results.  Therefore,  in  dairy 
practice  the  acid  method  will  probably  predominate,  and  may  be 
said  to  be  the  best  plan  for  dairymen  to  pursue.  Should  the 
centrifuge  become  of  general  adoption,  it  is  probable  that  sweet 
cream  butter  would  then  become  generally  made,  but  with  either 
the  cream  gathering  system  or  the  drawing  of  milk  to  butter 
factories,  changes  will  occur  in  the  condition  of  the  cream  that 
will  demand  that  a  slight  but  uniform  acidity  shall  be  developed 
as  the  cheapest  and  readiest  way  to  make  a  uniform  butter.  The 
acid  should  never  be  allowed  to  go  beyond  the  first  perception 
before  churning,  and  the  churning  of  sharp,  sour  cream  should 
forever  be  prohibited  by  progressive  dairymen. 

Gentle  Warnings. — Reforms  come  slow,  and  the  march 
of  improvement  is  scarcely  faster.  At  best  it  will  be  years 
before  the  full  adoption  of  improved  methods,  mechanism,  or 
co-operation  in  manufacture  will  become  general,  and  to  this 
end,  warnings,  entreaties,  and  gentle  admonitions  will  not  be  out 
of  place  for  years  with  those  who  are  slow  to  keep  pace  with 
the  march  of  progress.  While  the  factory  and  the  creamery 
are  yet  far  from  attaining  perfection  in  results,  they  are  surely 
making  great  improvements,  and  in  uniformity  are  far  in  ad- 
vance of  the  general  dairy  masses  in  production.  Many  in- 
stances of  great  perfection  are  noticed  in  the  butter  made  at 
private  farm-houses  and  individual  creameries,  showing  that  if 
the  close  observation  and  skill  of,  the  few  could  be  attained  by 
the  many,  a  great  advance  would  be  made,  which  would  add 
millions  of  dollars  annually  to  the  revenues  of  the  dairymen. 

Wastes  of  the  Dairy. — In  the  manufacture  of  the  dairy 
there  is  a  large  amount  of  waste,  in  the  form  of  whey,  but- 
termilk, washings  of  utensils,  and  the  like,  that  is  valuable  as 
food  for  stock,  especially  for  hogs  and  calves,  when  fed  in  con- 


CA TTLE—  THE  DAIRY.  877 

nection  with  grain.  Sweet  whey  contains  four  per  cent  of  milk- 
sugar,  a  slight  per  cent  of  fats,  and  some  caseine,  so  that  a  fair 
food-value  is  found.  The  value  of  this  whey  is  proportioned 
to  the  amount  of  fatty  matter  the  factoryman  allows  to  escape. 
The  whey  made  from  skimmed  milk  is  very  poor  in  nutritive 
qualities,  and  is  then  only  "drink."  Whey  fed  to  calves  in 
limited  quantities,  and  then  along  with  grain,  is  beneficial  to 
some  extent;  but  if  fed  exclusively  upon  whey  and  grass,  the 
young  things  might,  with  great  propriety,  stand  for  a  picture 
of  "  Famine." 

Whey  has  a  commercial  value  from  which  to  extract  the 
sugar  of  milk.  Sugar  of  milk  has  a  very  high  market  value 
among  druggists,  as  an  ingredient  in  the  compounding  of  medi- 
cines; but  the  process  of  extraction  is  so  difficult  that  the  at- 
tempts to  manufacture  it  in  this  country  have  been  abandoned. 

The  buttermilk  is  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  wastes,  as 
it  is  very  rich  in  the  nitrogeneous  elements,  and  when  properly 
fed  with  the  carbonaceous  foods,  it  is  of  great  value  to  small 
stock. 

The  feeding  of  these  wastes  to  hogs  is  accounted  as  a  detri- 
ment to  very  fine  dairy  products,  as  the  stench  arising  from  the 
stock-yards,  when  this  liquid  food  is  fed,  is  at  times  almost  un- 
endurable; so  that  factorymen  often  run  these  wastes  into  the 
nearest  stream,  while  others  allow  the  farmers  to  draw  it  away 
to  be  fed  at  the  farms,  it  being  usually  regarded  as  worth  the 
transportation. 


878  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


XI I. 

CATTLE     HERDINO.* 

,EFOKE  giving  my  experience  in  cattle  herding  in  Kansas, 
I  wish  to  give  some  facts  concerning  the  cattle  business  of 
this  great  State.  While  more  or  less  cattle  had  been  raised 
in  the  State  previous  to  that  date,  it  was  not  until  1866  that 
the  trail  was  opened  from  Texas,  and  a  year  later  that  the  ad- 
vance guard  of  the  great  army  of  cattle  reached  Kansas.  Dur- 
ing the  summer  of  1866  a  number  of  capitalists  who  had  faith 
in  the  future  cattle  business  hired  a  party  of  experienced  herd- 
ers and  frontiersmen,  and  sent  them  from  Abilene,  Kansas,  to 
Texas,  to  seek  out  the  best  route  for  a  cattle  trail.  This  party 
selected  the  best  crossings  for  the  numerous  streams,  and 
avoided,  as  far  as  possible,  any  stretches  of  barren  lands.  They 
also  made  arrangements  with  the  Indian  tribes  along  the  route 
by  which  the  herds  were  allowed  to  pass  through  their  country. 
The  first  herd  was  taken  through  by  a  guide,  and  henceforward 
the  trail  was  as  easily  followed  as  the  great  national  road  from 
Washington  city  to  St.  Louis. 

I  am  indebted  to  the  North  Topeka  Mail  for  the  following, 
relative  to  this  business :  In  1866  the  drive  north  commenced, 
arid  it  is  generally  supposed  that  during  that  year,  260,000 
head  passed  from  Texas  to  the  Indian  Territory,  destined  for 
points  in  South-western  Missouri.  The  following  year  the  drive, 
though  considerably  less,  in  point  of  numbers,  was  the  first 
made  to  any  established  shipping  point  in  Kansas.  Abilene,  on 
the  Kansas  Pacific  Railroad,  was  the  place  at  which  about  35,- 
000  head  were  delivered  during  the  year  1867.  Here  the 
Texas  Long-horn  obtained  the  first  foothold  on  Kansas  soil.  Ab- 
ilene was  the  drovers'  market  for  three  or  four  years  subse- 


•  Contributed  by  EDWIN  W.  BROWN. 


CATTLE  HERDING.  879 

quent.  1870  was  the  prosperous  year  for  this  city  on  the 
plains.  But  her  glory  and  prosperity  as  a  cattle  market  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  other  towns,  and  they  became  rivals  for 
the  trade  the  coming  year.  Newton,  Wichita,  Great  Bend, 
Caldwell,  Hunnewell,  Ellsworth,  and  Dodge  City,  all  came  in  for 
a  share.  Below  we  give  the  drive  from  the  State  of  Texas  to 
the  States  and  Territories  north  of  it,  commencing  with  the 
close  of  the  war,  up  to  the  present  date : 

1866  .    .    .  260,000  1876.    .    .    321,998 

1867  .    .    .    35,000  1878  .    .    .  265,649 

1868  .    .    .   75,000  1879.    .    .    257,927 

1869  .    .    .    350,000  1880  .    .    .  394,784 

1870  .    .    .  300,000  1881.    .    .    250,000 

1871  .    .    .    600,000  1882  .    .    .  250,000 

1872  .    .    .  350,000  1883.    .    .    275,000 

1873  .    .    .    405,000 

1874  .        .        .     166,000  Total,       .     4,707,976 

1875  .        .        .         151,618 

In  the  following  pages  I  shall  try  to  impart  a  little  knowl- 
edge gained  by  experience  and  by  mingling  with  stockmen,  that 
will,  I  trust,  be  of  value  to  the  novice,  at  least.  Let  no  one  im- 
agine that  to  be  a  herder  he  must  be  a  ruffian,  a  desperado,  or 
a  boor,  for  none  of  these  qualities  are  essential;  but,  on  the 
contrary,  he  may  be  a  gentleman,  a  scholar,  and  a  Christian,  and 
the  more  of  the  Christian  virtues  found  in  his  composition  the 
greater  will  be  his  chances  of  success ;  for,  in  such  a  case,  he 
will  be  an  honest,  kindly-disposed,  merciful  man,  who  will  care 
for  the  dumb  creatures  committed  to  his  care  to  the  very  best 
of  his  ability,  and  be  ever  watchful  and  on  his  guard  against 
any  and  every  foe  of  the  herd.  He  will  see  to  it  that  they 
have  the  best  food,  water,  and  shelter  possible,  and  as  a  result 
of  this  care  and  attention  his  herd  will  be  a  thriving,  healthy 
one,  and  success  will  crown  his  efforts.  He  may  make  some 
mistakes  that  will  entail  loss,  but  experience,  though  a  hard  and 
exacting  teacher,  is  a  good  one.  To  be  forewarned  is  to  be 
placed  on  a  vantage  ground,  for  which  reason  I  shall  tell  you 
how  and  why  I  and  others  failed,  and  suffered  loss. 

All  are  aware  how  often  we  have  what  we  call  hard  winters, 
when  the  mercury  falls  below  zero  twenty  or  thirty  degrees, 


880  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

and  the  sun  seems  to  lose  his  power,  and  every  thing  is  frozen 
up  tight  for  from  eight  to  ten  weeks,  and  between  the  first 
weeks  of  November  and  the  last  of  March  a  half-dozen  or  more 
storms  sweep  over  the  land,  bringing  suffering  and  death  to  un- 
sheltered, poorly-fed  stock. 

I  will  now  write  of  my  own  experience  with  a  herd  of  Texas 
cattle  direct  from  the  trail,  in  one  of  the  worst  winters  ever  known 
in  Central  Kansas.  The  herd  was  a  mixed  one  of  three  hun- 
dred and  forty  head  bought  at  Solomon  City  in  September,  1871, 
at  $13.50  per  head.  All  seemed  to  be  doing  well  until  the  17th 
of  November,  when  we  were  struck  by  the  fiercest  blizzard  that 
I  have  ever  seen,  and  which  lasted  seventy-two  hours.  It  be- 
gan with  rain  and  sleet,  but  soon  turned  intensely  cold.  At  the 
close  of  the  storm  I  had  six  cows  and  one  bull  dead,  while  the 
whole  herd  was  encased  in  ice  and  looked  as  if  death  had  a 
fast  grip  on  the  most  of  them.  The  last  two  days  of  the  storm 
I  fed  the  best  I  possibly  could  in  the  corral  by  cutting  from 
the  sheltered  side  of  a  long  rick  of  hay,  built  on  its  north-west 
side  for  a  wind-break.  Just  as  soon  as  possible  I  let  the  cattle 
out  of  the  pen  for  water,  but  had  to  cut  ice  ten  inches  thick, 
and  the  cattle,  not  being  accustomed  to  ice,  were  timid  about 
approaching  the  water-holes,  so  that  it  was  fully  a  week  before 
they  would  drink  as  our  native  cattle  would  have  done.  I  fed 
all  the  hay  they  would  eat,  yet  every  day  added  one  or  more 
to  the  number  of  the  dead,  and  to  my  surprise  six  bulls  died  be- 
fore the  close  of  the  year. 

During  all  those  weeks  of  frost  and  ice  there  was  not  one 
pleasant,  sunny  day;  but  the  ice  on  our  water  was  constantly 
growing  thicker,  so  that  I  found  it  impossible  to  water  suffi- 
ciently, and  on  New  Year's  morning  I  moved  the  herd  about 
seven  miles  to  running  water  and  a  stalk-field,  where  they  learned 
to  eat  corn.  From  that  time  until  February  22d  I  moved  four 
times  to  get  hay  and  stalk-fields.  I  also  fed  fifteen  bushels  of 
ears  of  snapped  corn  every  morning.  The  weather  having  mod- 
erated, I  returned  home  February  22d.  I  still  fed  hay  and  corn 
until  the  grass  was  sufficiently  grown  to  afford  good  grazing, 
which  that  spring  was  well  along  in  April. 


CATTLE  HERDING.  881 

After  our  return  home  our  losses  were  confined  entirely  to 
those  that  got  down  at  the  watering  places,  an  accident  which 
would  occur  every  few  days  in  spite  of  our  best  efforts  and  most 
watchful  care.  When  first  put  on  the  range,  the  herd,  but  es- 
pecially the  cows,  wanted  to  travel  all  the  time  hunting  for  bet- 
ter grass,  and  would  have  tired  and  worn  themselves  completely 
down  but  for  careful  herding. 

From  the  coming  of  grass  my  trouble  was  over.  I  did  not 
lose  a  single  cow  at  calving  time,  and  with  the  exception  of  one 
cow,  pulled  down  by  the  wolves,  and  a  few  calves  torn  to  pieces 
by  the  same,  and  one  steer  that  climbed  upon  a  rick  of  hay  and 
broke  his  neck  in  getting  down,  I  met  with  no  more  losses.  I 
wish  to  note  some  points  about  this  herd  to  be  remembered.  I 
did  not  loose  a  steer  but  the  one  that  broke  his  neck.  Seven 
bulls  out  of  ten  died,  while  of  the  cows  I  lost  about  three  out 
of  five,  and  these  included  every  old  cow  in  the  herd ;  also  the 
ones  that  had  calves  running  with  them  during  the  previous 
summer.  The  cows  heavy  with  young  seemed  to  endure  the  cold 
just  as  well  as  those  not  so  forward,  and  without  a  single  excep- 
tion dropped  their  calves  without  the  least  trouble  and  all  did 
well,  while  the  calves  were  wonderfully  hardy.  Some  were  born 
on  days  intensely  cold,  but  in  every  case  got  up  and  lived.  One 
calf,  I  remember  in  particular,  was  born  on  a  hill-top  with  the 
mercury  at  ten  degrees  below  zero,  and  a  stiff  wind  blowing, 
deserted  by  its  mother  for  food  and  water,  but  to  our  astonish- 
ment, came  bawling  to  the  herd  the  next  day,  was  owned  by  its 
mother,  and  lived  and  thrived. 

As  I  think  over  that  long,  hard  winter  of  toil  and  exposure, 
and  its  results,  I  now  see  that  if  I  had  bought  only  steers  I 
would  have  made  a  success;  or  had  one  thousand  dollars  less 
been  invested  in  cattle,  a  shed  built,  a  well  sunk,  provided 
with  pump  and  troughs  for  watering,  I  would  still  have  been 
successful  with  a  mixed  herd.  I  have  never  seen  a  herd  thrive 
and  fatten  as  that  remnant  did,  nnd  on  sale  d;iy  they  brought 
quite  a  little  sum  as  a  premium  above  the  market  price  of  the 
day.  Had  I  the  same  herd  to  winter  again,  I  should  expect  to 
take  through  not  less  than  ninety-five  out  of  every  hundred. 

50 


882  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

I  will  now  tell  of  one  or  two  other  herds.  A.  B.  came  to 
Kansas  about  the  same  time  that  I  did.  Invested  all  of  his  avail- 
able money  in  a  herd  of  one  thousand  head  of  Texas  yearlings, 
and  undertook  to  winter  them  on  the  range.  The  story  is  soon 
told.  Without  food  or  shelter — for  the  grass  was  buried  in  ice 
and  snow — the  miserable  creatures  perished  by  the  wholesale, 
arid  when  spring  came  nine  hundred  and  twenty-five  were  dead, 
and  all  would  have  been  had  not  the  man  sold  out  and  fled  the 
country,  leaving  the  remnant  in  better  hands. 

There  were  scores  of  herds  but  little  better  off,  yet  the 
owners  were  not  wholly  to  blame,  for  at  that  time  the  "  tender- 
foot" was  told  repeatedly  that  cattle  wintered  beautifully  on 
the  range,  and  came  out  fat  in  the  spring.  The  writer  well  re- 
members being  asked  by  passers  by  that  fall,  "What  are  you 
cutting  so  much  hay  for  ?  you  will  not  want  the  fourth  of 
it."  The  winter  range  lies  west  in  the  region  of  buffalo-grass 
and  of  unlimited  acres,  but  not  east  of  the  one  hundredth 
meridian. 

I  will  write  of  one  more  herd  for  the  lesson  there  is  in  it. 
C.  D.  was  a  Texan  with  a  number  of  large  herds,  some  five 
thousand  cattle  in  all.  One  of  these  herds  was  wintered  quite 
near  my  own,  and  contained  one  thousand  fine  large  steers,  every 
one  of  which  should  have  lived  had  they  been  cared  for  as  they 
might  have  been.  But  the  man  in  charge,  with  plenty  of  hay, 
simply  let  the  stock  run  to  the  stacks,  and  not  half  of  them 
could  get  a  mouthful,  while  one-half  of  the  hay  was  wasted, 
and  the  poor  dumb  creatures  stood  and  starved  and  died  by 
the  hundreds,  while  the  men  being  paid  to  care  for  them 
were  off  at  the  nearest  saloon  or  bagnio  steeping  themselves 
in  whisky  and  crime.  These  are  not  fancy  pictures,  but  actual, 
hard  facts. 

The  news  of  these  disasters  spread,  and  men  came  from  all 
the  Eastern  cities  and  bought  up  the  hides,  in  many  instances 
just  as  they  were  on  the  carcasses  of  the  dead  animals.  A 
novel  way  of  stripping  off  the  hides  was  adopted  to  expedite 
the  work.  An  expert  would  skin  the  head  and  partly  the 
legs;  one  team  of  oxen  or  horses  was  hitched  to  the  hide  and 


CATTLE  HERDING.  883 

another  to  the  head;  the  whip  cracked,  and  off  came  the  hide 
with  a  rush. 

To  sustain  my  assertion  that  I  would  now  take  ninety-five 
per  cent  of  my  old  herd  through  the  winter,  permit  me  to  re- 
capitulate somewhat.  My  first  move  would  be  to  get  the  whole 
herd  at  the  earliest  possible  moment  into  a  stalk  pasture,  and 
teach  them  to  eat  corn  before  the  first  cold  spell.  When  the 
cold  weather  came  I  would  cut  out  all  the  steers,  and  corral 
and  feed  by  themselves.  I  would  either  build  a  small  pen  for 
all  the  bulls  in  the  herd,  or  tie  them  up  where  they  could  have 
the  best  feed  and  shelter. 

The  young  cattle  should  have  their  quarters  also.  I  could 
make  all  these  apartments  in  my  old  round  corral  with  but 
little  trouble  or  expense.  I  would  have,  as  before,  the  corral 
protected  by  a  rick  of  hay  on  the  east,  north,  and  west.  The 
young  cattle,  bulls,  and  cows  should  have  sheds  of  hay,  and  if 
possible  the  steers.  I  would  have  a  pump  and  trough  so  ar- 
ranged that  all  the  stock  could  drink  without  going  out  of  their 
pens. 

As  to  feed,  I  would  use  no  more  corn  than  I  did  before,  ex- 
cept during  storms,  when  I  would  double  the  amount,  as  little 
hay  could  then  be  fed  unless  already  in  the  rack.  But  if  my 
hay  supply  was  ample  I  would  bed  thoroughly  to  keep  the  cat- 
tle from  direct  contact  with  the  frozen  earth.  To  the  south  of 
my  corral  I  should  have  a  feeding  pen  inclosed  with  barb  wire, 
with  a  feeding  rack  of  ample  length  to  give  room  for  all. 
Having  made  these  arrangements,  I  am  confident  that  one-half  the 
work  and  the  same  feed,  pluck,  and  vigilance  would  take  the 
herd  through  as  nearly  entire  as  I  have  asserted,  and  with  a 
most  satisfactory  difference  in  the  outcome  in  dollars  and  cents 
in  favor  of  the  latter  mode. 

Herding. — If  you  buy  Texas  cattle  they  will  be  more  or 
less  wild  at  first,  according  to  the  way  they  have  been  handled, 
and  not  a  little  care  and  tact  will  be  required  to  manage  them. 
It  will  be  well  for  you  to  hire  an  old  hand  for  a  time,  until 
your  cattle  get  familiar  with  your  corral  and  with  your  herd- 
ground,  and  until  you  have  cultivated  their  acquaintance,  as  you 


884  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

must  to  know  how  to  manage  them.  Always  be  gentle  and 
quiet  in  your  movements  among  your  cattle.  Accustom  them  to 
hear  you  sing  in  a  sort  of  monotone,  and  you  will  be  surprised 
to  see  how  quickly  they  will  know  your  voice  and  learn  to  be 
trustful  and  quiet  in  your  presence.  You  will  find  this  a  great 
help  in  time  of  sudden  fright  and  threatened  stampede  in  your 
herd,  or  during  a  storm,  when  in  spite  of  your  best  efforts  you 
are  drifting  and  momentarily  expecting  a  stampede. 

As  the  well-known  voice  of  a  trusted  commander  will  hold 
his  men  to  their  deadly  work  in  a  battle,  so  your  well-known 
monotonous  song  will  keep  your  cattle  together  and  hold  those 
in  front  and  near  you  in  check,  though  beaten  and  buffeted  by 
a  wild  and  relentless  storm  of  rain  and  wind.  Should  your  cat- 
tle get  the  start  of  you  and  go  off  on  a  mad  run,  keep 
cool,  think  fast,  and  act  promptly.  If  you  have  room,  get 
your  horse  as  quickly  as  possible  a  rod  or  so  in  front  of  your 
herd  and  a  little  to  the  right  or  left  as  the  case  may  be  (have  all 
your  help  with  you),  which  will  cause  the  cattle  to  crowd  from 
you,  and  in  a  little  while  you  will  have  made  a  complete  circle. 
Sing  all  the  time  in  your  natural  voice.  If  you  can  not  keep 
cool  enough  to  do  that,  keep  still  until  you  can ;  do  n't  scream 
or  yell ;  watch  closely,  and  just  as  soon  as  you  see  any  signs  of 
the  panic  being  over,  crowd  your  horses  a  little  more  in  front  of 
your  cattle,  so  as  to  shorten  the  curve,  and  lessen  the  size  of 
your  circle.  Do  n't  try  to  stop  them,  but  wind  them  up,  and 
if  possible  on  a  spot  of  ground  with  which  they  are  familiar,  and 
your  danger  is  over  for  the  time,  as  your  cattle  will  crowd 
closely  together,  keeping  up  their  circular  motion,  and  when  once 
your  herd  is  thus  wound  up,  you  can  sing  and  rest  your  horse, 
until  of  their  own  accord  they  quiet  down.  This  is  what  cattle 
men  call  "  milling."  After  such  a  run  do  n't  disturb  your  herd 
until  they  begin  feeding  of  their  own  accord,  and  you  must  be 
exceedingly  watchful  and  careful  for  a  number  of  days,  for  it 
will  take  some  time  for  them  to  get  over  it. 

But  suppose  your  stock  are  in  the  hills,  and  start  for  a  run  up 
or  down  a  valley  or  canyon  and  towards  you?  Keep  some  little 
distance  in  front  of  them,  and  lead  them  out  on  to  the  plain, 


CATTLE  HERDING,  885 

•where  you  can  act  upon  the  directions  given.  But  if  the  start 
should  be  from  you,  follow  up  closely,  and  look  out  for  and  take 
advantage  of  a  widening  of  the  valley  to  work  ahead,  and  if  pos- 
sible circle  around  and  come  back  over  the  same  track,  or  if  you 
find  room,  mill  them  where  you  are.  Quite  often,  if  well 
mounted,  by  acting  instantly,  a  run  may  be  checked,  but  do  n't 
hold  too  tight  a  grip  or  they  will  be  almost  certain  to  break. 
Better  drift  a  mile  or  two  than,  as  sometimes  happens,  have  a 
run  of  twenty-five  or  thirty  miles,  and  not  get  back  for  three 
or  four  days,  and  then  with  a  large  share  of  your  stock  lame 
or  foot-sore,  and  all  looking  as  if  just  off  the  trail. 

I  have  written  thus  at  length  of  runs  or  stampedes,  because 
they  are  very  disastrous,  if  not  properly  managed,  and  blast 
one's  hopes  and  calculations  like  a  cyclone,  and  to  show  how 
they  may  be  guarded  against  and  controlled.  I  would  not  give 
the  impression  that  they  are  of  frequent  occurrence,  for  a  herd 
of  wild  cattle  may  be  so  well  and  carefully  managed  as  to  be- 
come tame  and  quiet,  and  as  easily  controlled  as  our  common 
domestic  stock.  The  writer  has  taken  a  herd  direct  from  the 
trail  and  kept  them  through  two  seasons  without  having  a 
single  run  that  was  not  checked  at  once  and  with  a  loss  of  less 
than  one  per  cent  by  straying. 

Do  n't  hesitate  for  one  moment  to  discharge  either  a  lazy 
herder  or  one  who  is  rough  and  reckless  in  his  management  of 
your  stock.  The  first  will  be  constantly  letting  your  cattle 
stray  ofl',  and  the  latter  by  his  boisterousness  and  rough  hand- 
ling will  keep  them  wild  and  ready  to  run  at  every  little  dis- 
turbance. In  short,  the  way  your  stock  are  handled  will  make 
all  the  difference  between  quiet,  fat  cattle  and  lean,  wild  ones, 
and  on  market  day  the  gently  handled  herd  will  make  a  far 
more  satisfactory  footing  up  in  cash. 

During  all  pleasant  or  ordinary  weather  let  your  herd  do 
just  about  as  they  wish  within  certain  bounds;  give  them  all 
the  room  you  can ;  but  if  you  wish  to  get  along  easily  and  pleas- 
antly and  bring  about  the  best  results,  be  as  particular  about 
your  bounds  as  you  would  have  to  be  if  a  field  of  corn  un- 
fenced  was  on  each  side  of  you,  and  in  a  little  while  your 


886  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

cattle  will  not  attempt  to  pass  the  line,  or  if  they  do,  a  single 
shout  from  the  herder,  though  a  half-mile  away,  will  cause  an 
immediate  "  about  face,"  the  herd  obeying  the  word  as  readily 
as  a  well-broken  team,  very  much  to  the  surprise  of  the  new- 
comer. But  if  the  signs  favor  a  storm,  and  the  weather  looks 
threatening,  keep  your  herd  well  in  hand,  and  (if  it  is  in  the 
winter  season  or  your  herd  is  just  off  the  trail)  pretty  well 
rounded  up  all  the  time,  and  just  as  near  to  shelter  or  corral 
as  feed  and  water  will  permit,  so  that  if  one  of  those  sudden 
changes  come  you  may  be  ready  for  it  in  a  moment.  I  never 
corral  for  a  summer  storm,  but  if  possible  would  do  it  every 
time  in  winter ;  yet  there  are  certain  conditions  of  a  herd  when 
it  would  be  the  part  of  wisdom  to  do  so  even  in  summer. 
For  instance :  your  cattle  have  been  frightened  within  a  day  or 
two,  and  are  for  that  reason  timid  and  restless ;  or  your  help 
may  be  partly  away,  and  every  thing  seems  to  indicate  a  severe 
storm;  or  you  may  be  for  the  day  poorly  mounted  on  an  inex- 
perienced horse.  Many  other  reasons  might  be  given  that  would 
point  unmistakably  to  the  corral.  In  brief,  use  well  your  eyes, 
ears,  and  good  common  sense  about  this  matter  and  be  fettered 
by  no  iron  rule. 

During  the  rutting  season  your  beeves,  including  all  the 
steers,  should  be  herded  by  themselves.  If  the  reason  is  obscure 
to  the  reader,  it  would  not  be,  were  he  to  see  a  herd  with  a 
dozen  or  more  rutting  cows  at  once,  all  in  commotion  and  excite- 
ment, instead  of  quietly  feeding  or  chewing  the  cud. 

Selecting  a  Ranch. — In  the  selection  of  a  location  for 
the  breeding  and  rearing  of  cattle,  you  must  consider  three  all 
important  points :  Range,  water,  and  shelter.  In  many  locali- 
ties nature  has  supplied  all  that  is  needed,  in  the  abundant 
grasses,  the  flowing  streams,  and  deep,  precipitous  ravines  or 
canyons,  where  for  ages  animals  have  found  shelter  when  the 
plains  were  swept  by  the  fierce  and  biting  blasts  of  winter. 

Should  you  decide  to  take  the  chances  of  raising  cattle  on 
the  range  only,  be  exceedingly  careful  in  selecting  your  ranch. 
See  to  it  with  your  own  eyes  that  your  grass  is  abundant,  and 
that  the  buffalo  or  mesquite  is  the  principal  grass,  for  it  must 


CATTLE  HERDING.  887 

be  your  main  dependence  for  winter,  or  from  December  on  to  the 
middle  of  March.  All  through  the  season  of  growth  guard 
every  rod  of  this  grass  that  lies  next  your  winter  shelter  and 
water  that  you  can  possibly  spare  from  your  summer  grazing. 
Keep  the  cattle  off  from  these  chosen  acres  as  carefully  as  you 
would  the  hand  of  a  thief  from  your  purse,  that  the  grass  may 
make  a  full  and  undisturbed  growth  throughout  the  entire  season, 
so  that  when  your  cattle  have  been  driven  by  the  blizzards  to 
the  canyon,  on  the  first  let  up  of  the  storm,  you  can  see  them 
feasting  on  the  rich  and  nourishing  food  (for  such  it  is),  without 
a  long  trip  over  the  bleak  prairie. 

But  change  these  conditions ;  let  your  cattle  (as  they  natur- 
ally will)  crop  short  all  the  grass  near  their  shelter  and  water, 
leaving  for  your  winter  range  the  remote  parts  of  your  herd- 
ground,  miles  away  (perhaps),  and  your  chances  of  a  successful 
wintering  of  your  herd  are  wonderfully  diminished,  your  hard- 
ships increased,  and  the  probabilities  are  that  in  the  spring  the 
number  of  your  hides  may  exceed  that  of  your  cattle. 

Be  careful  that  your  water  is  pure  (not  alkaline),  abundant, 
and  easy  of  access,  or,  you  will  lose  many  of  the  weaklings  in 
the  spring  when  all  are  comparatively  weak.  Experience  proves 
to  me  that  where  an  animal  once  gets  down  in  the  mud  and 
water,  no  matter  how  promptly  rescued,  you  may  about  as  well 
strip  off  its  hide.  A  few  dollars  spent  in  making  a  stone  bottom 
to  your  watering  places,  and  in  making  easy  grades  where  the 
banks  are  precipitous,  would  greatly  reduce  one  of  the  most 
serious  dangers  that  beset  the  winter  and  spring  herd.  Neglect 
of  these  precautions  sometimes  causes  disastrous  results  late  in 
the  spring.  A  late  storm  drives  the  stock  that  was  all  doing 
well  into  their  old  winter  shelter,  and  in  attempting  to  drink  after 
the  frost  is  all  out  of  the  ground,  but  before  it  has  settled,  one 
after  another  gets  mired  and  drowned  until  the  stream  is  filled 
with  their  carcasses,  and  the  careless  ranchman  discovers  when 
too  late  that  one  hundred  dollars  spent  on  his  watering-place 
would  have  been  a  splendid  investment. 

Do  n't  try  to  winter  without  fencing  your  water  and  shelter, 
and  it  is  by  far  the  safest  to  fence  a  part,  at  least,  of  your  winter 


888  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

range.  For  this  reason :  A  storm  comes  up,  you  are  careful  that 
your  own  stock  is  all  safe  in  their  shelter,  and  retire  to  your 
shack  or  dugout  feeling  that  all  is  well.  You  turn  in  and  sleep 
soundly,  only  to  awake  in  the  morning  to  find  your  herd  com- 
pletly  s'wallowed  up  by  a  perfect  sea  of  cattle  that  have  been 
drifting  in  on  you  all  night,  and  may  continue  to  come  for  a  week, 
seeking  shelter,  water,  and  food,  in  your  favored  spot,  stampeded 
from  other  herds,  or  turned  loose  by  their  owners,  some  of  them 
coming  a  hundred  miles  or  more,  and  numbered  by  the  thou- 
sands perhaps.  In  such  a  case,  although  you  do  your  utmost, 
many  of  your  own  brand  will  be  lost,  and  you  will  be  compelled 
to  resort  to  the  great  spring  round-up  and  claim  your  stock.  By 
all  means  make  a  good,  strong  barb- wire  fence  that  will  defend  your 
herd  while  in  shelter  from  the  vagabond  cattle  of  the  careless 
herder  or  the  possible  incoming  of  a  drifting  or  stampeded  herd. 

Fire-guards. — Those  who  have  never  lived  in  a  sparsely 
settled  prairie  country  have  no  adequate  idea  of  the  danger  from 
fire,  for  which  reason  I  will  sound  a  note  of  warning  by  saying : 
If  your  range  is  so  situated  and  the  land  of  such  a  nature  as  will 
admit  of  using  the  plow,  by  no  means  neglect  to  protect  your 
range  from  fire.  If  you  had  ever  been  burned  out  by  the  rush- 
ing, devouring  flames,  as  the  writer  has,  this  warning  might  be 
unnecessary.  I  shall  presume  that  you  can  use  the  plow  by 
taking  advantage  of  a  recent  shower.  Run  at  least  two  good 
furrows  around  your  whole  herd-ground,  and  then,  one  hundred 
feet  away,  and  parallel  with  the  first  furrows,  two  more ;  and 
then  some  time  when  the  wind  is  dead,  and  before  the  grass  is 
too  dry,  burn  out  your  space  between  your  furrows.  You 
may  think  one  hundred  feet  pretty  wide  for  your  guard.  My 
reply  is,  that  if  you  ever  stand  and  watch  a  head  fire  rushing  on 
to  your  range  with  only  that  little  black  strip  of  earth  between 
your  all  and  a  fiery  deluge,  you  will  wish  that  your  guard  was 
one  hundred  yards  wide. 

Prepare  yourself  for  the  work  when  you  burn  out  the  center 
of  your  guard,  for  you  will  find  it  quite  a  job.  Take  your  wagon 
with  a  barrel  of  water  (one  head  out) ;  have  a  strong  new  gun- 
ney  or  coffee-sack  in  the  barrel  for  each  man,  which  will  prevent 


CATTLE  HERDING.  889 

the  water  from  spilling  badly;  also  a  basket  of  corn-cobs  that 
have  been  well  saturated  with  coal-oil.  Stick  one  of  these 
cobs  on  the  tail-rod  of  your  wagon,  light  it  with  a  match,  and, 
with  a  wet  sack  in  one  hand,  and  your  rod  with  the  burning 
cob  in  the  other,  start  backwards  along  your  furrow,  and  you 
can  light  the  grass  as  fast  as  you  can  walk.  Watch  sharply 
and  constantly  the  outer  edge  of  your  furrow,  that  the  most  feeble 
blaze  in  that  quarter  may  be  instantly  extinguished.  See  to  it 
that  the  man  firing  the  opposite  edge  of  your  guard  keeps  just 
abreast  of  you,  for  sometimes  the  wind  comes  in  sudden  puds, 
and  you  must  be  ready  instantly  to  master  your  fire,  or  away 
it  will  go,  faster  than  your  team  can  run,  and  you  will  be  the 
means  of  letting  loose  the  very  enemy  you  are  endeavoring  to 
secure  yourself  against. 

It  is  best  to  join  in  with  some  of  your  neighboring  ranch- 
men to  do  this  work,  as  the  same  guard  may  be  so  constructed 
as  to  protect  several  herd-grounds;  and  then  you  can  have 
a  strong  force  and  push  ahead  rapidly  with  your  burning, 
with  little  risk,  and  if  the  fire  should  "get  out,"  the  same  force 
is  on  hand,  and  available  to  control  it  and  save  the  range. 
When,  in  a  still  time,  a  puff  of  wind  comes,  it  almost  always 
falls  a  dead  calm  again,  in  just  a  minute  or  two,  which  gener- 
ally lasts  some  little  time,  so  that  a  number  of  willing  men, 
armed  with  wet  sacks,  may  beat  out  the  runaway  fire  and  save 
the  range. 

Take  no  avoidable  risk,  but  use  every  precaution  possible; 
and  while  you  are  in  the  business,  do  n't  forget  to  burn  off 
thoroughly  your  stack-yard.  Do  n't  be  content  with  a  simple 
guard  around  it,  but  see  that  it  is  as  bare  as  a  cleanly-shaven 
face.  Every  year,  thousands  of  tons  of  hay  are  burned  in  the 
west  because  men  will  take  the  risk  of  burning  off  their  guards 
after  the  hay  is  stacked,  or  because  of  a  narrow  guard.  A 
head-fire,  in  a  gale,  will  pick  up  a  piece  of  dried  cow-dung  and 
hurl  it  fifty  or  a  hundred  feet,  and  the  instant  it  strikes  in. 
the  grass,  a  new  fire  is  started.  I  once  saw  such  a  fire  cross 
the  Smoky  Hill  River,  with  seemingly  no  check  to  its  rapid 
advance. 


890  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

If  you  do  risk  your  range,  on  no  account  neglect  to  burn  off 
three  or  four  acres  for  a  stack-yard.  You  will  see  men  by  the 
score  stacking  their  hay  right  on  the  open  prairie,  with  no  pro- 
tection whatever;  but  if  all  others  are  fools,  you  act  wisely,  and 
some  windy  day  you  will  have  hay  and  they  will  have  none. 

The  Best  Breed. — Our  stock  journals  have  devoted  a 
large  amount  of  space,  of  late,  to  the  discussion  of  this  impor- 
tant point:  Which  is  the  best  breed  for  the  stockman  and  the 
butcher,  the  producer  and  the  consumer?  Short-horns,  Here- 
fords,  Polled  Angus,  and  Galloways,  each  have  their  admirers 
and  champions,  ready  to  back  up  their  opinions  with  a  formida- 
ble array  of  facts  and  figures. 

The  truth  is,  each  and  all  are  good.  But  the  question  is, 
Which  of  these  famous  breeds  will  give  the  best  results  out  on 
great  prairies  and  ranges  of  the  West?  All  agree  that  the 
ideal  animal  for  this  purpose  must  be  hardy,  and  come  of  hardy 
stock,  that  he  may  endure  the  chilling  blasts  of  winter  and  the 
hot  winds  of  summer;  that  he  must  have  the  " get-up-and-go  " 
qualities  that  make  a  good  forager;  that  he  must  be  compact 
and  beefy;  of  such  condition  and  build  that  neither  meal-bin, 
oil-cake,  corn-crib,  nor  a  stall  are  essential  for  his  growth  and 
proper  development.  In  short,  that  he  must  live,  thrive,  and 
fatten  on  the  range,  and  go  direct  from  the  buffalo-grass  to  the 
slaughter-house. 

The  result  of  crossing  any  of  these  thorough-bred  bulls  on 
good,  selected  Texas  cows,  is  such  as  to  surprise  all  not  inti- 
mately acquainted  with  the  business.  The  calves  of  such  a 
cross  resemble  the  sire  in  a  remarkable  degree,  and  exhibit  his 
best  points  so  prominently  that  men  well  up  in  the  business 
would  judge  these  animals  much  higher  bred  than  a  single  cross. 
We  believe  there  is  no  family  of  cattle  that  will  give  the  same 
improvement  in  the  first  cross  as  the  Short-horn  with  the  Texas 
cow;  but  it  is  observed  that  a  further  infusion  of  Short-horn 
blood  is  not  an  improvement  for  this  purpose. 

For  the  small  stockman,  with  fifty  to  a  hundred  cattle,  who 
can  house  and  care  for  his  animals,  as  Eastern  men  deem  nec- 
essary, a  good  Short-horn  bull  is  the  best  and  will  give  the  most 


CATTLE  HERDING.  891 

satisfactory  results.  But  where  cattle  must  graze  the  year 
round,  or  nearly  so,  and  the  best  shelter  possible  for  them  is  a 
canyon  or  the  lee  side  of  a  hay-rick,  and  where  they  are  as 
ignorant  of  corn,  oil-cake,  and  the  meal  bin  as  of  the  solar 
system,  then  all  will  agree  that  we  must  look  for  the  most 
hardy  animal  as  the  sire  of  our  calves,  if  we  would  not  be  dis- 
appointed in  results.  This  quality  is  prominent  in  the  Here- 
fords,  Polled  Angus,  and  Galloways,  and  the  ranchmen  who 
uses  any  of  these  breeds  crossed  on  the  Texas  cow  will  not  be 
far  off  the  track. 

Land  Titles. — I  am  asked  how  the  ranchmen  acquire  a 
title  to  their  ranges.  The  most  of  them  have  no  legal  right, 
but  are  "  squatter  sovereigns,"  who  maintain  their  footing  by 
sticking  together,  and  in  many  instances  by  a  free  use  of  the 
rifle  and  revolver.  And  in  some  localities  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  acres  have  been  fenced  by  wealthy  men,  who  do  not 
own  a  foot  of  it,  excepting  a  single  quarter  section  (bought 
from  some  homesteader)  that  contains  all  the  available  water 
for  a  score  of  miles  around.  In  -all  the  vast  domain  of  the 
United  States  no  man,  though  he  be  a  millionaire,  can  acquire  a 
title  to  any  more  government  land  than  any  poor  man.  All 
must  pre-empt,  homestead,  or  take  land  under  the  timber  culture 
act,  and  if  he  avail  himself  of  all  these  different  modes  of  ac- 
quiring land  he  can  only  secure  four  hundred  and  eighty  acres, 
except  by  purchase  from  other  parties  who  have  gained  their 
titles  from  the  government  in  the  same  way,  or  by  the  purchase 
of  railroad  land,  and  of  this  only  every  other  section  can  be  ob- 
tained. In  the  State  of  Texas  it  is  different,  where  all  public 
land  belongs  to  the  State  and  may  be  bought  in  tracts  to  suit 
the  purchaser.  In  the  Indian  Territory  no  white  man  has 
a  right  to  go ;  but  many  are  there  of  a  certain  class,  and  by 
marrying  a  squaw  may  acquire  certain  tribal  rights,  but  not 
otherwise. 

The  real  facts  in  the  case  are  about  these :  A  mnjority  of 
the  large  ranches  are  so  situated  that  their  occupants  are,  as 
the  actual  settlers  come  in  upon  them,  being  pressed  back  from 
their  old  herd-grounds  in  spite  of  their  united  and  determined 


892  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

efforts  against  the  ever-advancing  tide  of  settlers.  Their  long 
lines  of  wire  fence  are  being  continually  cut  by  the  incoming 
pioneers,  and  men  just  as  determined  and  cool,  and  just  as  ex- 
pert in  the  use  of  the  ready  revolver  (and  with  law  on  their 
side),  are  constantly  pre-empting  or  homesteading  the  best  quar- 
ter sections  all  over  their  ranges,  and  it  is  only  a  question  of 
time  who  will  be  the  victor,  for  the  actual  settler  will  take 
the  land. 

Many  ranches  are  offered  for  sale  because  of  this  trouble, 
while  others  are  on  the  market  because  the  grass  within  reason- 
able reach  of  water  has  been  almost  completely  tramped  out  by 
over-stocking,  or  by  careless,  lazy  herding,  the  cattle  being  per- 
mitted to  graze  all  the  time,  just  as  near  to  the  water  as  possible, 
when  each  day  should  have  seen  them  driven  out  just  as  far  as 
the  good  of  the  herd  would  admit.  Who  wants  a  range  where 
the  stock  must  make  a  round  trip  of  twenty  or  twenty-five 
miles  for  grass  and  water,  or  who  would  expect  to  realize  sat- 
isfactory results  in  such  a  case  ?  Persons  selecting  a  ranch 
must  be  wide  awake  and  wary,  or  they  will  make  mistakes  in 
this  matter. 

The  area  required  to  give  the  best  results  in  the  pasturing 
of  cattle  varies  very  much  in  different  localities,  and  so  much  so 
that  one  can  only  approximate  when  he  says  four  acres  to  the 
animal. 

The  new-comer  will  be  most  agreeably  surprised  to  see  how 
his  herd  will  thrive,  grow,  and  fatten,  during  a  single  season. 
In  many  situations  your  cattle  will  not  see  a  fly  after  getting 
from  the  corral  or  bed-ground  until  their  return  to  it  at  night, 
and  during  the  whole  day  you  will  scarcely  see  a  brush  in  mo- 
tion, while  the  grass  is  of  such  a  nature  that  your  stock  never 
scour,  but  lay  on  fat  like  corn-fed  animals  and  make  a  truly 
wonderful  growth. 

New  Beginners. — Those  who  have  followed  me  thus  far, 
in  my  attempt  to  say  a  helpful  word  for  the  new  beginner, 
doubtless  see  that  I  am  not  in  very  hearty  sympathy  with  the 
great  cattle  ranches  of  the  West.  There  are  thousands  of  loca- 
tions, however,  where  a  man  may  settle  and  begin  with  a  few 


CATTLE  HERDING.  893 

cows,  and  just  as  sure  as  he  stays,  he  wins — provided  that  he 
displays  the  same  energy,  care,  and  forethought  that  would  be 
required  to  successfully  conduct  any  of  the  ordinary  means  of 
gaining  a  livelihood.  With  a  dozen  good  cows  and  a  good  but- 
ter-maker, a  support  for  a  family  can  be  gained  from  the  butter, 
while  the  cows,  with  proper  care,  will  grow  into  a  herd,  worth 
a  respectable  fortune,  in  ten  years. 

The  rule  should  be  to  never  part  with  a  good  heifer-calf  as 
long  as  she  breeds,  or  with  a  steer  until  three  years  old.  Any 
man  who  can  command  money  enough  to  start  with  fifty  cows, 
may,  by  the  time  he  has  the  business  learned,  be  so  well  fixed 
that  he  can  sell  one  hundred  beeves  annually,  and  this  number 
will  rapidly  increase.  I  believe  it  best  for  those  who  have  no 
practical  knowledge  of  the  business,  to  start  with  a  few  head  of 
good  cattle,  and  with  every  thing  in  good  shape,  for  in  such  a 
case  I  can  not  see  how  a  live  man  can  fail.  When  I  say  good, 
do  n't  understand  me  to  mean  thorough-breds,  for  a  good,  healthy, 
native  cow  will  be  more  hardy,  and  will  bring  forth  and  raise  a 
calf  with  less  care  and  risk,  and  will  adapt  herself  to  all  the 
changes  of  the  climate,  live  on  rougher  feed,  and  do  better  than 
a  full-blood,  while  her  half-breed  calf  will  sell,  as  a  beef,  for 
just  as  much  (coming  off  the  grass)  as  your  thorough-bred. 

The  stockman  in  Central  and  Western  Kansas,  Nebraska,  or 
anywhere  on  the  plains,  must  always  market  his  beef  directly 
from  the  grass.  He  may  help  a  little  by  a  rack  full  of  millet- 
hay  that  his  beeves  may  get  at;  but  as  a  rule,  every  bit  of  mil- 
let or  Hungarian  should  be  stored  safely  for  winter  feeding,  and 
all  the  corn  that  you  can  raise  should  be  kept  to  meet  any  ex- 
igency that  may  arise — say,  such  a  winter  as  I  have  described, 
or  a  loss  of  all  or  a  part  of  your  hay  or  range  by  fire.  Where 
you  prepare  for  winter  with  hay,  millet,  corn,  sheds,  etc.,  you 
require  only  about  half  the  range  that  you  would  to  winter  with- 
out these  accessories.  Usually  you  may  begin  cutting  grass  in 
July,  and  if  you  wish,  cut  until  the  snow  flies. 

Markets. — The  long  lines  of  railroads  all  through  the  great 
West,  have  brought  the  buyer  to  the  feed-grounds  of  our  cattle- 
men, so  that  to-day  every  man  may  sell  at  home  if  he  chooses, 


894  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AXD  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

or  he  may  ship  to  Kansas  City  or  Chicago,  should  he  see  fit; 
and  if  he  has  a  No.  1  article,  whichever  course  he  pursues,  a 
good  price  awaits  him.  All  along  the  lines  of  railroad,  good 
butter  commands  as  good  a  price  as  in  Ohio,  being  sent  to  Den- 
ver or  a  score  of  other  towns  and  cities,  and  from  thence  distrib- 
uted all  over  the  immense  stretch  of  country  lying  between 
Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  the  Pacific.  The  producer  of  a  tiptop 
article  of  beef  or  butter  need  never  fear  a  glut  in  his  market. 

Brands. — Brand  every  animal  that  you  own,  either  with 
your  initials  or  some  simple  device.  100  is  a  good  mark,  the 
curves  are  round,  and  not  apt  to  blur,  which  they  will  frequently 
do  if  the  curves  are  sharp,  or  the  device  too  small.  Before  you 
adopt  or  use  a  brand,  visit  the  county-town  and  have  your  brand 
registered,  which  will  be  necessary  to  make  it  hold  good  in  law, 
and  you  can  see  that  you  have  not  a  brand  similar  to  some  one 
already  registered.  Some  men  mark  the  ears  with  a  knife,  or 
saw  off  one  horn,  or  cut  what  is  called  a  dewlap,  some  with  an 
upward  and  some  with  a  downward  stroke  of  the  knife,  in  the 
thin  edge  of  the  skin  just  forward  of  the  brisket,  so  that  a  part 
of  the  skin  (say  one  inch  wide  and  three  or  four  long)  will  hang 
pendant  and  free.  But  all  these  knife-marks  look  barbarous, 
and  disfigure  the  animal  unnecessarily. 

Branding-chutes  and  Corrals. — As  no  man  not  brought 
up  on  a  ranch  can  ever  hope  to  acquire  skill  enough  in  rope 
throwing  to  be  of  any  practical  use  in  lassoing  or  roping  stock, 
every  ranchman  ought  to  have  what  we  call  a  branding-chute, 
to  be  used  not  only  when  you  brand,  but  on  many  other  occa- 
sions, as  when  you  may  have  a  sick  or  lame  animal,  or  wish  to 
examine  closely  a  fat  one. 

The  entrance  to  the  chute  ought  to  be  directly  at  the  side 
of  your  corral  gate,  and  so  arranged  that  by  partly  opening  the 
gate  an  animal  would  enter  the  chute  instead  of  the  pasture, 
with  no  risk  of  an  escape.  Let  the  entrance  be  about  six  feet 
wide,  but  contract  in  the  length  of  a  fence-board  to  about  two 
feet  and  a  half,  or  just  so  that  a  large  animal  can  pass  through 
by  close  work.  It  had  better  be  made  large  enough  to  hold 
two  or  three  large  animals,  close  enough  for  calves,  and  strong 


CATTLE  HERDING.  895 

enough  to  hold  the  largest  bull  when  mad  from  the  pain  of  the 
branding  iron.  Let  the  exit  be  so  arranged  that  the  animal 
may  be  returned  to  the  corral  or  let  out  to  pasture,  as  may  be 
required.  There  must  be  a  platform  made  perfectly  safe  to 
stand  on  while  branding,  and  the  posts  must  be  but  two  feet 
apart  where  the  animal  is  to  stand  while  the  hot  iron  is  applied, 
for  some  of  them  squirm  around  so  as  to  make  things  lively. 
You  must  have  a  number  of  stout  two  by  four  pieces  of  scant- 
ling to  slip  in  behind  the  animal  across  the  chute  to  hold  it  still 
while  branding.  Another  necessity  for  having  posts  but  two  feet 
apart  is,  that  you  may  hold  your  animal  just  where  you  wish. 
Your  corral,  for  several  important  reasons,  should  be  made 
round,  with  good  strong  posts  firmly  set  but  four  feet  apart, 
with  the  boards  nailed  on  the  inside,  the  bottom  board  within 
twenty  inches  of  the  ground,  followed  by  at  least  five  more, 
and  about  where  a  large  animal's  shoulders  will  strike;  the 
fence  should  have  two  boards  directly  together,  and  when  com- 
plete, have  your  fence  full  six  feet  high.  These  directions  are 
for  a  corral  to  hold  wild  cattle,  and  experience  will  prove  it 
none  too  strong,  for  when  first  corraled  your  cattle  will  be  very 
timid,  and  a  cat  or  dog  or  wolf  will  set  them  all  in  a  turmoil, 
and  the  strongest  possible  pen  will  be  broken  if  made  square, 
for  they  will  crowd  into  a  corner,  and  the  strength  of  hundreds 
of  frightened  steers  will  crush  any  fence  like  an  egg-shell,  and 
you  will  probably  have  a  dozen  or  more  killed  before  it  gives 
way,  or  in  the  mad  rush  to  escape  which  follows.  But  if  your 
corral  is  made  as  directed,  without  the  least  obstruction  on  the 
inside  for  them  to  strike  against,  they  will  start  off  with  a  whirl 
and  mill  (as  I  have  described),  until  they  get  over  their  fright. 
If,  in  the  night,  you  hear  your  cattle  running,  repair  at  once  to 
your  corral,  and  sing  as  loud  as  you  can,  and  your  stock  will 
quiet  down  much  sooner.  I  have  seen  a  herd  of  eight  hundred 
cattle  run  in  a  round  corral  until  exhausted,  without  breaking  a 
board  or  hurting  an  animal,  while  a  square  one  will  be  broken 
every  time  by  a  frightened  herd  of  wild  cattle,  and  the  stronger 
you  build  it  the  worse  for  you,  for  if  a  common  fence  is  built 
they  will  go  through  it  with  little  damage,  but  if  very  strong 


896  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

your  stock  will  be  killed  and  crippled  by  the  dozen  in  their 
wild  dash  for  freedom. 

Texas  cattle  men  all  employ  night  herders,  and  in  case  of  a 
storm  have  every  man  in  the  saddle  all  night  long.  In  prefer- 
ence to  risking  their  cattle  in  a  corral,  they  take  the  open  bed- 
ground;  but  my  corral  was  never  broken,  and  I  never  had  but 
one  animal  injured  by  a  run  in  it,  and  that  one  recovered.  I 
will  take  the  corral,  properly  made,  and  a  good,  comfortable  bed 
with  my  family,  rather  than  the  open  bed-ground  with  its  risks, 
and  spend  stormy  nights  of  Egyptian  darkness  in  the  saddle. 

A  corral  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  diameter  will  hold 
one  thousand  cattle.  This  may  seem  small  for  so  many,  but 
experience  will  teach  you  that  your  cattle  will  lie  down  on  about 
one-half  of  it,  if  that  half  only  is  protected  from  a  cold  wind. 

Castration. — The  practice  of  allowing  calves  to  run  till 
six  months  or  a  year  old  before  castrating,  is  reprehensible 
enough  on  a  farm  where  but  few  cattle  are  kept,  but  infinitely 
worse  on  the  range.  During  the  period  when  your  cows  are  drop- 
ping their  calves,  have  in  your  pocket  a  knife  with  a  blade  keen 
as  a  razor,  and  castrate  every  bull  calf  as  soon  as  dropped,  if 
possible,  before  he  ever  stands  up,  unless  he  is  to  be  kept  for 
service.  The  calf  will  not  flinch  or  struggle,  or  lose  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  blood  or  notice  the  operation  in  any  way  if  per- 
formed at  this  time.  Do  not  neglect  it.  Some  cut  off  the  lower 
part  of  the  sack,  but  it  is  best  to  make  a  slit  for  each  testicle  and 
leave  the  sack  entire,  as  it  makes  a  better  show  on  a  fat  steer. 

For  young  men  of  pluck  and  energy,  who  can  command  a 
small  capital,  there  are  still  many  good  openings  in  the  West  for 
successfully  prosecuting  the  cattle  business.  The  better  way  to 
manage  would  be  for  three  or  four  to  unite,  and  this  would  re- 
lieve the  camp-life  of  one  of  its  worst  features,  loneliness,  or 
the  want  of  society,  for  with  this  number  of  intelligent  young 
men  together,  the  camp  would  be  far  more  attractive  and  home- 
like than  if  a  single  man  should  start,  and  have  no  companions 
but  the  average  cow-boy.  With  three  or  four  partners  there 
would  be  more  leisure  for  reading  and  study,  and  one  could 
always  be  detailed  to  look  after  the  camp,  while  the  herd  need 


CATTLE  HERDING.  897 

never  be  left  entirely  in  the  hands  of  hired  help.  While  there 
will  be  much  hard  work  and  exposure,  there  is  also  health  and 
pleasure  in  the  life  of  a  herder,  and  no  man  has  a  better  appe- 
tite or  sweeter  sleep  than  he  who  has  been  in  the  saddle 
all  day. 

There  are  many  young  men  who,  like  "Wilkins  Micawber," 
are  "  waiting  for  something  to  turn  up,"  and  who  would  be  glad 
to  engage  in  any  honorable  calling  which  gives  promise  of  suc- 
cess. To  such  I  would  say  that  our  boundless  prairies  are 
broad  enough  for  you,  and  the  business  of  cattle  raising  is  not 
likely  to  be  overdone;  and  with  health,  energy,  and  endurance 
on  your  side,  you  may  engage  in  this  business  with  a  certainty 
of  success. 

In  conclusion  I  will  add,  do  not  be  afraid  of  the  cow-boys; 
but  treat  them  like  men,  and,  if  opportunity  offers,  generously, 
and  my  word  for  it  they  will  pay  you  back  in  kind,  "  Gospel 
measure,"  and  when  you  need  help  will  give  it  with  a  hearty 
good-will.  Just  as  the  old  pioneers  turned  out  and  helped  one 
another  in  their  log-rollings,  house-raisings,  nnd  corn-huskings, 
BO  will  the  cattle  men  help  you  to  cut  out  (sort),  brand,  drive, 
car,  and  market  your  cattle,  when  it  would  be  exceeding  diffi- 
cult for  you  to  get  along  alone.  On  one  or  two  occasions,  after 
stormy  nights,  I  improved  my  opportunities  to  return  to  their 
owners  squads  of  strayed  and  drifting  cattle,  for  which  I  would 
receive  no  pny,  but  afterwards  got  a  hundred-fold  return  in  all 
sorts  of  ways,  besides  the  good-will  of  all  the  cattle  men  in  the 
vicinity.  A  word  to  the  wise  is  sufficient. 

One  word  more  about  your  winter  herd.  If  possible,  keep 
your  cattle  while  on  the  range  to  the  north  or  north-west  of 
your  corral,  or  shelter,  in  which  case  you  can  run  home  with 
no  trouble  when  struck  by  a  blizzard,  which  might  be  a  big 
thing  for  you. 

57 


898 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


TO  DISEASES  OR  CATTLE 


PAGE. 

ABSCESSES  (see  horse  chapter,   page 
723). 

Abortion 912 

Ammoniacal  Liniment, 930 

Anaemia, 900 

BATHING, 926 

Broken  Horns, 901 

Black-leg, 930 

Bloated, 903 

Blown, 903 

Bronchitis, 902 

Bruises  (see  horse  chapter,  page  723). 

CAKED  BAG, 917 

Calving  (see  Parturition). 

Carbolic  Lotion, 930 

Catarrh,       899 

Choking 902 

Condition  Powders, 928 

Congestion  of  the  Lungs  (see   horse 

chapter,  page  691). 
Conjunctivitis    (see   horse   chapter, 

page  708). 

DIARRHEA,  (see,  also,  page  906.)  .  .   905 
Dose  for  Young  Animals, 928 

ECZEMA  (see  horse  chapter,  page  704). 
Enteritis, 907 


FRACTURES. 


923 


GARGET 917 

Grain  Sick, 904 

HOLLOW-HORN, 901 

Hoven, 903 

Humid  Tetter  (see   horse   chapter, 
page  704). 

JMPACTION  OF  THE  RUMEN, 904 

Inflammation  of  the   Bowels,  .   .    .    907 

Inflammation  of  the  Bag, 917 

Inflammation  of  the  Eyes  (see  horse 
chapter,  page  708). 


PACK. 
Inflammation  of  the  Lungs  (see  horse 

chapter,  page  G94). 
Inflammation  of  the  Pleura(see  horse 

chapter,  page  696). 

Inversion  of  the  Uterus, 913 

Iodine  Ointment  (see  horse  chapter, 

page  737). 
Itch, 920 

LUNGS,   CONGESTION   op   (see    horse 

chapter,  page  691). 
Lungs,  Inflammation  of  (see  horse 

chapter,  page  694). 
Lung  Fever  (see  horse  chapter,  page 

694). 

MAMMITIS, 917 

Mange, 920 

Mexican  Fever, 918 

Milk  Fever, 916 

OPHTHALMIA    (see    horse    chapter, 
page  708). 

PARTURITION, 908 

Parturient  Fever 916 

Parturient  Apoplexy, 914 

Parturient  Paralysis 916 

Pleurisy  (see  horse  chapter,  page  696). 
Pleuritis  (see  horse  chapter,  page  696). 
Pneumonia  (see  horse  chapter,  page 

694). 
Pulsation  and  Temperature,  ....    899 

RHEUMATISM, 928 

SCABIES  (see  horse  chapter,  page  705). 
Sore  eyes  (see  horse  chapter,  page  708). 

Spanish  Fever, 918 

Splenic  Fever, 918 

TEXAS  FEVER, 918 

Tympanites 903 

WHITE  LOTION, 929 

Wounds, 920 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE.  899 


XIII. 

DISEASES    OK  CATTLE. 

PULSATION  and  Temperature.— The  number  of  the 
heart-beats  varies  considerably  in  animals  in  health;  but 
from  a  great  many  experiments  the  following  is  found  to 
be  an  average  in  healthy  animals :  In  the  ox  the  heart  beats 
from  fifty-five  to  sixty-five  times  in  a  minute,  and  the  natural 
temperature,  as  indicated  by  Fahrenheit's  thermometer,  is  from 
one  hundred  and  four-fifths  degrees  to  one  hundred  and  one 
and  four-fifths.  This  is,  of  course,  taken  from  adult  animals, 
while  in  very  young  calves  the  pulse  may  be  almost  twice  as 
fast,  but  the  temperature  will  be  about  the  same  as  in  the  adult. 
In  very  old  animals  the  pulse  will  be  slower  than  that  given, 
still  the  temperature  remains  practically  the  same. 

In  the  horse,  the  heart-beats  number  in  an  adult  from  twenty- 
five  to  forty,  while  the  temperature  is  from  ninety-nine  to  one 
hundred.  The  same  remarks  hold  good  regarding  the  young 
and  aged  as  spoken  of  regarding  the  ox.  As  a  general  rule  the 
heart  beats  from  three  and  a  half  to  four  and  a  half  times  while 
the  animal  is  breathing  once.  If  this  proportion  varies  to  any 
great  extent  something  is  wrong,  either  with  the  breathing  or 
circulatory  system. 

Catarrh. — CAUSES. — The  same  as  in  the  horse. 

SYMPTOMS. — First,  there  will  be  dryness  of  the  lining  of  the 
nose ;  then  these  membranes  become  reddened  and  swollen, 
sometimes  causing  difficulty  in  breathing ;  the  animal  sneezes, 
and  in  a  short  time  there  will  be  a  discharge  from  the  nose ; 
this  discharge  will  be  thin  and  watery  at  first,  but  it  gets  thicker 
and  increases  in  quantity. 

Catarrh  may  also  affect  the  lining  of  the  wind-pipe,  as  well 


900  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

as  that  of  the  nose,  and,  in  this  way,  may  terminate  in  simple 
pleuro-pneumonia.  Diarrhoea  is  often  present  with  catarrh,  and 
unless  it  is  very  severe  it  should  not  be  stopped.  Sometimes 
the  appetite  is  gone.  The  quantity  of  milk  (if  it  is  a  milch 
cow)  will  be  decreased  in  amount,  and  the  cud  is  no  longer 
chewed. 

TREATMENT. — If  the  diarrhoea  is  severe,  give  some  of  the 
remedies  recommended  for  diarrhoea,  but  if  there  is  no  diarrhoea, 
give  food  which  will  tend  to  loosen  the  bowels;  or,  if  the  bowels 
are  costive, 

Take — Epsom  Salts, 10  ounces. 

Compound  Tincture  of  Gentian,         .         .         .2  ounces. 
Tincture  of  Ginger,         .....          1  ounce. 

Mix,  and  give  in  thin  gruel,  and  if  the  bowels  do  not  act  in 
twelve  hours,  repeat  the  dose;  and, 

Take — Laudanum,    .......         1  ounce. 

Aromatic  Spirits  of  Ammonia,    ....     1  ounce. 

Flaxseed  Tea, 1  pint. 

Mix,  and  give  in  cold  gruel  three  times  a  day;  or, 

Take — Aromatic  Spirits  of  Ammonia,  .  .  .1  ounce. 
Fluid  Extract  of  Belladonna,  ...  1  dram. 
Ale  or  Beer,  .......  1  pint. 

Mix,  and  give  three  times  a  day ;  and  if  there  is  much  fever, 
add  to  either  of  the  foregoing  one  ounce  of  sulphate  of  potash, 
until  the  fever  is  reduced.  Causing  the  animal  to  breathe  steam 
is  useful,  but  be  careful  or  you  will  choke  it. 

Anaemia. — Anaemia  means  poverty  of  blood.  It  is  pov- 
erty of  the  red  globules  of  the  blood.  It  may  be  caused  by 
loss  of  blood  from  a  wound,  or  from  calving,  or  by  want  of 
nourishing  food,  exposure  to  cold,  etc. 

SYMPTOMS. — All  the  mucous  membranes  are  pale,  or  of  a  lead 
or  slate  color,  instead  of  the  natural  bright  pink  color ;  the  tongue, 
lips,  etc.,  are  soft  and  flabby  to  the  touch;  the  animal  is  in  poor 
condition;  may  or  may  not  eat  well,  but  in  almost  all  cases  the 
digestion  is  impaired.  If  it  is  a  horse,  he  is  easily  fatigued 
when  put  to  work,  and  slight,  colicky  pains  occur  from  a  very 
slight  change  or  irregularity  in  feeding. 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE.  901 

TREATMENT. — Place  the  animal  in  a  comfortable  place;  clothe 
with  blankets  in  winter,  to  make  him  comfortable;  avoid  any 
sudden  changes  of  food,  but  carefully  and  gradually  change  the 
food  to  a  better  and  more  digestible  variety,  if  possible;  and 
gradually  add  a  small  amount  of  flaxseed-meal,  or  corn-meal,  to 
the  customary  food,  and  feed  him  four  or  five  times  a  day,  giv- 
ing but  a  small  amount  at  a  time. 

Take — Sulphate  of  Iron, 2  ounces. 

Gentian,  powdered, 4  ounces. 

Mix.  Make  into  ten  powders,  and  give  a  powder  three 
times  a  day.  Or, 

Take — Saccharated  Carbonate  of  Iron,        ...         2  ounces. 
Cinchona  Bark,  powdered,  .         .         .         .         .2  ounces. 

Mix,  and  make  into  ten  powders ;  give  a  powder  three  times 
a  day;  but  if  the  last  is  prepared  for  a  cow,  twice  the  amount 
of  cinchona,  given  in  the  formula,  may  be  used. 

If  a  cow's  head  and  horns  are  affected,  anoint  the  head 
around  the  roots  of  the  horns,  and  in  the  hollow  behind  the 
horns,  with  Ammoniacal  Liniment,  for  which  see  Index. 

Hollow-horn. — This  is  a  term  which  is  often  used  to  des- 
ignate some  debilitated  condition,  and  catarrh  is  not  unfrequently 
mistaken  for  what  is  called  hollow-horn.  Anaemia  is  another 
condition  which  is  often  called  hollow-horn.  All  cows'  horns  are 
hollow,  but  in  old  cows,  or  those  that  are  greatly  impoverished 
from  disease,  exposure,  or  want  of  food,  the  hollow  will  be 
larger  than  in  a  younger  cow,  or  one  better  cared  for.  For  treat- 
ment, see  Anaemia  and  Catarrh. 

Broken  Horns. — If  a  horn  is  only  slightly  cracked,  and 
not  broken  off,  it  may  be  tied  to  its  place,  and  allowed  to  heal, 
without  removing  the  broken  part,  by  wrapping  it  tightly  with 
a  strong  strip  of  tarred  cloth.  If  it  is  severely  broken,  remove 
the  detached  part,  together  with  any  rough  or  projecting  parts, 
and  apply  a  tarred  cloth  to  the  end  of  the  horn,  and  wrap  an- 
other tarred  cloth  around  the  horn,  to  keep  this  in  place;  or, 
if  the  horny  part  is  broken  and  pulled  off,  leaving  the  bone  in 
its  place,  wrap  with  a  tarred  cloth  as  above,  without  removing 
the  bone,  and  a  new  growth  of  horn  will  be  produced.  In  this 


902  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

last  case,  the  tarred  bandage  must  be  applied  tight  enough  to 
stop  the  bleeding.  Usually  nothing  more  is  needed,  unless  mag- 
gots get  into  the  part.  If  maggots  do  get  in,  it  can  usually  be 
known  by  the  uneasiness  of  the  animal.  It  is  necessary,  in 
such  a  case,  to  remove  the  bandage,  and  apply  turpentine  until 
all  maggots  are  destroyed  and  removed;  then  bandage  as  before. 

Bronchitis  is  an  inflammation  of  the  wind-pipe. 

SYMPTOMS. — The  breathing  will  be  irregular  and  wheezing; 
the  pulse  will  be  quickened,  it  may  be,  eighty  or  ninety  beats 
to  the  minute ;  the  cud  is  no  longer  chewed ;  and,  if  it  is  a  milch 
cow,  the  amount  of  milk  will  be  decreased ;  the  nose  will  be  dry 
and  hot;  a  cough  will  be  present,  and  a  discharge  from  the  nose, 
as  in  catarrh. 

TREATMENT. — The  same  as  for  bronchitis  in  the  horse,  giving 
about  one  and  one-third  as  much  medicine  to  the  cow  as  to 
the  horse. 

Choking. — Choking  occurs  in  all  animals,  but  it  is  most 
common  in  cattle. 

CAUSES. — Failing  in  an  attempt  to  swallow  some  half-chewed 
food,  or  some  hard  substance,  as  an  apple,  potato,  etc. ; 
choking  from  half-chewed  food  is,  in  most  cases,  the  most  se- 
vere. Thorns  have  been  found  lodged  in  the  throat  of  a  cow, 
The  offending  substance  may  be  lodged  in  either  the  throat, 
neck,  or  back  in  the  chest. 

SYMPTOMS. — The  symptoms  are  most  alarming  when  the  body 
causing  it  is  in  the  neck.  When  an  attempt  is  made  to  swallow 
signs  of  uneasiness  can  be  seen,  and  if  there  is  an  attempt  made 
to  swallow  water  it  is  thrown  up.  Slobbers  run  from  the  mouth. 
If  it  is  a  horse  there  will  be  a  spasmodic  twitching  of  the  mus- 
cles of  the  neck  when  an  attempt  is  made  to  swallow.  There 
is  great  difficulty  in  breathing,  which  may  increase  and  cause 
death.  In  cattle,  one  symptom  often,  but  not  always,  shown  is 
bloating.  You  may  be  able  to  feel  the  substance  if  it  is  lodged 
in  the  neck. 

TREATMENT. — Endeavor  to  ascertain  what  the  animal  has 
swallowed,  and  where  it  is  lodged.  If  it  is  lodged  in  the  throat 
or  neck,  you  may  move  it  by  rubbing  it  on  the  outside  with 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE.  903 

the  hands.  If  in  the  throat,  and  you  fail  to  move  it  by  rubbing 
it  up  and  down,  place  a  clevis,  or  large  ring,  between  the  jaws, 
oil  the  hand,  and  try  to  reach  and  remove  it  with  the  hand.  If 
these  fail,  and  the  choking  is  caused  by  a  solid  body,  give  a 
dose  of  oil  or  lard,  oil  being  preferable.  But  if  it  is  half-chewed 
food  that  is  causing  the  trouble,  oil  should  be  given  carefully  if 
given  at  all.  If  all  these  attemps  are  futile,  the  only  resort  left 
is  to  use  a  probang — which  is  a  long,  flexible  instrument  with 
a  bulb  on  the  end;  grease  this  well  and  start  it  down  the  throat, 
and,  by  carefully  pressing  against  the  substance,  move  it  from 
its  place,  and  so  pass  it  into  the  stomach.  The  probang  is  not 
so  successful  if  choking  is  caused  by  partly  chewed  food,  and  a 
pretty  long  wad  is  formed  in  the  throat;  for  pressing  against 
such  a  mass  would  only  pack  it  into  a  shorter  but  larger  plug, 
and  thus  make  it  more  serious  than  before.  If  there  is  danger 
from  excessive  bloating,  puncture,  as  directed  for  Hoven. 

Hoven  —  Blown  — Tympanites  —  Bloated,  etc. — This 
is  a  distention  of  the  stomach  with  gases. 

CAUSES. — Sometimes  it  is  caused  by  choking.  It  may  result 
from  chronic  indigestion,  or  be  a  symptom  of  diseases  of  the 
liver,  or  parturient  fever,  but  the  most  common  causes  are  a 
change  of  food,  or  turning  on  wet  clover  pasture,  or  even  turn- 
ing on  rank  clover  when  dry.  Potatoes,  turnips,  and  apples,  or 
their  peelings  (especially  if  fed  when  somewhat  frozen),  bran, 
shorts,  etc.,  may  cause  it. 

SYMPTOMS. — In  many  cases  the  symptoms  are  very  alarming. 
The  left  flank  will  be  swollen  to  a  great  extent,  and  tipping  it 
with  the  fingers  gives  a  drum-like  sound.  The  breathing  is  quick- 
ened, because  the  gases  press  upon  the  lungs,  and  the  pressure 
in  this  way  may  be  so  great  as  to  cause  the  death  of  the  animal. 
The  nose  sticks  out,  and  sometimes  the  tongue  hangs  out  of 
the  mouth  and  the  eyes  are  blood-shot.  The  animal  may 
now  stagger  and  fall  and  die,  either  from  the  interference  with 
the  action  of  the  lungs  from  rupture  of  some  of  the  intestines, 
or  from  absorption  into  the  blood  of  some  of  the  poisonous  gases, 
and  this  fatal  termination  may  follow  in  a  few  hours  from  the 
first  symptoms. 


904  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

TREATMENT. — This  trouble  should  be  treated  as  quickly  as 
possible.  Give 

Carbonate  of  Ammonia, 6  drams. 

Or — Aromatic  Spirits  of  Ammonia,             ....     3  ounces. 
Or — Chloride  of  Lime, 4  drams. 

Or  even  as  much  as  an  ounce  of  the  lime  in  very  bad  cases. 
Give  in  cold  water.  But,  perhaps,  better  than  the  above  is 

Turpentine, 3  ounces. 

Linseed  Oil, :        .     1$  pints. 

Give  at  one  dose,  and  if  the  animal  is  costive 

Take — Epsom  Salts, 1£  pounds. 

Water,       ........       1  quart. 

Mix,  and  give  at  one  dose.  But  if  the  case  is  a  very  bad 
one,  it  should  be  punctured.  Puncture  on  the  left  side,  at  an 
equal  distance  from  the  projections  of  the  back-bone,  the  last 
rib,  and  the  haunch-bone.  This  should  be  done  with  a  trochar 
and  canula,  but  in  urgent  cases  a  pocket-knife  may  be  used. 
After  puncturing,  give  a  small  dose  of  turpentine  and  oil. 

Take — Turpentine,      .......     1^  ounces. 

Linseed   Oil,         .         .         .         .         .         .  1  pint. 

Mix,  and  give  at  one  dose.  Give  the  best  of  food,  and  give 
an  ounce  of  gentian  three  times  a  day,  for  a  few  days. 

Grain  Sick. — Impaction  of  the  rumen ;  or  an  overloaded 
stomach. 

CAUSES. — Eating  too  much  food,  especially  green  food,  or  in- 
ferior food  of  any  kind ;  eating  green  wheat  is  a  frequent  cause. 

SYMPTOMS. — The  back  will  be  arched,  the  breathing  hurried, 
the  pulse  quick,  and  the  extremeties  cold.  There  will  be  a  dull- 
ness, some  pain,  and  if  any  dung  be  passed,  it  will  be  covered 
with  slime — (mucus).  The  animal  grunts  or  groans,  and  some- 
times slobbers;  will  stand  still,  unless  forced  to  move.  The 
belly  will  be  greatly  swollen,  and  tapping  it  produces  a  dull 
sound,  instead  of  the  drum-like  sound  of  tympanites  ;  and  by 
pressing  the  fingers  against  the  swollen  part,  the  prints  of  the 
fingers  will  remain  in  the  part  for  some  time;  in  this  it  also 
differs  from  tympanites. 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE.  905 

TREATMENT — When  first  affected, 

Take — Epsom  Salts, 2  pounds. 

Giuger, £  ounce. 

Water, 1  quart. 

Mix,  and  give  at  one  dose,  and  in  about  two  hours  after  this, 

Take — Carbonate  of  Ammonia,          ....  4  drams. 

Gentian,  powdered, 8  drams. 

Ginger,   powdered, 4  drams. 

Cold  Water, 1  quart. 

Mix,  shake,  and  give  at  one  dose,  repeated  every  three  hours 
as  long  as  needed.  If  these  fail,  the  stomach  should  be  cut 
open  and  the  contents  removed  with  the  hand ;  this  should  not 
be  delayed  too  long,  for  many  animals  are  lost  in  this  disease 
by  thus  delaying.  A  description  of  this  operation  will  not  be 
given,  as  a  surgeon  should  be  called. 

Diarrhoea. — CAUSES. — The  same  as  in  horses ;  also  a  cold 
in  cattle  often  causes  a  catarrh  of  the  bowels. 

TREATMENT. — In  almost  all  cases  it  is  best  to  first  give  a 
slight  physic. 

Take — Epsom  Salts,  .......  8  ounces. 

Gentian,  powdered,     ......  2  ouuces. 

Ginger,    .  .....  1  ounce. 

Water,        ........  1  pint. 

Mix,  and  give  at  one  dose;  and  if  the  diarrhoea  continues 
after  this  has  acted, 

Take — Tannin,.         .......         30  grains. 

Gentian,  powdered,  ......       1  ounce. 

Ale  or  Beer,  .......  1  pint. 

Or,  flaxseed  tea  may  be  used  instead  of  beer.  Mix,  and 
give  at  one  dose,  and  repeat  every  three  or  four  hours,  until 
there  are  signs  of  recovery,  and  then  be  careful  that  you  do  not 
give  too  much  medicine.  In  some  mild  cases  the  following  will 
be  found  sufficient: 

Take — Tincture  of  Rhubarb 1  ounce. 

Tincture  of  Cardamom, 1  ounce. 

Bicarbonate  of  Soda,  .         .         .         .         .1  ounce. 

Brandy,  .......          1  ounce. 

Ale  or  Beer, 1  pint 


906  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Mix,  and  give  at  one  dose;  repeat  every  three  hours,  until 
relief  is  afforded.  But,  in  some  cases,  even  stronger  remedies 
are  needed  than  either  already  given ;  then, 

Take — Catechu,  powdered,   ......     6  drams. 

Prepared  Chalk,    ......         6  drams. 

Ginger,  powdered,     .         .         .         .         .         .6  drams. 

Opium,  powdered,         .....       1^  drams. 

These  can  be  made  into  a  paste  with  molasses  and  linseed- 
meal  or  flour,  and  placed  well  back  on  the  tongue,  and  the  ani- 
mal thus  compelled  to  swallow  it.  It  is  always  best  in  diar- 
rhoea to  allow  but  a  small  amount  of  water.  Do  not  keep  it 
away  from  the  animal  so  it  will  suffer  with  thirst,  but  allow 
only  enough  to  prevent  suffering. 

Scours  (White). — This  is  common  among  calves. 

CAUSES. — It  is  usually  caused  by  a  change  of  milk,  from 
that  of  the  mother  to  that  of  a  cow  less  fresh.  Giving 
skimmed  milk,  or  even  the  milk  of  the  mother,  may  cause  it, 
if  it  is  deficient  in  quality. 

SYMPTOMS. — The  dung  which  the  animal  passes  is  softer  than 
natural;  is  of  a  yellowish-white  color,  and  some  hard  portions 
may  be  mixed  with  it.  The  little  sufferer  grinds  its  teeth,  lies 
down,  and  looks  at  the  sides. 

TREATMENT. — If  possible,  ascertain  what  caused  it,  and  re- 
move the  cause ;  and,  if  the  calf  is  not  greatly  weakened, 

Take — Flaxseed  Oil,         ......         1^  ounces. 

Lime  Water, H  ounces. 

Give  at  one  dose;  or,  if  the  calf  is  greatly  weakened,  give 
bicarbonate  of  soda,  thirty  grains ;  and  if  there  is  much  pain, 
add  to  the  soda  thirty  drops  of  laudanum.  Give  in  water  every 
one  or  two  hours,  until  relief  is  obtained.  Sometimes  wheat- 
flour  gruel  will  relieve  it  without  medicine.  If  these  do  not  af- 
ford relief,  it  may  be  necessary  to  give  stronger  remedies;  yet 
great  care  should  be  exercised  in  giving  strong  medicines  for 
diarrhoea. 

Take — Catechu,  powdered, 30  grains. 

Prepared  Chalk, 2  drams. 

Milk,   ........  4  ounces. 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE.  907 

Mix,  and  give  at  one  dose,  and  repeat  every  three  hours, 
until  relief  is  given.  If  the  mother's  milk  is  deficient  in  any 
way,  change  the  mother's  food  accordingly,  and  so  change  the 
quality  of  the  milk. 

Enteritis — Inflammation  of  the  Bowels. — CAUSES. — 
Exposure,  poor  food,  too  much  food,  etc. 

SYMPTOMS. — Pressure  on  the  bowels — especially  in  the  right 
flank — causes  pain;  small  quantities  of  dry,  hard  dung  are  fre- 
quently dropped ;  the  temperature  of  the  body  is  elevated,  and 
sometimes  the  bowels  are  bloated.  The  animal  desires  to  stand 
still,  grunts,  and  grinds  the  teeth  occasionally,  and  looks  at  the 
flanks.  The  nose  is  carried  forward,  the  appetite  gone,  and  the 
thirst  is  great.  The  pulse  is  quick,  the  breathing  hurried,  and 
if  in  the  last  stages  of  the  disease,  the  mouth  is  cold,  the  eyes 
sunken,  and  the  pulse  almost  gone. 

TREATMENT. — Apply  to  the  belly  blankets  wrung  from  hot 
water  if  the  weather  is  suitable,  but  if  the  weather  is  too  cold 
for  this, 

Take — Aqua  Ammonia, 2  ounces. 

Turpentine, 2  ounces. 

Flaxseed  Oil,     .......    2  ounces. 

Mix,  and  rub  well  over  the  belly  and  flanks,  and  cover  with 
blankets ;  or, 

Take — Mustard,    ........    3  ounces. 

Warm  Water,         ......         1  quart. 

Mix,  and  apply  as  the  above.  Do  not  give  a  physic,  although 
the  bowels  may  be  costive,  but. give  injections  of 

Tincture  of  Opium, 2  ounces. 

Warm  Water,    ........         1  quart. 

Mix,  and  inject,  and  repeat  in  two  or  three  hours.  And  if 
there  is  much  fever, 

Take — Fluid  Extract  of  Belladonna,      .         .  .2  drams. 

Water,  ........  2  ounces. 

Or — Tincture  of  Opium,   .         .         .         .         .  .3  ounces. 

Water 3  ounces. 

Mix,  and  give  either,  at  a  single  dose,  every  three  hours 
until  relieved.  If  there  is  excessive  thirst,  add  to  either  of  the 


908  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

above  one  ounce  of  nitrate  of  potash.     When  the  animal  begins 
to  improve, 

Take — Tincture  of  Gentian,  .         .         .         .         .         .2  ounces. 

Ale  or  Beer,  .......         1  pint. 

Mix,  and  give  three  times  a  day  for  a  few  days. 

Parturition. — This  head  includes  foaling,  calving,  etc.,  as 
the  remarks  regarding  the  one  are  applicable  to  the  other.  The 
time  the  young  is  carried  by  the  mother  varies  some  from  the 
general  rule ;  sometimes  as  much  as  a  month.  When  an  animal 
becomes  pregnant  she  becomes  more  docile  in  her  disposition, 
thrives  better,  and,  as  a  rule,  ceases  to  desire  the  company  of 
the  male.  But  when  it  is  very  desirable  to  know  surely  whether 
an  animal  is  with  young  or  not,  after  a  reasonable  length  of  time 
has  elapsed,  put  the  hand  into  the  anus,  and  the  young  can  be 
felt.  A  mare  that  is  with  colt  should  not  be  put  to  very  heavy 
work,  especially  to  a  cart  or  wagon ;  and  in  no  case  should  she 
be  forced  to  back  violently. 

SIGNS  OF  APPROACHING  PARTURITION. — Milk  is  secreted ;  and  in 
the  mare  there  appears  on  the  end  of  the  teat  a  kind  of  whitish 
wax,  after  which  the  colt  is  seldom  carried  more  than  two  or 
three  days ;  often  less  than  twenty-four  hours,  if  all  things  are 
right  regarding  it.  When  the  young  is  born  it  is  best  to  tie  the 
cord  tightly  about  an  inch  from  the  belly,  and  cut  it  off  about 
an  inch  below  the  string. 

POSITIONS  OF  THE  YOUNG  IN  THEIR  PASSAGE  FROM  THE  MOTHER. — 
The  natural  presentation  is  when  the  head  is  presented  first,  the 
lower  jaw  resting  on  the  front-  part  of  the  forelegs ;  and  lest 
all  is  not  right,  examine  all  cases  with  the  hand  (as  soon  as  the 
water  bag  can  be  seen)  as  far  in  as  you  can  reach,  having  first 
oiled  the  arm  well ;  or  use  the  following : 

Take — Carbolic  Acid,  pure,    .         .         .         .         .         .    \  dram. 

Vaseline, 16  drams. 

Mix  thoroughly,  and  anoint  the  arm  with  it.  This  precau- 
tion will  perhaps  prevent  your  having  a  very  sore  arm  from  be- 
ing in  contact  with  the  fluids.  Some  men  are  reported  to  have 
died  from  having  been  thus  poisoned. 

Sometimes  the  belly  of  the  young  is  greatly  enlarged  with 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE.  909 

dropsy,  so  that  it  is  impossible  for  it  to  pass  through  the  outlet, 
and  the  only  thing  that  can  be  done  is  to  let  the  water  out.    A 
long  trochar  and  canula  is  the  best  instrument,  but  a  pocket- 
knife  may  be  used.     Sometimes  the  head  is  enlarged  by  dropsy 
in  the  same  way,  and  the  same  treatment  is  necessary.     If  in 
any  case  the  pains  begin  before  the  time  for  the  young  to  be  de- 
livered, give, 

Laudanum,    ........    2  ounces, 

Or — Powdered  Opium,      ......         2  drams, 

in  tepid  water,  and  repeat  the  dose  every  half  hour,  if  neces- 
sary, until  relieved.  But  if,  after  three  or  four  doses  have  been 
given,  the  pains  do  not  get  better,  smear  the  hand  with  fluid 
extract  of  belladonna,  pass  the  hand  in,  and  endeavor  to  get  the 
fingers  into  the  neck  of  the  womb ;  not  violently,  but  gently  and 
gradually.  And  injecting  the  parts  with  pretty  warm  water  will 
greatly  assist  you  in  this. 

In  some  cases  the  neck  of  the  womb  has  lost  its  elasticity, 
and  will  not  stretch  any  more  than  the  mouth  of  a  tied  meal- 
sack.  In  such  a  case  the  only  remedy  is  to  cut  it  at  the  upper 
part;  but  never  be  in  any  hurry  about  using  the  knife  in  such 
cases.  This  occurs  at  full  time,  as  well  as  in  the  case  stated 
above.  Cutting  is  seldom  successful  in  the  mare,  but  is  some- 
times successful  in  the  cow. 

In  some  cases  at  full  term  the  hind  feet  of  the  young  are 
presented  first.  If  its  back  lies  to  the  back  of  the  mother,  and 
both  feet  are  coming,  it  is  not  so  very  difficult;  but  if  its  belly 
lies  to  its  mother's  back,  it  will  be  very  difficult,  and  no  time 
should  be  lost  in  endeavoring  to  push  it  back  and  turn  it  with 
its  back  to  the  mother's  back.  To  do  this,  put  your  hand  in 
along  the  feet  until  you  can  reach  the  body,  if  possible,  and, 
while  some  one  pulls  at  the  feet,  try  to  turn  it.  But  if  you 
find  it  impossible  to  turn  it,  attach  ropes  to  the  hind  legs,  and 
pull  on  them  only  when  the  mother's  pains  are  present,  and  pull 
up  toward  the  mother's  back,  in  order  to  raise  the  hips  of  the 
young  over  the  bones  of  the  mother.  You  may  also  assist  in 
thus  raising  the  hips  by  placing  the  hand  inside,  and  when  the 
ropes  are  being  pulled  endeavor  to  raise  the  hips. 


910  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Another,  and  more  difficult  presentation,  is  that  in  which  the 
hips  or  hock  joints  can  be  felt,  and  the  feet  are  doubled  back 
under  the  young.  If  the  hocks  can  be  felt  try  to  pass  a  rope 
under  them,  and,  by  pulling  on  the  ropes  and  pushing  against 
the  body  of  the  young,  you  may  be  able  to  straighten  the  legs ; 
and  then  deliver  as  in  the  case  already  given  in  which  the  hind 
feet  came  first.  The  thing  usually  used  for  pushing  a  colt  back 
is  an  iron  made  in  the  form  of  a  fork,  the  ends  of  which  are 
made  large  and  rounded  to  prevent  injuring  the  animals.  But 
another  convenient  way,  when  the  animal  is  lying  down,  is  to 
remove  your  boot,  roll  up  the  pants,  and  insert  the  foot  against 
the  colt,  and  then  pull,  or  have  some  one  pull,  on  the  ropes.  If 
you  fail  in  straightening  the  legs — as  you  likely  will — then  cut 
the  legs  off  at  the  hocks,  the  best  instrument  for  which  is  a 
chain  saw;  but  as  this  will  not  likely  be  attainable  on  account 
of  its  being  very  expensive,  a  small  saw,  such  as  is  used  by 
carpenters  for  sawing  in  a  circle,  can  be  used  by  breaking  the 
'end  off,  and  nicely  rounding  the  broken  end  to  prevent  injury. 
When  the  legs  are  cut  off  get  a  hook  in  the  thighs  and  get  them 
straightened  back  into  the  passage,  and  then  take  it  away.  Care 
must  be  exercised  in  using  hooks,  or  they  will  loose  their  hold 
and  greatly  injure  or  ruin  the  mother.  If  you  fail  in  this,  cut 
through  the  bones  between  the  hind  legs  and  endeavor  to  re- 
move an  entire  hind  leg,  and  then  you  may  be  able  to  take  the 
young  away. 

Still  another  malpresentation  is  when  the  fore  feet  are  in  the 
passage,  and  the  head  doubled  back  over  the  shoulder.  Pull- 
ing in  such  a  case  will  do  much  harm,  as  it  is  impossible  to  de- 
liver the  young  until  its  position  is  changed.  Apply  some  cords 
or  small  ropes  to  the  fetlocks,  and  then  push  the  colt  back  into 
the  cavity,  and  endeavor  to  straighten  the  head.  If  you  can  ac- 
complish this,  it  is  an  easy  matter  in  most  cases  to  take  the 
young  away. 

Sometimes  one  fore  leg  is  presented,  and  the  other  back  with 
the  head ;  or  the  head  may  be  thrown  down  between  the  fore  legs ; 
or  the  head  protruding,  and  both  legs  thrown  back  along  the 
belly.  The  treatment  is  the  same  as  in  other  cases.  If  it  can 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE.  911 

not  be  straightened  into  position,  cutting  off  some  of  the  mem- 
bers is  the  last  and  only  resort.  But  never  cut  a  fore  leg  off 
at  the  knee.  In  all  cases  in  which  the  last  named  treatment  is 
necessary,  give  the  mother  powdered  opium  two  drams,  repeated 
as  often  as  needed  to  relieve  the  pain;  or  to  allow  the  animal  to 
breathe  chloroform,  just  sufficiently  to  deaden  the  feeling,  gives 
great  relief. 

Another  difficulty  met  with  in  such  cases  is  when  the  back 
is  presented,  and  if  upon  examination  you  find  either  the  fore 
or  hind  parts  nearer  the  outlet  than  the  other,  try  to  turn  it, 
getting  the  legs  already  nearer  the  opening  into  the  passage  by 
pulling  on  them,  and  pushing  back  the  other  parts  of  the  body. 
But  failing  in  this,  cut  through  the  back,  take  out  the  intestines, 
and  then  remove  the  young  in  pieces. 

Another  malpresentation  is  when  one  or  both  fore  and  one 
or  both  hind  legs  are  in  the  passage  at  the  same  time.  First 
decide  which  way  you  can  turn  it  most  readily,  and  by  pushing 
it  back  into  the  cavity  straighten  it,  or  in  some  way  change  its 
position.  You  might  be  led  to  think  such  a  presentation  was 
at  hand,  when,  by  examining,  you  would  find  twins  instead; 
hence,  the  first  thing  to  do,  in  all  cases,  is  to  examine  thor- 
oughly, as  far  as  you  can  possibly  reach ;  second,  render  such 
assistance  as  is  necessary,  and,  third,  persevere  in  your  efforts. 

Such  cases  as  cited  above  are,  perhaps,  the  most  perplexing 
and  discouraging  of  all;  and  nothing  can  be  accomplished  by 
becoming  excited,  and  trying  to  be  in  a  great  hurry,  and  as  sud- 
denly becoming  discouraged,  and  then  abandoning  the  case.  If 
the  fluids  which  naturally  surrounds  the  young  have  escaped, 
benefit  can  be  obtained  by  injecting  warm  water  or  oil. 

After  all  cases  where  force  has  been  used,  the  mother  should 
be  kept  warm,  and  kept  from  lying  on  the  cold,  wet  ground. 
The  parts  that  have  been  irritated  should  be  bathed. 

Take — Warm  Water, 2  quarts. 

Carbolic  Acid  (pure)  .         .         .         .         .1  ounce. 

Mix,  and  use  as  a  bath,  two  or  three  times  daily,  and  give 
her  one  dram  of  powdered  opium  every  hour  or  two,  as  may  be 
necessary  to  relieve  the  pain.  Or,  if  she  is  depressed,  give  one 


912  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

ounce  of  sweet  spirits  of  niter,  or  four  ounces  of  whisky,  two  or 
three  times  a  day,  as  may  be  necessary,  for  a  day  or  two,  after 
which  there  is  generally  no  danger. 

Another  trouble  which  sometimes  occurs  is  the  retaining  of 
the  membranes  (cleaning,  as  it  is  often  called).  In  such  cases, 
force  should  not  be  too  hastily  employed,  especially  in  a  mare. 
If  it  should  be  in  a  cow,  restrict  the  diet,  and 

Take — Epsom  Salts, 4  ounces. 

Gentian,  powdered,    ......  4  drams. 

Ginger,  powdered,          .....  2  drams. 

Water,      ........  1  pint. 

Mix,  and  give  at  one  dose,  and  repeat  the  dose  in  three  hours, 
and  if  it  still  does  not  come  away,  anoint  the  hands  and  arms 

with 

Carbolic  Acid,          ......       1  dram, 

Vaseline,      .......         16  drams, 

and  get  hold  of  the  membranes  with  one  hand  and,  with  the 
other  introduced  into  the  womb,  break  away  the  attachments  be- 
tween them  and  the  womb — which  are  many  in  the  cow ;  one 
in  the  mare — and  when  it  is  removed,  syringe  the  parts  with 
water  and  carbolic  acid,  as  already  given. 

Abortion. — Abortion  among  cows  is  one  of  the  most  dis- 
astrous things  that  can  occur  in  a  cattle  community.  It  often 
occurs  without  any  known  cause,  and  from  a  few  cases  it 
spreads  and  goes  through  an  entire  community.  Sometimes  it 
appears  to  be  an  epizootic  condition,  or  it  sticks  to  a  certain 
section  of  country,  and  just  beyond  a  certain  limit  cattle  are 
free  from  it. 

CAUSES. — As  has  been  said,  it  sometimes  occurs  without  any 
cause  being  known,  while  in  other  cases  a  cause  has  been  attrib- 
uted. Certain  kinds  of  grasses  have  been  supposed  to  cause  it; 
also  bacteria,  or  parasites.  Malaria  may  cause  it  in  a  cow  (it 
does  cause  it  in  the  human).  It  may  be  caused  by  smelling  a 
dead  animal,  or  eating  over  the  graves  of  dead  animals ;  by  eat- 
ing grasses,  or  other  food,  containing  ergot;  by  eating  frozen 
vegetables  or  drinking  a  draught  of  cold  water;  by  kicking  or 
pounding  an  animal,  as  is  so  often  done ;  by  eating  any  over- 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE.  913 

stimulating  food,  poisonous  herbs,  or  blasted  grains  of  any  de- 
scription; by  being  over-exerted  or  frightened;  by  doing  with- 
out food  for  a  long  time;  by  falling  on  the  ice;  or  by  smelling 
the  product  of  an  abortion.  These  products  should  always  be 
burned,  or  buried  where  other  pregnant  cows  can  not  possibly 
get  to  them.  A  cow  that  has  once  aborted,  although  seemingly 
all  right,  should  not  be  allowed  to  remain  with  the  herd  when 
she  again  becomes  pregnant. 

As  there  is  no  treatment,  the  only  thing  that  can  be  done 
is  to  prevent  it.  In  order  to  do  this,  avoid  all  those  things 
which  tend  to  cause  it ;  and,  if  there  are  any  symptoms  of  abor- 
tion in  any  other  animals,  it  would  be  best,  if  possible,  to  place 
each  one  that  is  pregnant  in  an  apartment  separate  from  all  the 
others  that  are '  pregnant,  and  thus  keep  the  endangered  ones 
from  coming  in  contact  with  each  other. 

Inversion  of  the  Uterus. — This  is  commonly  known  as 
"  coming  down  of  the  colt-  or  calf-bed."  It  is  frequently  seen 
in  the  cow ;  sometimes  in  the  mare,  but  in  the  mare  it  is  seldom 
treated  successfully. 

SYMPTOMS. — A  large,  reddened,  swollen  mass  is  seen  protrud- 
ing from  the  vagina,  to  which  the  membranes  (cleaning)  may 
be  attached.  Inversion  may  either  be  partial  or  complete.  If 
complete,  in  a  cow,  she  soon  lies  down,  and  in  this  way  it  be- 
comes very  dirty. 

TREATMENT. — Place  a  sheet  or  quilt  under  it,  and,  if  the 
membranes  are  attached,  carefully  remove  them ;  thoroughly 
cleanse  every  part  of  it  in  warm  water;  and  then  bathe  with 

Laudanum,          .......     2  ounces. 

Fluid  Extract  of  Belladonna,  ....         2  drams. 

Warm  Water,     .......     8  ounces. 

And,  if  the  uterus  is  torn,  stitch  it  up,  and  then,  by  gentle  but 
continued  pressure,  replace  it;  and,  if  necessary,  have  two 
men  assist  you  by  holding  it  up  with  the  sheet  or  quilt.  Some- 
times it  is  best  to  apply  pressure  to  that  part  close  to  the  ani- 
mal's body,  and  sometimes  best  to  press  upon  the  part  which  is 
farthest  away  from  the  body,  passing  it  in  through  the  center 
of  the  opening.  If  you  fail  in  one,  try  the  other. 

5S 


914  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

When  you  have  succeeded  in  getting  it  inside,  pass  the  arm 
well  in  and  see  that  no  folds  are  left  in  it.  If  you  fail  to  re- 
duce it  in  this  way,  place  soft  ropes  around  the  hind  legs,  turn 
her  on  her  back,  and,  by  means  of  pulleys  or  other  contrivance, 
raise  the  hind  quarters  up.  This  throws  the  intestines  forward, 
and  relieves  you  of  their  pressure.  After  it  is  replaced  and 
properly  adjusted,  give  three  drams  of  powdered  opium,  to  pre- 
vent her  from  straining  and  again  forcing  it  out.  If  straining 
continues,  despite  the  opium,  take  a  large  pin,  raise  the  skin  on 
the  small  of  the  back,  fold  it,  pass  the  pin  through  the  fold, 
and  secure  it  in  its  place  with  a  string,  and  leave  it  there  until 
the  straining  ceases. 

If  the  uterus  has  become  gangrenous  (mortified),  the  only 
resort  is  to  give  the  animal  chloroform,  and  then  tie  a  cord 
around  the  uterus  as  close  to  its  neck  as  possible;  tie  it  very 
tightly,  and  then  cut  the  outside  portion  away,  and  when  the 
bleeding  has  stopped  return  the  part  left  to  its  place.  This 
might  save  a  cow,  but  it  is  not  likely  it  would  save  a  mare. 
If  the  animal  is  weak,  give  stimulants. 

Take — Sweet  Spirits  of  Niter,        ....  2  ounces. 

Ale  or  Beer,  ......       1  pint. 

Or  three  or  four  ounces  of  whisky  may  be  given,  repeated 
every  two  or  three  hours,  if  necessary. 

Parturient  Apoplexy. — This  is  also  called  dropping  after 
calving,  and  milk-fever.  It  is  one  of  the  most  fatal  diseases 
that  afflicts  cattle.  It  affects  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  and 
sometimes  the  sympathetic  nervous  system.  And  the  most 
noted  characteristic  of  this  disease  is  the  rapidity  of  its  devel- 
opment. An  animal  may  appear  to  be  in  perfect  health,  be 
seized  with  this  disease,  and  be  dead  in  a  few  hours.  It  appears 
from  the  first  to  the  third  day  after  calving,  does  not  follow  an 
abortion,  and  does  not  occur  in  young  animals,  but  generally 
attacks  animals  in  their  prime,  and  seldom  attacks  one  in  poor 
condition.  It  often  follows  cases  in  which  the  cow  has  not  been 
able  to  calve  without  help,  or  when  there  has  been  great  bleed- 
ing from  the  womb. 

SYMPTOMS. — The    milk    fails   in   quantity,   and   but  a  small 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE.  915 

amount  of  urine  is  passed ;  there  is  high  fever ;  there  may  be 
but  slight  pain  as  yet,  but  soon  more  severe  symptoms  appear, 
the  legs  are  moved  in  walking  in  a  kind  of  paddling  manner; 
she  lies  down,  gets  up,  and  lies  down,  until  she  is  no  longer 
able  to  rise;  then  she  beats  the  head  violently  on  the  ground, 
and  over  the  shoulder,  or  she  may  become  very  stupid,  the  sight 
of  the  eye  enlarged,  the  breathing  noisy,  the  pulse  fifty  or  sixty 
beats  per  minute  and  almost  imperceptible,  and  the  animal 
shows  but  little  sense  of  feeling.  Death  soon  relieves  such 
severe  cases.  But  when  the  disease  does  not  run  so  violent  a 
course  the  same  symptoms  occur,  but  not  in  such  rapid  sue. 
cession,  and  when  they  occur  as  last  stated  the  case  may  be 
treated. 

TREATMENT. — Before  the  cow  gets  down,  if  the  pulse  is 
strong,  take  from  four  to  six  quarts  of  blood  from  the  jugular 
vein ;  but  if  the  animal  is  in  any  way  weakened  (as  from  too 
much  bleeding,  etc.,)  or  stupid,  do  not  bleed  at  all,  but  give 
physic  in  all  cases. 

Take — Epsom  Salts,    .......     1^  pounds. 

Water,       .......  3  pints. 

Dissolve  the  salts  in  the  water  and  give  at  one  dose;  but 
when  blood  has  been  taken  do  not  give  so  much  physic.  Give 
injections  of  warm  soap-suds  freely.  Bed  her  well  and  turn  her 
frequently. 

If  she  becomes  very  stupid,  pour  cold  water  on  her  head; 
and  while  in  this  stupid  state,  great  care  should  be  exercised 
in  giving  medicines,  for  the  medicine  is  liable  to  pass  into  the 
wind-pipe  and  cause  strangling.  Before  the  stupor  comes  on 
give  bromide  of  potassium  in  one  and  one-half  ounce  doses  every 
three  hours  in  cold  water.  If  in  twelve  or  twenty-four  hours 
there  appear  to  be  signs  of  recovery,  allow  but  little  food  for  a 
day  or  two.  If  there  are  symptoms  of  paralysis,  give  powdered 
nux  vomica,  one  dram  three  times  a  day  in  the  feed,  or  any  way 
more  convenient.  This  disease  is  more  easily  prevented  than 
cured,  and  a  cow  which  has  been  once  attacked  is  more  liable  to 
another  attack. 

If  in  any  case  an  animal  is  suspected  as  liable  to  this  dis- 


916  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

ease,  she  should  be  fed  sparingly  and  given  one  pound  of  epsom 
salts  in  a  quart  of  water  before  calving.  And  after  calving,  as 
well  as  before,  the  diet  should  be  restricted;  she  should  not 
even  be  allowed  to  run  upon  luxuriant  pasture  for  a  few 
days. 

Parturient  Paralysis. — This  attacks  cows  about  the  third 
day  after  calving.  It  is  not  so  serious  as  parturient  apoplexy. 

SYMPTOMS. — Loss  of  power  is  the  principal  symptom.  There 
will  also  be  a  kind  of  paddling  action  when  she  walks;  and  if 
she  falls  or  lies  down  she  can  not  get  up;  the  amount  of  milk 
will  be  decreased,  and  if  you  stick  her  hind  legs  with  a  pin  you 
can  see  that  she  can  feel  but  can  not  move. 

TREATMENT. — Give  but  little  food  for  a  day  or  two,  and  give 
one  pound  of  epsom  salts  in  water,  and  stimulate  the  loins  with 
the  ammoniacal  liniment  (see  Index),  or 

Take — Mustard,  powdered,     .  .         .         .         .2  ounces. 

Hot  Water,     .......         1  quart. 

Mix  and  rub  over  the  loins.  Another,  an  old  and  perhaps 
a  good  way  to  stimulate  the  loins  is  to  place  a  wet  blanket 
over  the  loins,  and  rub  a  hot  smoothing-iron  over  the  parts,  not 
hot  enough  to  scald,  but  to  make  the  parts  quite  warm.  If  it 
does  not  get  better  for  several  days  use  an  electric  battery ;  and 
if  she  knuckles  at  the  fetlock  joints  for  some  time,  give  two 
drams  of  nux  vomica,  twice  a  day,  in  the  feed.  Give  it  for  sev- 
eral days,  or  until  she  is  relieved. 

Parturient  Fever — Milk  Fever. — Almost  any  case  of 
parturition  produces  some  fever,  but  does  not  in  all  cases  pro- 
duce trouble. 

SYMPTOMS. — A  slight  increase  of  temperature  and  a  quickened 
pulse.  The  bag  is  tender  and  slightly  swollen;  the  swelling  in 
some  cases  extends  along  the  belly,  sometimes  even  up  to  the 
fore  legs.  The  mouth  will  be  hot,  and  the  breathing  slightly 
quickened,  but  as  soon  as  the  milk  is  properly  secreted  no  fur- 
ther trouble  need  be  apprehended.  And  although  this  is  a  sim- 
ple trouble,  medicines  are  sometimes  needed.  These  symptoms 
are  sometimes  the  first  symptoms  of  parturient  apoplexy. 

TREATMENT. — Regulate  the  diet;  give  but  little  food  for  a  day 


DISEASES  OF  CA  TTLE.  917 

or  two,  and  what  is  given  should  be  of  thd  best  quality,  and 
such  as  can  be  easily  digested.  And, 

Take — Epsom  Salts, 8  ounces. 

Saltpeter, 1  ounce. 

Water,       .  .1  quart. 

Mix.  Give  at  one  dose,  and  continue  giving  saltpeter,  in 
half-ounce  doses,  three  times  a  day  for  one  or  two  days.  If  the 
bag  is  swollen  and  hard,  bathe  it  with  hot  water  for  an  hour 
three  times  a  day,  at  the  same  time  rubbing  it  well  with  the 
hands,  and  anoint  it  frequently  with 

Oxide  of  Zinc,        ........     1  ounce, 

Lard,          .  5  ounces, 

Mixed  thoroughly.  If  the  bag  remains  swollen  and  hard  for 
several  days,  give  four  drams  of  iodide  of  potassium  three  times 
a  day,  and  anoint  the  bag  once  a  day  with  the  following : 

Take — Iodide  of  Potash, 3  drams. 

Iodine  Crystals,       ......         6  drams. 

Water, 1  pint. 

Mix,  and  shake  occasionally  until  dissolved,  and  it  is  ready 
for  use. 

Mammitis — Also,  Inflammation  of  the  Bag,  Caked 
Bag,  Garget,  etc. — This  usually  occurs  in  a  milch  cow,  but  it 
may  occur  in  a  heifer. 

CAUSES. — Irregular  milking;  changes  of  the  weather;  expo- 
sure to  wet  and  cold;  and  injuries  to  the  bag.  It  may  involve 
one  or  more  teats  or  the  entire  bag. 

SYMPTOMS. — The  bag  will  be  hard,  hot,  and  painful,  and  there 
will  be  some  general  fever.  Both  the  breathing  and  pulse  will 
be  quickened,  the  appetite  poor  or  entirely  gone;  the  cud  is 
no  longer  chewed,  and  the  milk  fails  in  quantity  or  dries  up 
entirely.  The  fever  will,  in  most  cases,  produce  costiveness, 
yet  there  may  be  diarrhoea  in  rare  cases.  If  the  inflammation  is 
deep-seated,  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  bag  to  remain  hard,  and 
in  this  way  destroy  the  secretion  of  milk. 

TREATMENT. — Prevention  is  better  than  treatment.  To  pre- 
vent it,  milk  the  cow  or  heifer  for  a  few  days  before  calving,  if 
the  bag  is  full  of  milk,  and  never  at  any  time  allow  the  bag  to 


918  THE  PEOPLE'S  NARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

become  distended  with  milk.  If  the  above  precautions  are  ob- 
served garget  will  seldom  be  seen;  but  when  it  does  occur 
treatment  becomes  necessary.  Bathe  the  bag  with  water  just 
as  hot  as  the  animal  will  allow  without  burning  her.  Bathing 
should  be  kept  up  for  at  least  an  hour  three  times  a  day.  If 
this  can  not  be  done,  take  a  piece  of  muslin  about  four  yards 
long,  and  tear  both  ends  lengthwise  in  the  center,  leaving  enough 
untorn  in  the  middle  of  the  piece  to  cover  the  entire  bag ;  then 
tie  the  two  sides  of  one  torn  end  around  the  body,  just  in  front 
of  the  bag ;  draw  the  other  end  back  between  the  hind  legs,  and 
tie  the  two  parts  to  the  part  already  around  her  body;  and  if 
the  teats  are  much  swollen  and  stiffened,  cut  holes  for  them  to 
stick  through,  then  fill  the  sack  thus  formed  below  the  bag  with 
any  good  poultice.  Hops  boiled  up  with  a  little  bran  or  lin- 
seed meal  make  an  excellent  poultice.  From  their  lightness  and 
their  capacity  for  retaining  moisture,  they  are  perhaps  as  good 
as  any  thing.  If  the  weather  is  too  cold  to  allow  of  either  bath- 
ing or  poulticing,  this  pouch  should  be  stuffed  with  wool  or  tow, 
being  first  heated  by  a  fire,  which  keeps  the  bag  warm  and  is  a 
great  relief.  Milk  her  often,  or,  better  still,  draw  the  milk  with 
a  milk-tube;  this  is  a  small  tube  with  the  end  rounded  and 
smoothed,  holes  being  made  in  the  sides  to  admit  the  milk.  And 
frequently  anoint  the  bag  with 

Fluid  Extract  of  Belladonna,          .         .         .         .         .1  ounce. 
Lard,          .........         8  ounces. 

And  give, 

Sulphate  of  Magnesia,         .         .         .         .         .         .16  ounces. 

Aloes,  powdered,     .......  4  drams. 

Mix  in  warm  water,  and  give  at  one  dose.  If  in  six  or  eight 
days  the  bag  becomes  hardened,  rub  it  over  with  tincture  of 
iodine,  and  give  iodide  of  potash,  four  drams,  twice  a  day.  If 
pus  forms  near  the  skin  open  and  let  it  out.  If  mortification  of 
the  part  occurs,  the  mortified  part  will  either  have  to  be  cut  off 
or  allowed  to  fall  off.  It  often  falls  out,  after  which  the  animal 
usually  does  well. 

Texas  Fever. — Also  called  Mexican  fever,  Spanish  fever, 
Splenic  fever,  etc. — This  disease  is  a  variety  of  anthrax,  being 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE.  919 

essentially  the  same  in  its  nature,  differing  only  in  some  of 
its  symptoms  and  in  the  manner  of  its  attack.  It  is  of  the 
nature  of  anthrax,  yet  it  can  be,  and  is,  influenced  by  malarial 
poisons,  and  is  something  akin  to  the  yellow  fever  of  man, 
and  yet  it  is  not  the  same.  It  also  very  slightly  resembles 
rinderpest. 

It  is  spread  by  contagious  influences.  Texas  cattle  carry 
and  spread  the  poison  in  the  road  and  pastures  wherever  they 
go.  The  period  which  elapses  from  the  time  of  exposure  to  the 
disease  and  the  time  of  taking  it  varies  from  two  to  five  weeks. 
Those  that  are  slow  in  taking  it,  have  it  less  violently,  and 
vice  versa.  A  diseased  animal  may  carry  the  contagion  without 
itself  being  much  affected.  An  affected  Northern  animal  can 
not  convey  the  poison  or  contagion  to  another  native  animal. 
Infected  animals,  when  taken  North,  lose  the  disease  after  a  few 
frosts  in  the  fall ;  cold  stops  it. 

An  examination  after  death  shows  the  spleen  to  be  enlarged 
and  disorganized ;  the  mucous  lining  of  the  intestines  softened 
and  greenish  in  color,  which  indicates  mortification.  The  intes- 
tines will  be  ulcerated,  as  in  typhoid  fever  in  man. 

SYMPTOMS. — The  first  symptoms  noticeable  will  be  a  rise  in 
the  heat  of  the  body ;  the  temperature  will  be  103°  or  107°  F. 
Then  the  animal  becomes  dull,  its  back  will  be  arched,  its  ears 
hot,  and  its  appetite  lost.  The  cud  is  no  longer  chewed ;  the 
eyes  become  glassy;  the  muscles  jerk,  and  the  urine  will  be 
dark  colored — black  or  bloody — to  which  if  nitric  acid  be  added 
it  will  become  cloudy.  The  dung  will  be  dry  and  bloody.  The 
animal  dies  in  stupor  or  convulsions.  Northern  cattle  taken 
South  are  very  liable  to  have  this  disease,  and  very  seldom  sur- 
vive an  attack. 

TREATMENT. — Keep  all  diseased  animals  away  from  healthy 
ones ;  keep  them  warm  and  dry,  for  an  animal  so  affected  can 
not  withstand  even  a  severe  frost,  and  should  be  warmly  sta- 
bled and  bedded. 

Take — Chlorate   of  Potash, £  ounce. 

Tincture  of  the  Chloride  of  Iron,          .         .         .1  ounce. 
Water, 1  quart. 


920  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Mix,  and  give  at  one  dose  three  times  a  day.  If  the  animal 
begins  to  show  weakness,  give  tincture  of  cinchona,  four  ounces, 
every  one  or  two  hours. 

Or  take — Whisky,     .......         4  ounces. 

Quinine, 35  grains. 

Mix,  and  give  as  one  dose  every  two  or  three  hours;  give 
the  greatest  care  to  the  comfort  of  the  patient. 

If  an  animal  dies  with  this  disease,  it  should  be  buried 
deep — or  better,  burned — and  if  the  animal  is  to  be  skinned  or 
otherwise  handled  after  death,  the  greatest  caution  should  be 
used  to  prevent  any  cuts  or  scratches  on  the  hands,  and  if  any 
such  injuries  exist,  the  animal  should  not  be  handled,  especially 
if  it  is  already  partly  rotten — and  there  seems  to  be  a  partial 
decomposing  action  going  on  at,  or  even  in  some  cases  before, 
death.  If  the  poisons  thus  being  formed,  or  those  already  ex- 
isting, are  absorbed  in  any  way,  they  may  cause  the  loss  of  a 
hand  or  arm,  or  even  life.  I  would  advise  against  saving  the 
skin  when  the  cause  of  death  is  unknown. 

Mange. — The  causes  and  symptoms  are  the  same  as  in 
the  horse. 

TREATMENT. — This  is  also  the  same,  yet  dirty  remedies  may 
be  used  on  cattle  which  could  not  be  used  on  horses.  A  good 
remedy  for  cattle  is, 

Take — Sulphuret  of  Potassium, 1  ounce. 

Water,         .......  10  ounces. 

Or  take — Turpentine, 2  ounces. 

Oil  of  Tar, 2  ounces. 

Train  Oil, 2  ounces. 

Mix,  and  apply  once  or  twice  a  day  as  directed  for  mange 
in  horses,  which  see. 

"Wounds. — The  different  varieties  of  wounds  commonly 
seen  are :  Incised,  lacerated,  punctured,  and  contused.  An 
incised  wound  is  a  clean  cut;  a  punctured,  is  done  with  a 
small  instrument,  and  the  injury  is  deep ;  a  lacerated,  is  torn, 
and  in  a  contused  wound  the  flesh  is  injured,  and  the  skin  not 
broken. 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE.  921 

TREATMENT. — If  the  wound  is  severe,  and  the  animal  is 
healthy  and  in  good  flesh,  and  it  is  a  horse, 

Take — Aloes,  .  .  6  drams. 

CJinger,       ....  .         .     1  dram. 

Opium,  powdered  ...  \  dram. 

Mix  in  hot  water,  and  give  at  one  dose  when  cool.  But  if 
it  is  a  cow, 

Take — Epsom    Salts, 8  ounces. 

Water,         ........     2  pints. 

Mix,  and  give  at  one  dose. 

If  the  bleeding  is  very  great,  the  dose  just  given  should  be 
withheld.  If  there  is  severe  bleeding,  open  up  the  wound  as 
well  as  possible  until  you  can  see  just  where  the  blood  comes 
from,  and  grasp  the  vessel  with  a  pair  of  forceps,  give  it  a 
twist  or  two  to  stop  the  flow  of  blood,  then  tie  it  tightly  above 
the  forceps,  leaving  the  ends  of  the  threads  long  enough  to 
hang  out  over  the  edge  of  the  wound  (silk  thread  is,  perhaps, 
the  best).  If  you  can  not  so  tie  the  vessels,  applying  a  band- 
age so  it  will  press  upon  the  vessels  may  arrest  the  bleeding. 
If  this  will  not  stop  it,  pack  the  wound  with  lint  or  tow,  and 
then  bandage.  The  lint  or  tow  may  be  wet  with 

Sugar  of  Lead,          .......         2  ounces. 

Water,          ...          ......     1  pint. 

Or  tincture  of  the  chloride  of  iron  may  be  used  instead  of 
the  above  in  a  very  bad  case. 

In  some  mild  cases  of  bleeding,  warm  or  cold  water  applied 
to  the  part  may  arrest  it.  Having  succeeded  in  arresting  the 
bleeding,  if  by  tying  the  artery,  thoroughly  cleanse  the  wound 
with  water,  and  then  bring  the  edges  of  the  wound  together, 
keeping  them  together  with  stitches,  taking  the  stitches  so  a 
pretty  wide  piece  of  skin  will  be  caught,  and  tie  each  stitch 
separately.  And  hi  tying,  tie  as  an  ordinary  knot,  then  put  the 
end  under  the  string  just  as  before.  This  makes  a  single  knot 
with  a  double  twist  in  the  string;  then  draw  the  knot  tight  and 
tie  another  knot  on  top  of  this,  and  the  knots  will  not  slip.  If 
the  wound  is  a  large,  gaping  one,  which  stitches  will  not  hold, 


922  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

leave  the  thread  in  the  needle,  so  it  will  pass  through  the  skin 
on  both  sides  of  the  wound  double ;  cut  the  thread  off  close  to 
the  needle,  take  another  stitch  in  the  same  way  until  as  many 
are  taken  as  necessary,  always  leaving  the  threads  long  so  they 
will  not  be  pulled  out.  When  all  the  stitches  are  thus  taken, 
take  two  quills  or  limber  pieces  of  wood  and  place  one  between 
the  two  threads  of  one  stitch,  and  tie  the  two  ends  over  the 
stick ;  proceed  in  the  same  way  with  all  the  stitches  on  that 
side,  then  place  the  other  stick  or  quill  on  the  other  side  of  the 
wound  and  tie  the  stitches  in  the  same  way,  drawing  each  one 
as  tightly  as  necessary  to  bring  the  two  edges  of  the  wound  close 
together. 

Sometimes  strips  of  strong  cloth,  with  their  edges  dipped  in 
warm  Burgundy  pitch,  can  be  fastened  along  the  sides  of  the 
wound,  far  enough  back  so  that  their  edges,  left  loose,  can  be 
sewed  together,  and  thus  bring  the  edges  of  the  wound  together. 
(If  in  any  case  the  intestines  are  cut  through  and  need  sewing, 
use  a  cat-gut  suture — small  fiddle-string — and  in  sewing  turn 
the  cut  edges  inside  of  the  gut,  so  the  string  so  used  may  fall 
into  the  inside  of  the  gut  and  be  passed  out.)  And  bathe  well 
with  warm  or  cold  water.  If  one  is  tried  and  does  not  afford 
relief  try  the  opposite,  and  then  use  that  which  seems  to  give 
the  greatest  amount  of  relief.  Never  apply  any  turpentine  or 
black  oil  to  a  wound.  It  is  very  rare  that  any  oil  does  not  do 
harm.  The  white  lotion  or  the  carbolic  acid  lotion  (see  Index) 
are  perhaps  the  best.  If  unhealthy  granulations — proud  flesh — 
spring  up, 

Take — Nitrate  of  Silver, 20  grains. 

Water,          .......  1  ounce. 

Mix,  and  apply  with  a  small  brush.  If  this  does  not  arrest 
it,  rub  the  parts  with  a  stick  of  nitrate  of  silver,  holding  it  in 
a  quill  or  piece  of  paper  to  protect  the  fingers ;  or  take  an  ounce 
of  water,  and  put  into  it  all  the  blue  vitriol  it  will  dissolve; 
or  try 

Carbolic  Acid,  pure,       .......    \  dram. 

Water,       .........         1  ounce. 

Apply  any  of  these  once  a  day,  or  oftener,  if  necessary.     If 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE.  923 

none  of  these  will  answer,  use  nitric  acid  and  water,  equal  parts 
at  first,  gradually  using  more  acid  and  less  water  until  it  does 
do  the  work.  After  the  proud  flesh  is  subdued,  treat  as  an  or- 
dinary wound. 

Fractures. — This  means  broken  bones ;  and  such  accidents 
are  very  common  in  all  domestic  animals.  There  are  several 
varieties  of  fractures,  as  simple,  compound,  comminuted,  and 
complicated.  A  simple  fracture  is  one  in  which  the  bone  alone 
is  broken,  the  muscles  and  skin  not  being  cut  through.  A  com- 
pound is  one  in  which  the  bone  is  broken,  and  the  muscles  and 
skin  at  the  same  time  cut  through.  A  comminuted  is  one  in  which 
the  bone  is  shattered  to  pieces.  A  complicated  is  one  in  which 
there  is  some  large  vessel,  nerve,  or  joint  injured,  as  well  as  a 
bone  broken. 

The  bones  of  the  lower  animals  will  unite  quite  as  readily 
as  those  of  man  if  the  broken  ends  can  be  kept  still,  and  in  their 
proper  position. 

Fractures  also  receive  distinctive  names  from  the  manner  in 
which  the  bones  are  broken,  as  transverse,  in  which  the  bone  is 
broken  square  across ;  oblique,  in  which  the  bone  is  broken  across 
in  an  oblique  angle ;  longitudinal,  in  which  the  bone  is  split,  as 
it  were.  The  first  named  is  the  most  easily  treated  successfully; 
the  second  is  very  difficult  to  treat,  as  the  ends  of  the  bones 
tend  to  pass  each  other ;  and  the  last  is  usually  most  difficult 
to  treat  with  entire  success,  for  it  usually  extends  into  a  joint, 
and  in  this  way  causes  a  stiffening  of  the  joint. 

Fractures  generally  occur  from  some  injury,  but  they  may 
occur  from  very  severe  muscular  exertion,  as  sometimes  occurs 
in  throwing  an  animal.  Sometimes  a  bone  is  fractured  and  still 
retains  its  position,  and  it  may  or  may  not  be  displaced  after 
the  injury. 

SYMPTOMS. — Sometimes  the  ends  of  the  bone  pass  each  other, 
or  penetrate  the  tissues,  until  the  trouble  is  very  apparent  to 
any  beholder.  But  when  these  signs  are  absent,  a  kind  of 
grating  sensation  can  often  be  felt  by  placing  the  fingers  on  the 
parts,  and  then  moving  the  limb;  or,  by  placing  the  ear  to 
the  parts  this  grating  noise  can  be  heard,  when  the  limb  is 


924  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

moved.  But  when  the  bones  are  not  displaced,  it  is  difficult 
to  determine  the  trouble.  It  now  becomes  necessary  to  notice 
the  animal's  action,  and  ascertain  whether  he  became  lame  very 
suddenly,  and  also  whether  any  injury,  slip,  or  fall  was  sus- 
tained about  the  time  the  lameness  occurred. 

TREATMENT  OF  A  SIMPLE  FRACTURE. — Space  only  permits  some 
general  principles  of  treatment  here.  Compound  fractures  above 
the  knee  or  hock-joint  can  not  often  be  successfully  treated,  in 
the  larger  animals;  but  when  below  the  knee  or  hock,  success 
may  crown  an  effort.  Always  get  the  ends  of  the  bones  in 
place  as  soon  as  possible,  and  keep  them  in  place,  by  means  of 
a  starch,  plaster-of-paris,  or  tripiloth  bandage,  or  by  means  of 
leather  or  light  splints.  There  is  also  a  kind  of  felt  bandage, 
or  splint,  now  prepared,  which  is  excellent. 

In  preparing  a  bandage,  take  narrow  strips  of  muslin  about 
three  yards  long,  and  if  starch  is  selected,  have  it  properly  pre- 
pared by  boiling  it  until  it  is  about  as  thick  as  very  thick 
cream;  or,  if  plaster-of-paris,  or  tripiloth,  is  selected,  have  it 
mixed  with  cold  water  until  it  is  about  as  thick  as  thick 
cream.  Either  of  the  last  should  be  mixed  in  small  quantities  at 
a  time,  in  any  old  vessel.  Mix  the  strips  of  muslin  through 
this  until  every  part  of  them  is  thoroughly  saturated  with  the 
mixture ;  then  begin  at  one  end  of  a  strip  and  roll  it  up  nicely, 
making  a  convenient  roll  for  handling. 

When  every  thing  is  thus  prepared,  and  the  fracture  prop- 
erly placed,  wrap  the  leg  with  a  thin  layer  of  cotton-batting 
and  then  bandage  the  leg  loosely  with  flannel,  and  apply  the 
flannel  bandage  to  the  leg — from  the  foot  just  as  high  as  pos- 
sible. Then  level  all  hollows  on  the  leg  with  cotton-batting, 
and  if  a  starch  bandage  is  used,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  thor- 
oughly and  tightly  wrap  the  broken  part  with  the  starched 
cloth,  never  allowing  it  to  extend  beyond  the  flannel  bandage. 
The  bandage  should  be  applied  in  several  successive  layers,  ap- 
plied in  different  directions,  and  the  leg  kept  as  still  as  possible 
until  the  starch  becomes  hard. 

The  same  directions  should  be  followed  in  using  either  plas- 
ter-of-paris or  tripiloth,  with  the  additional  directions  that, 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE.  925 

after  applying  a  layer  of  bandage,  some  of  the  mixture  should  be 
rubbed  over  this  before  another  layer  is  applied,  and  so  on ; 
always  keeping  the  leg  as  nearly  still  as  possible  until  the 
bandage  sets.  If  the  felt  bandage  (which  must  be  bought  of  a 
druggist)  is  used,  all  that  needs  to  be  done  with  it  is  to  soak  it  in 
hot  water  until  it  gets  soft,  and  apply  it  while  it  is  hot,  pressing 
and  fitting  it  to  the  leg,  and  then  applying  a  muslin  bandage 
over  it,  to  keep  it  to  its  place. 

The  bones  of  young  animals  unite  much  better  than  those 
of  old  ones.  The  bandage  should  be  kept  on  the  leg  for  two 
or  three  months,  or  even  longer  if  the  bones  do  not  unite 
readily. 

Slings  were,  and  are  still,  used  by  many  surgeons ;  but  lately 
some  recommend  bandaging  the  leg,  and  turning  the  animal  loose 
in  pasture,  or  in  a  large  stall  or  shed,  as  must  be  done  with  a 
cow  or  colt. 

If  the  fracture  is  a  compound  one,  it  becomes  more  serious, 
but  even  then  treatment  is  often  successful.  First  replace  the 
bones;  and  to  accomplish  this  it  often  becomes  necessary  to 
make  the  flesh-wound  larger  by  cutting  near  the  bones  with  a 
knife.  When  the  bones  are  replaced,  the  edges  of  the  wound 
should  be  brought  together  and  kept  together,  adhesive  plasters, 
in  this  case,  being  better  than  stitches.  Cleanse  the  wound 
thoroughly  with  the  carbolic  lotion  (see  Index),  and  apply  splints 
or  bandages,  as  already  recommended,  leaving  an  opening  in  the 
bandage  over  the  torn  flesh,  so  the  wound  can  be  kept  clean  and 
frequently  dressed  with  the  carbolic  lotion,  to  keep  the  matter 
washed  away.  Further  than  this,  the  treatment  is  the  same  as 
in  simple  fractures.  In  almost  all  cases,  especially  if  in  a 
strong,  healthy  animal,  from  five  to  eight  drams  of  aloes  should 
be  dissolved  in  hot  water  and  given  as  a  drench,  when  cool,  and 
but  a  small  amount  of. food  should  be  allowed  for  two  or 
three  days. 

These  directions  are  applicable  to  all  animals,  except  that 
slings  are  seldom  used  for  cattle ;  and  in  cattle,  when  the  fracture 
does  not  unite,  the  limb  may  be  amputated,  and  the  animal  fat- 
tened for  the  butcher.  Amputation  has  been  performed  also 


926  THE,  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

in  valuable  stallions  or  brood  mares.  Both  cattle  and  horses 
have  been  so  treated,  and  have  afterward  walked  about  on 
wooden  legs. 

Rheumatism  is  a  disease  of  the  blood,  and  usually  affects 
the  joints. 

SYMPTOMS. — The  affected  joint  will  be  hot,  painful,  tender, 
stiff,  and  sometimes  swollen;  the  animal  suffers  much,  and  does 
not  want  to  move;  the  inflammation  often  moves  from  one  joint 
to  another ;  the  skin  is  dry,  caused  by  the  fever  which  is  always 
present  in  this  disease ;  the  fever  also  often  causing  the  animal, 
if  a  milch  cow,  to  quit  chewing  the  cud ;  the  pulse  will  be  quick- 
ened, and  the  bowels  costive.  Milch  cows  are  most  liable  to 
this  disease,  and  they  are  most  liable  in  the  spring  and  fall. 

TREATMENT. — For  a  cow: 

Take — Rochelle  Salts,       ......         12  ounces. 

Ginger,     ........       3  drams. 

Water, 1  quart. 

Mix,  and  give  at  one  dose,  and  continue  giving  three  or  four 
ounces  of  Rochelle  salts,  every  morning  before  feeding,  until 
the  bowels  begin  to  act.  If  it  is  a  horse, 

Take — Aloes,  powdered,     ......         6  drams. 

Ginger,        ........     2  drams. 

Mix  in  hot  water,  and  give  when  cool.  Place  the  animal  in 
a  dry,  warm  place,  and  bathe  the  parts  with 

Tincture  of  Opium,    .......         2  ounces. 

Chloroform,          .          .          ......     2  ounces. 

Water,      .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .12  ounces. 

Bathe  two  or  three  times  a  day,  and,  after  each  bathing, 
bandage  the  leg  loosely  with  flannel,  and  give  salicylate  of  soda, 
two  drams  every  two  or  three  hours,  as  long  as  needed;  when 
the  more  acute  inflammation  has  passed  bathe  the  joint  with 

Turpentine, 4  ounces, 

Flaxseed  Oil, 4  ounces, 

two  or  three  times  a  day. 

Bathing. — For  this,  water  is  most  frequently  used;  but 
vinegar  and  salt,  and  many  other  things  are  used.  It  is  impos- 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE.  927 

sible  to  say  just  what  particular  cases  should  have  heat  applied, 
and  what  should  have  cold  applied,  for  if  in  any  case  either  is 
tried,  and  it  does  not  seem  to  do  any  good,  after  thoroughly 
trying  it,  the  other  should  be  tried,  and  then  continue  using 
whichever  seems  to  do  the  greatest  good,  and  never  use  either 
if  you  are  satisfied  that  it  increases  the  pain. 

As  a  general  rule,  warmth  should  be  used  for  lymphangitis, 
strains,  bruises,  laminitis,  etc.,  when  there  is  great  pain.  Use 
it  as  hot  as  it  can  be  borne  by  your  hands,  while  for  inflammation 
of  the  bowels,  pleurisy,  lung-fever,  etc.,  it  should  be  applied 
still  hotter. 

When  hot  bathing  is  to  be  used  it  must  be  constantly  ap- 
plied for  hours,  for  if  it  is  stopped  the  drying  up  of  the  water 
on  the  parts  cools  it;  and  thus  bathing,  for  a  short  time,  at 
short  intervals,  with  warm  water,  is  about  the  same  as  if  cold 
were  used.  If  warm  water  has  been  used  for  several  hours, 
and  it  becomes  necessary  to  stop  it,  the  part  should  be  wiped 
dry  and  bandaged,  or  blanketed,  to  prevent  a  reaction  from  the 
evaporation  of  the  remaining  fluids,  and  consequent  cooling  of 
the  parts. 

There  are  different  ways  of  applying  baths  to  animals.  They 
can  be  applied  directly  with  a  sponge  or  syringe;  or  the  part 
may  be  bandaged  or  blanketed,  and  the  fluid  poured  upon  these; 
or  cloths  or  blankets  may  be  wrung  from  hot  water,  and  applied 
to  the  part  and  immediately  covered  with  dry  blankets,  and  these 
covered  with  an  oiled  cloth  to  prevent  the  heat  from  escaping. 
An  excellent  way  to  apply  heat  to  the  leg  where  it  can  not  be 
bandaged  is  to  make  a  soft  hay  rope,  and  begin  at  the  foot  and 
loosely  wrap  the  leg  with  this,  secure  the  end  and  pour  warm  water 
upon  this.  When  the  hay  is  removed,  the  leg  must  be  well 
wiped,  and  in  some  way  wrapped  in  cloths  until  thoroughly  dry. 

When  it  is  thought  best  to  use  cold  instead  of  heat,  a  thin 
bandage  or  blanket  should  be  applied,  and  kept  constantly  wet 
with  cold  water.  This  is  much  better  than  a  heavy  roll  of  cloths. 
When  foul,  stinking  sores  are  to  be  cleansed,  luke-warm  water 
should  be  used,  applied  with  a  syringe  or  by  means  of  old  cloths. 
If  cloths  are  used,  they  must  be  thrown  away  as  soon  as  used, 


928  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

for  they  will  become  foul  and  poisonous.  Sponges  should  not 
in  these  cases  be  used  and  kept  for  subsequent  cleansings.  For 
special  treatment  of  such  sores,  see  Abscesses. 

Doses  for  Young  Animals. — There  can  be  no  definite 
rule  given  which  will  answer  all  cases,  as  the  size  and  flesh  of 
the  animal  will  vary  the  dose  to  some  extent,  as  will  also  the 
disease  from  which  an  animal  is  suffering.  And  as  there  can  be 
no  rule  laid  down,  I  will  just  give  a  series  of  fractions  which 
will  approximately  indicate  the  doses  for  young  colts,  or  calves, 
from  the  age  of  one  to  twelve  months.  The  figures  above  the 
lines  show  the  age  of  the  animal  in  months ;  and  the  figures 
below  the  lines,  taken  with  those  above  the  lines,  in  the  form 
of  a  fraction  indicate  the  amount  of  medicine  which  should  be 
given,  as  compared  with  the  full  dose  for  an  ordinary  sized  an- 
imal. The  figures  are  as  follows : 

AOR 1      .       2.      i.      A.       6..       6     .       7     .     _8     .      9     .     10.     11.     12 

LIOSK 20  ;     30;     36  ;     36;     36;     36;     36  ;     36)     36;     30)     36;     36* 

For  example,  take  the  figures  in  the  list  A  :  the  figure  1 
indicates  that  the  animal  is  one  month  old,  and  2*0,  taken  as  a 
fraction,  shows  that  one-twentieth  part  of  the  full  dose  for  an 
ordinary  sized  animal  should  be  given.  Again,  take  &  ;  this 
shows  that  the  animal  is  three  months  old,  and  that  three 
thirty-sixths — one-twelfth — of  a  full  dose  should  be  given  ;  and 
so  on.  From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  at  one  year  old  the 
animal  takes  one-third  of  the  full  dose ;  then  at  two  years  one- 
half;  at  three  years  three-fourths;  and  at  four  years  old  the 

full  dose. 

Condition  Powders. — There  are  a  great  many  kinds  of 
powders  put  up  and  for  sale,  some  good,  others  harmless,  and 
others  injurious.  The  majority  of  the  so-called  condition  pow- 
ders are  made  and  used  for  their  tonic  properties,  but  some  con- 
tain sulphide  of  antimony — black  antimony.  I  will  only  give  a 
quotation  from  "  Finley  Dun's  Veterinary  Medicine  "  regarding 
the  use  of  antimony.  He  says :  "  Being  uncertain,  irregular, 
and  often  violent  remedies,  the  antimony  sulphides  are  not  now 
used  in  human  medicine,  and  should  be  discarded  from  veteri- 
nary practice." 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE.  929 

The  following  formula  is  a  very  good  one  for  animals  that 
are  run  down,  weakened,  or  debilitated : 

Take — Bicarbonate  of  Soda 2  ounces. 

Fenugreek,     .......  4  ouuces. 

Gentian,     ........  4  ouuces. 

Giuger,          .......  2  ouuces. 

Rhubarb,  ........  2  ounces. 

Sulphate  of  Iron,  ......  2  ounces. 

Powder,  and  mix.  Make  into  twelve  powders,  and  give  a 
powder  three  times  a  day.  If  the  bowels  are  costive,  give  with 
each  powder  a  half  pound  or  a  pound  of  oil-cake  meal,  until  the 
bowels  begin  to  act  as  desired.  If  the  amount  of  water  passed 
is  scanty,  two  or  three  ounces  of  saltpeter  may  be  uddcd  when 
making  the  powders.  If  the  lining  membranes  of  the  nose, 
mouth,  eyes,  etc.,  are  of  a  pale  or  white  color,  add  two  ounces 
of  the  saccharated  carbonate  of  iron  to  the  powders  when  made. 
If  these  lining  membranes  are  yellowish  in  color,  use  twice  the 
amount  of  rhubarb  given  in  the  formula. 

If  the  skin  is  scurfy,  rough,  and  dirty,  and  the  animal 
scratches,  or  if  there  is  a  tendency  to  soreness  of  the  skin,  add 
thirty  grains  of  arsenic  to  the  powders.  And  when  arsenic  is 
added,  the  mixing  must  be  very  thorough,  in  order  that  some 
of  the  powders  may  not  contain  too  much  arsenic.  And  if  at 
any  time  the  food  in  which  the  powder  is  given  is  not  eaten, 
the  trough  must  be  cleaned,  lest  in  this  way  two  doses  be  taken, 
at  once.  When  the  powders  contain  arsenic,  they  should  be 
placed  where  no  animals  or  children  can  get  at  them.  Some 
animals  will  eat  enough  of  these  powders  to  cause  trouble ;  but 
if  given  as  directed  they  are  harmless,  and  of  great  value. 

"White  Lotion. — This  lotion  is  extensively  used  by  pro- 
fessional veterinarians  for  sores  in  which  the  surface  of  the  skin 
is  broken  or  cut  in  any  way,  and  more  especially  in  old  ulcers 
or  sores  from  which  there  is  a  profuse  discharge  of  pus.  It  is 
prepared  as  follows: 

Take — Sulphate  of  Zinc, 6  drams. 

Sujjar  of  Lead,       ....  1  ounce. 

Water, 1  quart 

Mix  until  dissolved,  and  when  it  settles  pour  off  the  clear 


930  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

part,  leaving  the  sediment,  or  filter  through  filter  paper,  or  just 
strain  it  through  a  good,  heavy  piece  of  muslin.  In  some  very 
bad  sores  it  may  occasionally  be  applied  stronger  than  this — 
even  twice  as  strong  in  rare  cases. 

Carbolic  Lotion.  This  lotion  is  more  extensively  used 
than  the  white  lotion  for  an  antiseptic,  and  hence  is  almost 
always  used  during  and  soon  after  a  surgical  operation  or  after 
a  fresh  wound.  It  is  also  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  the 
white  lotion,  but  it  has  not  the  property  of  drying  up  discharges 
from  sores  that  the  white  lotion  has.  The  carbolic  lotion  'is 
made  as  follows : 

Take — Carbolic  Acid,  pure,  ......      1  rlram. 

Water,    ........         5  ounces. 

Mix  well  and  filter.  This,  like  the  white  lotion,  can  in  some 
cases,  as  in  old  sores  where  there  is  a  very  stinking  discharge, 
be  used  stronger  than  as  given  in  the  formula.  Carbolic  acid  is 
one  of  the  best  of  medicines  to  destroy  bad  smells  about  old 
sores,  and  for  this  purpose  may  be  used  on  poultices,  etc. 

Ammoniacal    Liniment. — This   liniment  is   extensively 
used  as  a  stimulant  or  counter-irritant  in  sore  throat,  bronchitis 
rheumatism,  and  chronic  joint  diseases.     It  is  made  of 

Aqua  Ammonia,  .......     2  ounces. 

Turpentine,      ........         2  ounces. 

Flaxseed  Oil,       ........     2  ounces. 

Or  any  oil  may  be  used  instead  of  the  flaxseed  oil.  Mix,  shake 
well,  and  it  is  ready  for  use.  When  made  by  this  formula  it 
will  blister  some  horses,  while  others  are  not  at  all  affected. 
Hence  its  strength  must  be  varied  by  using  more  or  less  oil  to 
meet  such  cases  as  are  spoken  of  under  "  Blistering." 

Black-leg — Quarter-ill — Black-quarter. — This  disease 
usually  attacks  young  cattle  under  two  years  old,  and  often  proves 
suddenly  fatal.  This  disease,  and  nlso  its  treatment,  are  essen- 
tially the  same  as  Texas  Fever,  the  only  difference  being  in  the 
manifestation  of  the  symptoms  and  its  only  attacking  young  ani- 
mals. The  treatment  of  either  is  considered  a  preventive  to  a 
a  certain  extent.  See  Texas  Fever,  page  918. 


SWINE  AND  THEIR  MANAGEMENT.  931 


XIV. 

SWINE  AND  THEIR   MANAQEMENT. 

IN  the  early  history  of  farming  west  of  the  Alleghanies  the 
hog  was  the  most  important  product  of  the  farm;  and,  indeed, 
about  the  only  one  the  farmer  could  depend  on  to  furnish 
"cash  in  a  lump"  to  meet  payments  on  land  and  the  yearly 
bills.  Not  only  were  we  without  railroads,  but,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  "  the  National  Road,"  turnpikes  were  unknown,  and 
wagoning  grain  to  a  distant  market  over  mud  roads,  to  be  sold 
at  a  low  price,  was  a  slow  way  to  raise  money.  I  remember  a 
neighbor  who  lived  forty-five  miles  from  Cincinnati  spent  ten 
days  with  a  four-horse  team  in  taking  thirty-five  bushels  of 
wheat  to  market,  and  sold  it  for  three  "levies"  (thirty-seven 
and  a  half  cents)  per  bushel.  Corn  often  sold  at  ten  to  fifteen 
cents,  and  oats  at  eight  to  twelve  a  bushel;  and  I  remember, 
between  1840  and  1850,  that  my  father  bought  yearling  calves 
at  one  dollar  per  head,  and  good  cows  at  eight  to  ten  dollars 
each. 

Pork,  at  that  time,  although  occasionally  very  low,  brought 
a  better  average  price  than  any  other  farm-product,  and  during 
the  packing  season  was  always  in  demand  for  cash,  and  so  it 
came  to  pass  that  nearly  the  entire  business  of  the  country 
turned  on  the  price  of  pork,  for  all  business  was  done  on  credit, 
and  if  pork  brought  a  good  price  the  country  was  safe  for  a 
year. 

There  was  no  difficulty  in  raising  hogs  or  in  getting  them  to 
market  in  those  days,  for  "hog  cholera"  had  never  been  heard 
of,  and  the  swine  had  strong  constitutions,  and  could  make  an 
independent  living  a  good  part  of  the  year.  They  had  also  ex- 
cellent locomotive  powers,  and  could  with  ease  transport  their 


932  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

own  carcasses  to  a  market  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  miles  dis- 
tant. Food  also  was  cheap  and  abundant.  Our  virgin  soil  pro- 
duced abundant  crops  of  corn  with  little  labor,  and  in  the  bound- 
less forests  were  roots  and  mast,  on  which,  in  favorable  Winters, 
the  hogs  would  thrive  for  months  without  other  food. 

Hogs  were  seldom  confined,  even  in  a  field  on  the  farm,  but 
were  turned  out  on  "the  range,"  each  farmer  having  an  ear- 
mark— duly  recorded  at  the  county-seat — by  which  he  could 
tell  his  hogs  if  they  strayed  to  a  neighbor's.  Hogs  have  such 
strong  local  attachments,  however,  that  if  fed  occasionally  they 
would  rarely  get  separated  from  the  herd.  The  calling  of  hogs 
was  quite  an  artistic  performance,  and  in  a  still  morning  a  farmer 
with  strong  lungs  could  call  his  herd,  though  they  might  be  a 
mile  away.  There  was  a  musical  cadence  to  the  "Pig-oo-ee"  as 
it  was  long  drawn  out  with  a  strong  accent  and  a  quaver  on  the 
"ee."  The  hogs  would  recognize  the  voice  of  their  owner,  and 
the  first  one  that  caught  the  faintest  sound  would  raise  its  head 
and  listen,  and  as  soon  as  assured  that  it  was  the  voice  of  its 
owner  it  would  sound  a  note  of  warning  which  all  understood, 
and  the  herd  would  start  pell  mell  for  home,  and  their  speed 
would  not  slacken  until  the  feeding-lot  was  reached.  The  hogs 
had  another  note  of  mingled  defiance  and  alarm  which,  if 
sounded,  would  at  once  rally  the  herd  at  any  point  for  defence, 
and  they  would  charge  in  a  body  with  bristles  erect  and  mouths 
open,  the  very  incarnation  of  fury.  If  one  wanted  to  catch  a 
pig  in  those  days  he  must  first  take  his  bearings  and  select  a 
place  in  the  fence  that  he  could  easily  scale,  and  then  make  a 
run  for  it  as  the  professional  base  ball  player  does  for  his  base, 
and  often  he  was  glad  to  drop  the  pig  before  he  could  reach  a 
place  of  safety.  I  remember  often  driving  up  a  sow  from  the 
woods  with  her  young  litter  when  she  would  walk  backwards 
and  fight  every  inch  of  the  way,  and  every  few  rods  charge  on 
me  so  that  I  must  beat  a  retreat. 

The  hogs  of  that  early  day  were  of  no  particular  breed,  or 
were  rather- a  mixture  of  all  the  breeds  that  had  been  brought 
across  the  mountains  by  the  pioneer  settlers.  The  only  hogs 
I  remember  that  resembled  any  of  the  present  day  were  the 


SWINE  AND  THEIR  MANAGEMENT.  933 

Berkshires  (which  could  occasionally  be  found  with  all  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  pure  breed),  and  the  Essex;  and  in  my  judg- 
ment many  of  the  best  qualities  of  some  of  our  modern  breeds 
can  be  traced  back  to  these  breeds,  and  particularly  to  the 
Berkshire. 

Hogs  were  of  all  colors,  from  jet  black  to  pure  white,  with 
all  varieties  of  spots,  with  many  red,  and  some  blue  and  fawn 
color.  The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  improving  the  breeds,  or 
of  keeping  a  breed  pure,  were  well-nigh  insurmountable.  To 
begin  with,  there  was  no  way  of  transporting  hogs  from  the 
East  except  by  wagon  or  on  foot.  There  were  few  breeders 
who  had  improved  hogs  for  sale,  and  fewer  agricultural  papers 
to  advertise  them  in.  Postage  on  a  single  letter,  till  later  than 
1840,  was  twenty-five  cents;  and  it  will  be  readily  seen  (hat 
few  farmers  could  afford  to  import  breeding  stock.  There  was 
still  another  obstacle,  which  was  the  difficulty  of  keeping  the 
stock  pure ;  for  the  woods  were  full  of  boars,  many  of  them 
old.  tough  fellows,  with  a  snout  equal  to  a  steam-shovel  and  the 
muscular  activity  of  a  cat,  and  if  a  sow  was  in  heat  they  would 
find  her,  and  no  ordinary  fence  would  keep  them  from  her. 
Besides,  the  hogs  the  farmers  had  suited  them  very  well.  Corn 
was  so  cheap  that  it  made  but  little  difference  whether  it  took 
a  few  bushels  more  or  less  to  fatten  the  hog,  and  it  was  doubt- 
ful whether  a  new  breed  could  winter  on  mast,  fatten  by  "hog- 
ging down"  a  half-acre  of  corn,  and  then  walk  to  market;  and 
so  there  seemed  little  call  for  improvement,  and  few  efforts 
were  made  in  that  direction. 

With  the  advent  of  the  railroads  to  transport  the  hog  to 
market  there  came  a  demand  for  a  better  breed  of  hogs ;  and 
the  present  generation  has  seen  many  changes  in  all  that  per- 
tains to  the  management  of  the  hog  and  its  products.  Now 
our  hogs  are  bred  with  so  small  bone,  and  such  a  tendency  to 
develop  fat,  that  they  are  usually  wagoned  the  mile  or  two  nec- 
essary to  reach  the  station  from  which  they  are  shipped.  The 
packing  season  does  not  depend  on  cold  weather,  but  extends — 
by  the  use  of  ice — through  the  year.  The  farmer  does  not  wait 
till  winter,  and  then  drive  to  a  distant  city ;  but  there  is  a  cash 


934  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

market  at  his  door  every  day  in  the  year  for  all  the  hogs  he 
can  produce. 

Recent  statistics  show  over  thirty-six  millions  of  hogs  in  the 
United  States,  with  an  aggregate  value  of  more  than  one  hun- 
dred and  seventy  millions  of  dollars.  The  highest  average  value 
of  hogs  is  usually  found  among  the  truck  or  dairy  farmers,  who 
keep  but  few,  and  the  lowest  in  the  newer  States,  or  where 
there  has  been  little  improvement  in  farming.  In  1876,  when 
Coburn  wrote  his  work  on  "  Swine  Husbandry,"  he  found  the 
highest  average  value  per  head  in  Massachusetts,  $18.03,  and 
the  lowest  in  Arkansas,  $3.31.  Nine  States  at  that  time  pro- 
duced about  two-thirds  of  all  the  hogs  in  the  country;  viz., 
Iowa,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Missouri,  Kentucky,  Ohio,  Georgia,  Ten- 
nessee, and  Pennsylvania.  The  highest  average  value  in  these 
States  was  in  Pennsylvania,  $11.50  each,  and  the  lowest  in 
Georgia,  $3.91  each. 

In  1877,  which  was  a  year  of  low  prices,  I  examined  the 
assessors'  returns  in  my  own  State  (Ohio),  to  see  whether 
in  the  counties  that  had  paid  most  attention  to  the  improve- 
ment of  hogs  they  were  valued  higher  for  purposes  of  taxa- 
tion. I  found  the  entire  number  of  hogs  to  exceed  two  mill- 
ions, with  an  average  assessed  value  of  $3.77  per  head.  In 
five  counties — viz.,  Warren,  Butler,  Lake,  Clarke,  and  Ross — 
the  average  value  was  over  $5.50  per  head,  or  $1.75  per  head 
more  than  the  average  for  the  entire  State.  These,  with  the 
exception  of  Lake,  are  among  the  largest  hog-producing  coun- 
ties in  the  State,  the  four  averaging  over  forty  thousand 
each.  Lake  County  reported  only  three  thousand  hogs,  and  the 
high  value  given  them  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they  were  kept  up 
and  fed  largely  on  slop,  as  milk  and  potatoes  are  the  principal 
products  of  this  county.  The  other  counties  named  are  noted 
for  their  improved  hogs,  and  Warren  and  Butler,  especially,  as 
having  originated  the  Poland  China.  The  lowest  valuation  in 
the  State  was  in  Wood  County,  and  was  $1.43  per  head. 

Notwithstanding  the  ravages  of  hog  cholera,  the  production 
of  pork  has  shown  a  steady  increase  in  this  country,  as  will  be 
seen  by  an  examination  of  the  following  table: 


SWINE  AND  THEIR  MANAGEMENT.  935 

The  statistics  for  the  five  years  ending  with  1881  are  as 
follows  : 

NUMBER  OF  HOGS   PACKET)  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

1877,  .     10,265,413     1880,     .  .     14,896,245 

1878,  .         .          12,062,236     1881,          .         .         16,357,360 

1879,  .         .         .     14,480,703 

During  these  years  a  little  over  one-third  of  the  hogs  were 
summer  packed. 

There  has  been  a  steady  increase  of  exports  of  the  hog 
product,  and  in  1880  it  reached  over  eighty-five  millions  of 
dollars. 

Who  should  raise  Hogs? — There  can  be  no  question  as 
to  the  profit  of  a  few  hogs  on  every  farm.  They  will  consume 
the  waste  of  the  dairy  and  kitchen,  follow  the  cuttle  in  the 
barn-yard  in  winter,  eat  the  weeds  from  the  garden,  as  well  as 
the  small  potatoes  and  other  unmarketable  products,  and  furnish 
at  a  small  outlay  quite  an  amount  of  lard  and  meat,  which 
may  be  consumed  in  the  family,  or  will  always  bring  cash  in 
the  market.  The  man  on  a  rolling  farm,  or  one  which  for  any 
reason  is  not  well  adapted  to  corn,  should  remember,  however, 
that  he  can  not  successfully  compete  with  the  one  who  has  rich 
bottoms,  or  black,  loamy  land ;  and  for  one  thus  situated  to 
make  the  production  of  pork  his  leading  interest  is  to  injure  his 
farm  and  lead  to  disappointment  and  loss.  The  farmer  may 
keep  a  few  hogs  at  a  profit,  confining  them  to  the  piggery  and 
a  small  lot;  but  if  he  gives  them  the  range  of  his  farm,  and 
must  on  this  account  make  all  his  fences  hog  proof,  the  extra 
expense  from  this  cause  alone  will  often  exceed  the  profit. 

Improvement  of  Stock. — The  matter  of  improving  hogs 
is  at  present  very  easy,  and  not  expensive.  We  have  many 
excellent  breeds  from  which  to  choose;  and  in  many  parts  of 
the  country  what  is  known  as  common  stock  is  really  so  much 
improved  that  all  that  will  be  necessary  to  still  further  improve 
it,  so  as  to  have  a  pork  hog  of  great  excellence,  is  to  use  thor- 
ough-bred boars,  and  by  this  means  grade  up  to  the  desired 
point  of  excellence. 

In  fact,  I  do  not  consider  it  a  part  of  the  ordinary  farmer's 


936  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

business  to  raise  thorough-bred  hogs.  For  to  do  so  successfully 
requires  more  time  and  skill  than  he  can  command,  and  for  the 
purpose  for  which  he  produces  the  hog,  namely,  for  the  butcher, 
I  believe  a  good  high  grade  is  better  than  the  thorough-bred. 
So  I  would  advise  the  farmer  who  produces  hogs  for  the  butcher 
to  procure  a  pedigreed  boar  of  the  stock  best  suited  to  his  pur- 
pose, and  cross  on  sows  selected  from  his  own  herd.  As  choice 
pedigreed  pigs  from  three  to  five  months  old  can  be  bought  for 
from  ten  to  thirty  dollars  each,  and  one  can  serve  quite  a  num- 
ber of  sows  (often  being  sufficient  for  two  adjoining  farmers), 
and  will  then  in  many  cases  sell  when  fattened  for  enough  to 
pay  for  the  original  outlay,  it  will  be  seen  that  no  one  should 
be  deterred  by  the  expense  from  attempting  to  improve  his  stock 
of  hogs.  I  think  that  there  are  many  farmers  who,  by  a  single 
cross,  could  add  two  or  three  dollars  per  head  to  the  value  of  their 
hogs,  and  the  expense  would  be  less  than  twenty-five  cents  each. 

The  same  kind  of  care  will  be  necessary  in  improving  our 
hogs  that  was  used  in  establishing  the  valuable  breeds  we  now 
have.  These  breeds  were  made  up  by  selecting  the  best  and 
breeding  with  a  view  to  permanently  fixing  desirable  points 
which  were  found  in  these  animals,  and  this  careful  and  intelli- 
gent breeding  finally  resulted  in  so  fixing  these  points  that  they 
would  be  reproduced  with  certainty,  and  then  the  animal  was 
called  a  through-bred. 

A  farmer  who  is  careless  and  neglectful  may  start  with  the 
best  of  stock,  and  in  a  few  generations  allow  them  to  deterio- 
rate until  they  are  no  better  than  his  neighbor's  who  has  never 
invested  in  improved  stock.  I  would  not  advise  the  use  of  a 
half-blood  boar,  even  though  he  showed  all  the  good  points  of 
his  sire,  for  his  progeny  will  not  be  likely  to  give  satisfaction. 
It  is  certainly  penny  wise  to  use  an  inferior  sire  for  our  pigs,  and 
hardly  just  to  the  careful  breeder  to  be  unwilling  to  pay  him  a 
fair  price  for  his  stock.  If  we  will  but  consider  how  long  and 
difficult  would  be  the  task  of  building  up  and  establishing  the 
valuable  qualities  which  our  best  breeds  of  hogs  possess,  we 
ehall  feel  that  something  is  due  these  men  for  the  service  they 
have  rendered  the  farmer. 


SH'INE  AND  THEIR  MANAGEMENT.  937 

Selection  of  Breeding  Stock. — I  have  already  intimated 
that  for  the  improvement  of  our  hogs  the  boar  is  of  more  im- 
portance than  the  sow.  This  is  true  not  only  because  one  boar 
will  improve  all  the  pigs  of  the  herd,  and  so  it  is  much  cheaper, 
but  also  from  the  fact,  now  so  well  established  as  to  need  but 
the  statement,  that  the  male  parent  determines  mostly  the  out- 
ward form  and  structure,  while  the  female  the  internal.  This 
is  forcibly  illustrated  by  the  breeding  together  of  the  ass  and 
horse.  When  the  mare  is  bred  to  the  ass,  the  offspring  is  a 
mule,  which  is  essentially  an  ass ;  and  a  she-ass  bred  to  a  stal- 
lion produces  the  hinny,  which  in  outward  form  resembles  the 
horse.  Each  animal  has  the  form  and  voice  of  the  sire.  It  is 
also  true  that  with  the  best  bred  sows,  if  scrub  boars  are  used, 
the  stock  will  rapidly  deteriorate ;  while,  on  the  contrary,  one 
may  begin  with  inferior  sows,  and  by  the  use  of  thorough-bred 
boars  constantly  improve  the  stock  in  form  and  quality.  From 
these  premises  it  will  be  seen  that  upon  the  selection  of  the 
boar  will  in  a  great  measure  depend  the  success  of  the  breeder. 
If  the  farmer  expects  to  sell  pigs  for  breeders,  the  boar  should 
be  of  the  same  breed  as  the  sow;  for  the  offspring  of  two  dif- 
ferent breeds  will  not  constitute  a  thorough-bred,  but  a  cross-bred 
animal.  To  produce  a  thorough-bred  both  parents  must  not  only 
be  thorough-bred,  but  also  of  the  same  breed.  As  the  male  is 
to  give  form  to  the  progeny,  more  attention  should  be  given  to 
form  in  him  than  in  the  sow. 

As  I  can  not  find  a  better  catalogue  of  the  points  desirable 
in  the  male  than  is  given  by  Coburn  in  his  book  on  "  Swine 
Husbandry,"  I  quote  from  it  the  following :  "  The  boar  should 
have  a  short  broad  face,  with  round  heavy  under-jaw,  and  thick 
short  neck,  indicating  strong  vitality  and  assimilating  powers, 
two  functions  requisite  in  every  first-class  meat-producing  ani- 
mal ;  width  between  the  fore-legs,  and  large  girth  immediately 
behind  them,  denote  room  for  large  and  active  lungs,  the  very 
foundation  of  any  animal.  Ribs  that  are  long  and  well  sprung 
outward  from  the  back  show  capacity  of  stomach.  The  broad 
loin  and  well  developed  ham  are  signs  of  active  kidneys.  A 
clean,  fine,  and  elastic  skin,  covered  with  soft  lively  hair,  and 


938  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

free  from  bristles,  denotes  a  healthy  liver,  and  freedom  from  in- 
ternal fever.  A  fine  muzzle  and  limbs,  clean  small  joints,  and 
standing  square  up  on  the  feet,  denotes  solidity,  strength,  and 
firmness  of  the  animal's  frame-work ;  while  the  dished  or  con- 
cave face,  and  slightly  drooping  ear,  are  unerring  signs  of  an 
easy  keeper,  and  a  quiet,  contented  disposition." 

Keep  in  mind  in  selecting  the  boar  that  the  hog  is  a  machine 
for  converting  raw  material  into  a  more  condensed  and  valuable 
article,  and  that  health,  vigor,  and  well  developed  digestive  or- 
gans are  the  essential  qualifications,  and  the  chief  value  of  the 
points  given  are  that  they  are  indications  of  these  qualities. 
Whatever  the  breed,  he  should  be  pure,  and  it  is  well  to  inspect 
the  herd  from  which  he  is  taken  to  see  if  the  animals  show  uni- 
formity of  excellent  points,  and  if  it  is  found  that  there  is  great 
diversity,  I  would  not  advise  that  a  boar  be  purchased  from  such 
a  herd,  no  matter  what  his  individual  excellences. 

The  treatment  of  the  boar  is  a  matter  of  importance.  An 
animal  that  has  been  stuffed  and  coddled  for  the  show-ring  is 
not  likely  to  give  as  good  satisfaction  as  one  that  has  had  only 
ordinary  care.  Many  a  boar  is  ruined  by  being  confined  in  a 
close  pen  with  no  chance  for  exercise,  and  fed  on  rich  concen- 
trated food  until  he  has  become  sluggish  and  unfit  to  generate 
healthy  offspring.  It  is  often  the  case  that  the  boar  is  allowed 
to  run  with  the  herd  to  tease  and  worry  until  he  becomes  gaunt 
and  unthrifty,  and  no  management  could  well  be  worse,  for  no 
record  can  be  kept  of  coupling,  and  as  a  consequence  the  owner 
does  not  know  when  to  expect  the  pigs,  and  does  not  prepare  a 
place  for  them.  Thousands  of  pigs  are  lost  every  year  from 
neglect  of  this  matter.  The  boar  should  have  a  comfortable  pen 
with  a  lot  adjoining,  and  the  fence  should  be  strong,  for  if  he 
once  breaks  out  and  gets  a  taste  for  roaming  he  will  be  likely 
to  prove  troublesome.  His  food  should  be  varied,  and,  while 
nutritious,  should  not  be  too  concentrated,  and  he  should  be  kept 
healthy  and  vigorous,  but  not  fat.  If  the  boar  is  properly  man- 
aged and  cared  for  he  may  be  kept  for  two  or  more  years,  and 
will  be  vastly  superior  to  a  young  pig.  With  a  pen  properly 
arranged  and  strongly  made  there  is  no  reason  why  a  boar  should 


SWINE  AND  THEIR  MANAGEMENT.  939 

not  be  kept  with  little  trouble  for  years.  Never  allow  him  to 
be  taken  out  of  the  pen,  and  when  turning  sows  to  him  have 
him  safely  secured  in  his  sleeping  apartment,  and  after  the  sow 
is  in  the  lot  and  shut  in,  let  the  boar  out.  If  managed  in  this 
way  he  can  usually  be  kept  quiet  and  gentle.  If  the  first  lit- 
ters show  the  boar  to  be  one  of  superior  excellence  as  a  pig- 
getter,  it  becomes  a  matter  of  importance  to  so  manage  him  that 
he  can  be  kept  for  years.  One  service  to  a  sow  is  as  good  as  a 
half-dozen,  and  I  would  advise  that  the  sow  be  removed  as  soon 
as  served. 

In  choosing  the  sow  for  breeding,  we  want  a  roomy,  rather 
than  compact  animal,  as  she  is  to  give  character  to  the  internal 
organs  rather  than  the  form  of  her  offspring.  She  should  be  a 
good  suckler,  and  if  possible  selected  from  a  family  noted  for 
fertility  and  motherly  qualities.  When  you  find  a  sow  that 
possesses  in  a  large  degree  these  valuable  qualities,  it  will  pay 
to  keep  her  for  years,  and  no  reasonable  sum  should  induce  the 
owner  to  part  with  her.  I  am  decidedly  in  favor  of  mature 
sows  for  breeders.  The  pigs  will  be  more  numerous,  larger,  and 
of  better  constitution,  and  the  mothers  will  be  less  likely  to 
overlay  or  otherwise  destroy  the  pigs.  As  I  look  back  over  an 
experience  of  thirty-five  years,  I  find  that  my  losses  of  young 
pigs  have  been  three  times  as  great  when  I  have  used  young 
sows  for  breeders  as  they  have  been  when  I  have  used  those 
which  were  mature. 

When  young  sows  are  used  for  breeding,  I  would  not  couple 
before  January,  so  that  the  pigs  would  not  come  till  warm 
weather  and  some  green  food  could  be  had,  and  I  would  not 
breed  these  sows  again  for  a  fall  litter.  The  period  of  gesta- 
tion with  the  hog  is  one  hundred  and  twelve  days,  and  I  think 
they  vary  from  the  regular  time  less  than  most  domestic  ani- 
mals. I  have  already  spoken  of  the  importance  of  keeping  a 
record  of  the  time  of  coupling,  and  in  making  the  entry  it  is 
best  to  count  up  the  time  when  the  one  hundred  and  twelve 
days  will  be  out.  Your  entry  for  a  sow  bred  December  20th 
would  read  as  follows : 

"  Black  sow  Bess,  bred  December  20th  ;  pigs  due  April  llth." 


940  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Two  weeks  before  the  pigs  are  due  the  sow  should  be  sep- 
arated from  the  herd.  If  it  is  a  season  when  she  can  get  green 
food  she  will  do  best  in  a  grass  lot,  and  a  good  shelter  should 
be  provided  for  her  to  nest  in.  The  more  you  can  handle  the 
sow  and  accustom  her  to  your  presence  in  the  pen  the  better, 
as  it  may  be  necessary  for  you  to  go  to  her  assistance  at  far- 
rowing time,  and  if  she  has  never  been  handled  she  will  be 
likely  to  become  excited  and  unmanageable,  and  destroy  her  pigs. 
The  less  she  is  disturbed  at  this  time  the  better,  and  I  would 
never  interfere  unless  it  becomes  absolutely  necessary. 

If  the  sow  must  be  kept  in  a  pen  and  no  green  food  can  be 
had,  let  the  food  be  cooling  and  loosening  rather  than  heating 
and  constipating.  There  is  no  worse  food  than  corn,  and  none 
better  than  bran  and  roots.  It  is  of  still  greater  moment  that 
strict  attention  be  paid  to  the  diet  for  the  first  week  after  the 
pigs  come.  Too  heavy  feeding,  especially  of  corn,  is  likely  to 
produce  indigestion  and  induce  fever,  which  dries  the  milk  and 
leaves  the  pigs  to  starve.  Whole  litters  are  lost  more  fre- 
quently by  over-feeding  the  sows  after  pigging  than  from  any, 
or  perhaps  even  all  other  causes.  I  think  there  are  many  far- 
mers who  lose  pigs  from  over-feeding  the  sow  who  do  not  sus- 
pect the  cause.  They  notice  that  the  sow  does  not  eat  well, 
and  that  the  pigs,  after  perhaps  thriving  for  a  few  days,  begin 
to  dwindle  and  die  off  one  after  another  till  the  entire  litter  is 
gone.  I  make  it  an  invariable  rule  never  to  feed  more  than  a 
single  ear  of  corn  at  a  feed  the  first  week,  and  regulate  care- 
fully the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  slop.  It  is  a  time  when 
the  owner  should  attend  to  the  feeding  and  not  entrust  it  to  the 
boys  or  hired  men.  Another  cause  of  loss  of  young  pigs,  which 
is  not  generally  understood,  is  that  they  become  too  fat  and  die 
of  "  thumps  "  or  some  kindred  ailment,  and  this  is  due,  I  think, 
to  the  fact  that  the  sows  are  fed  exclusively  on  corn,  which 
produces  very  rich  milk,  and  that  the  pigs  get  no  exercise. 

By  the  time  the  pigs  are  ten  days  old  they  should  be 
allowed  the  run  of  a  lot,  and  if  you  have  a  blue-grass  pasture 
to  turn  the  mother  in  it  is  the  best  place  for  her.  If  the  sow 
must  be  kept  shut  up,  open  a  crack  and  let  the  pigs  run  out. 


SWINE  AND  THEIR  MANAGEMENT.  941 

You  will  find  that  they  will  soon  begin  to  ramble  over  the  farm, 
and  if  it  is  the  planting  season  they  will  be  likely  to  do  mis- 
chief, unless  confined  to  a  lot,  and  there  should  be,  on  every 
farm  where  hogs  are  raised,  a  lot  especially  for  young  pigs,  with 
a  fence  so  tight  that  they  can  not  get  through  it. 

I  find  the  self-supporting  fence,  which  is  described  in  our 
chapter  on  "Fencing,"  the  cheapest  and  best  for  this  purpose. 
In  order  that  the  grass  may  be  saved  on  this  lot,  the  breeding 
stock  should  be  rung. 

I  consider  it  of  great  importance  that  the  pigs  should  be 
taught  to  eat  as  soon  as  possible,  so  that  their  growth  will  not 
be  checked  at  weaning  time.  You  will  notice  by  the  time  they 
are  three  weeks  old  that  they  will  begin  to  crack  corn,  and  at 
this  time  a  part  of  the  pen  should  be  partitioned  off,  or  a  small 
pen  adjoining  provided  which  the  mother  can  not  enter,  but  so 
arranged  that  the  pigs  can  go  in  and  out  at  will.  Here  feed  a 
little  soaked  corn  and  milk  daily,  gradually  increasing  the  quan- 
tity, but  never  over-feeding.  By  the  time  your  pigs  are  old 
enough  to  wean,  they  will  be  so  accustomed  to  other  food  that 
they  will  not  suffer  at  all  by  the  change.  If  there  are,  as  is 
usually  the  case,  some  large  and  some  small  pigs  in  the  litter, 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  leave  two  or  more  of  the  latter  to  run  with 
the  sow  a  week  or  two,  after  the  others  are  taken  away,  as  this 
will  be  a  benefit  both  to  the  pigs  and  the  sow.  The  best  time 
to  castrate  pigs  is  while  they  are  sucking,  and  if  done  at  this 
time  they  will  not  be  damaged  or  checked  in  their  growth,  and 
there  will  be  little  risk  attending  it. 

Whether  the  pigs  are  to  be  fattened  at  nine  or  ten  months 
old,  kept  for  breeders,  or  wintered  as  stock  hogs,  the  treatment 
should  be  the  same  for  the  first  three  months  after  weaning,  for 
this  is  the  time  to  develop  healthy  organs  and  build  up  bone  and 
muscle,  and  to  do  this  we  should  feed  a  mixed  diet  and  allow 
the  pigs  to  run  where  they  will  get  exercise.  They  should 
have  some  green,  bulky  food,  some  slop,  and  some  corn,  and  be 
so  fed  as  to  keep  them  thrifty  and  growing. 

The  best  time  for  the  pigs  to  come  depends  somewhat  on 
what  disposition  we  expect  to  make  of  them.  The  farmer  who 


942  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

is  raising  fancy  pigs  to  sell  for  breeding  stock  will  want  March 
pigs,  and  those  who  keep  old  sows  and  raise  two  litters  a  year 
will  want  the  first  litter  in  this  month;  but  I  would  advise  that 
when  young  sows  are  used  as  breeders  coupling  be  delayed  so 
as  to  bring  the  pigs  from  the  middle  of  May  to  the  middle  of 
June.  These  pigs,  if  well  fed,  will  make  good  pig  pork  at  six 
months  old,  or  they  can  be  wintered  and  turned  on  clover  in  the 
spring,  and  kept  for  fattening  the  coming  autumn  at  seventeen 
or  eighteen  months  old.  I  think  they  will  make  nearly  as 
large  and  profitable  hogs  as  they  would  if  born  in  March,  when 
the  risk  and  care  would  be  much  greater.  With  large,  well- 
developed  sows,  I  believe  it  will  pay  to  raise  two  litters  a  year. 
The  cost  of  keeping  a  large  sow  a  year  is  considerable,  and  a 
fall  litter  will  usually  pay  for  it.  A  September  pig  will  require 
a  little  better  care  through  the  winter  than  one  born  in  the 
spring;  but  I  have  rarely  failed  to  keep  them  thrifty,  and  to 
make  them  profitable.  When  two  litters  are  to  be  raised  it  will 
pay  to  give  extra  care  to  the  sow  and  her  pigs,  so  as  to  be  able 
to  wean  the  spring  litter  at  six  weeks  old. 

If  the  second  litter  comes  as  early  as  the  first  of  September 
it  will  be  all  the  better.  I  would  not  breed  a  yearling  sow  for 
a  second  litter  unless  she  lost  the  first  one,  for  to  nurse  two 
litters  of  pigs  in  a  year  is  too  heavy  a  tax  on  a  growing  animal. 
I  have  tested  this  matter  fully,  and  find  that  the  young  sow 
that  raises  a  spring  and  fall  litter  never  attains  the  size  or  per- 
fect development  that  she  is  capable  of.  After  a  sow  is  two 
years  old  she  may,  if  properly  cared  for,  be  bred  regularly 
every  six  months,  and  can  be  made  one  of  the  most  profitable 
animals  on  the  farm. 

There  are  several  noted  sows  in  my  neighborhood  that  have 
been  bred  for  some  years,  and  whose  pigs  can  always  be  sold 
at  high  prices. 

I  addressed  letters  to  the  owners  of  two  of  them,  requesting 
that  they  give  me  the  facts  for  publication. 

No.  1,  called  Bess  Stibbins,  has  raised  eight  litters  of  pigs, 
averaging  six  to  the  litter,  and  forty-five  of  these  have  been 
sold  for  $2,350;  and  three  on  hand,  which  are  proving  as 


SWINE  AND  THEIR  MANAGEMENT.  943 

valuable  as  the  mother,  can  be  sold  at  one  hundred  dollars  each 
any  time  the  owner  will  take  it. 

No.  2,  called  the  Sholenbarger  sow,  has  farrowed  in  seven 
years  ten  litters  of  pigs,  ninety-four  in  all.  Sixty-two  of  these 
have  been  raised,  and  sold  for  $2,460. 

The  hog-raiser  should  watch  his  breeding  stock  carefully, 
and  when  he  finds  a  combination  of  valuable  qualities  in  a  sow 
should  not  part  with  her  as  long  as  she  is  capable  of  breeding. 
I  have  now  in  my  possession  two  Poland  China  sows — sisters — 
that  have  each  raised  two  litters  of  pigs.  One  of  them  has 
proved  a  kind  mother  and  an  excellent  suckler,  while  the 
other  is  such  a  poor  milker  she  can  scarcely  raise  a  litter  of 
pigs,  and  I  shall  fatten  her  this  fall ;  yet  a  stranger  would  be 
more  likely  to  select  her  than  the  other  one,  which  I  know  to 
be  worth  twenty-five  dollars  the  more.  A  large,  well-developed 
sow,  which  has  proved  herself  a  prolific  and  good  breeder,  a 
careful  mother,  and  a  good  suckler,  is  often  a  better  investment 
than  a  hundred  dollars  in  bank. 

When  the  sow  is  to  be  bred  twice  a  year  she  should  have 
the  best  of  care,  but  should  not  be  fed  on  corn  exclusively,  or 
allowed  to  become  fat,  but  should  run  on  grass,  and  have  a  little 
corn  and  good  slop. 

Diseases  of  Swine. — I  have  given  much  thought  and 
study  to  this  subject,  and  consulted  all  the  authorities  at  my 
command,  and  the  more  I  have  investigated  it  the  stronger  the 
conviction  has  become  that  the  fanner  must  avoid  loss  by  pre- 
ventive and  sanitary  measures  rather  than  by  medication.  I  would 
not  affirm  that  he  who  manages  his  herd  wisely  will  always 
escape  disease,  for  in  spite  of  his  best  efforts  he  is  liable  to  u 
visit  from  an  epidemic;  but  I  have  never  known  dosing  to  be 
of  much  benefit  in  such  cases,  and  I  have  little  faith  in  any  of 
the  so-called  specifics  offered  for  these  diseases.  I  have  deter- 
mined, therefore,  to  speak  only  of  causes  and  preventives,  con- 
fident that  the  enormous  losses  from  diseases  of  swine,  which 
in  a  single  year  have  reached  fifty  millions  of  dollars,  can  be 
greatly  reduced  if  farmers  will  give  more  attention  to  this  im- 
portant subject. 


944  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Causes  of  Disease. — The  farmer  of  a  generation  ago  knew 
nothing  of  "hog  cholera,"  and  the  reason  seems  to  be  that  the 
animal  was  treated  in  a  natural  rather  than  an  artificial  way.  It 
was  allowed  unlimited  range,  and  subsisted  largely  on  bulky 
food,  grasses,  roots,  and  mast,  with  some  animal  food  in  the  form 
of  grubs  and  worm's.  He  was  active  and  muscular,  always  on 
the  go,  and  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year  thin  in  flesh, 
never  fat,  except  late  in  the  fall,  after  the  mast  fell,  when  he 
fattened  up  for  winter.  The  modern  hog  is  a  dull,  sluggish  ani- 
mal, with  a  ring  in  his  nose  to  prevent  him  from  rooting ;  he  is 
confined  in  a  pen  or  muddy  lot  for  the  larger  part  of  the  year, 
and  fed  on  corn  exclusively,  which  is  a  rich,  concentrated,  and 
heating  food.  In  addition  to  this,  the  great  object  of  the  breeder 
for  many  generations  has  been  to  develop  fat  and  early  maturity, 
so  that  it  is  now  easy  to  attain  at  ten  or  twelve  months  a  greater 
weight  than  was  formerly  the  result  of  two  years'  feeding. 

Another  cause  of  impaired  vitality  in  the  hog  I  believe  to 
be  the  practice,  almost  universally  followed  for  many  years,  of 
breeding  from  young  sows.  Probably  nine-tenths  of  the  hogs 
in  the  United  Slates  for  a  long  series  of  years  were  the  offspring 
of  parents  not  over  eight  months  old  at  the  time  of  coupling, 
and  the  mothers  nursed  their  young  at  a  time  when  all  their 
energies  were  needed  to  build  up  and  mature  their  own  bodies. 

When  we  consider  these  causes,  which  have  so  changed  the 
constitution  of  the  hog  that  from  the  most  hardy  of  all  domestic 
animals  it  has  become  the  most  subject  to  disease,  our  wonder 
is,  not  that  hogs  have  become  unhealthy,  but  that  the  race  has 
not  become  extinct. 

Hog  Cholera. — All  epidemic  diseases  of  hogs  have  been 
given  the  general  name  of  "cholera,"  although  there  are  several 
forms  of  disease  which  are  quite  dissimilar.  There  is,  perhaps, 
no  better  authority  on  the  diseases  of  swine  than  Dr.  Detmers, 
who,  in  addition  to  large  experience  in  veterinary  practice  both 
in  Europe  and  America,  has  made  a  special  study  of  this  subject. 
In  speaking  of  the  diseases  of  swine  he  says  : 

"I  wish  to  banish  the  name  'hog  cholera,'  which  is  ill-chosen, 
entirely  without  meaning,  and  leads  to  confusion,  as  it  naturally 


SWINE  AND  THEIR  MANAGEMENT.  945 

conveys  the  impression  that  the  diseases  so  named  are  similar 
to  or  identical  with  the  Asiatic  cholera,  or  cholera  of  men,  which 
is  not  the  case.  In  fact,  what  our  farmers  and  swine-breeders 
are  used  to  call  cholera  is  not  a  single  or  separate  disease,  but 
rather  a  group  of  several  kindred  diseases,  similar  to  each  other 
in  regard  to  causes,  morbid  process,  contagiousness,  arid  final 
termination,  but  differing  very  much  as  to  symptoms,  seat  of 
morbid  process,  course,  and  duration." 

The  proper  name  for  all  this  class  of  diseases  is  "Anthrax," 
which  is  a  Greek  word  signifying  carbuncle  or  virulent  ulcer. 

PREVENTIVE  MEASURES. — The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  so 
select  and  manage  the  breeding  stock  as  to  insure  a  good  consti- 
tution and  development.  Breed  only  from  mature  sows,  and  see 
to  it  that  your  breeding  stock  comes  from  a  healthy,  vigorous 
herd,  and  that  the  food  and  care  are  such  as  to  insure  a  well 
developed  animal.  Do  not  buy  show  stock  at  the  fairs  which 
has  been  pampered  and  overfed,  for  in  a  majority  of  cases  it  has 
been  injured  in  this  way  so  as  to  be  unsafe  for  breeding  pur- 
poses. The  great  majority  of  breeding  stock  shipped  by  the 
men  who  make  a  business  of  furnishing  the  farmers  with  pure- 
bred pigs  is  made  too  fat.  I  do  not  think  the  breeders  are  to 
blame  for  this  any  more  than  their  patrons,  for  the  latter  demand 
that  the  pigs  shall  look  nice  and  smooth,  and  plenty  of  corn  will 
bring  them  to  this  condition. 

Pure  drinking  water  should  always  be  provided.  I  have 
little  doubt  that  allowing  hogs  to  drink  from  filthy  pools  or 
wallows  has  been  in  many  cases  the  cause  of  the  loss  of  a  herd. 
A  few  years  since  the  disease  broke  out  with  great  violence  on 
a  farm  in  my  neighborhood,  and  on  visiting  the  farm  to  see  if 
any  local  cause  for  it  could  be  found,  I  learned  that  the  supply 
of  water  in  the  well  had  failed,  and  the  owner  had  been  pump- 
ing water  from  an  abandoned  cistern  located  in  a  barnyard;  and 
on  examination  it  was  found  that  there  was  two  feet  of  manure 
settled  in  the  bottom  of  this  cistern.  Even  where  there  is  pure 
running  water  in  the  pasture  it  often  becomes  a  means  of  con- 
tamination if  the  disease  prevails  on  farms  above,  as  the  germs 
of  disease  will  be  carried  by  the  water  to  the  pasture  below.  If 

60 


946  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

a  farmer  finds  that  the  hogs  of  a  neighbor  are  diseased,  and  the 
water  to  which  they  have  access  flows  through  his  farm,  not  a 
day  should  be  lost  in  removing  his  hogs  from  the  fields  where 
they  can  drink  the  water.  If  the  owner  of  a  herd  notices  any 
signs  of  disease,  or  unthriftiness  even,  he  should  at  once  change 
his  treatment  of  them.  Separate  the  sick  from  the  well,  and,  if 
possible,  change  the  herd  to  a  fresh  lot  or  pasture. 

I  would  recommend  also  a  change  of  food.  If  the  hogs  have 
been  on  pasture,  I  would  begin  moderate  feeding  with  grain  and 
slops.  If  they  have  been  on  heavy  corn  feed  I  would  give  some 
green  food  if  it  could  be  had,  or  if  not  warm  slop  of  bran  and 
oil  meal.  I  have  known  instances  where  the  disease  made  its 
appearance,  with  every  prospect  of  carrying  off  an  entire  herd, 
when,  by  an  immediate  change  of  diet,  its  ravages  were  at  once 
stopped.  In  one  case  the  disease  appeared  in  November  in  a 
herd  of  sixty  spring  pigs,  and  the  owner  turned  them  at  once  on 
a  field  of  rye  and  stopped  feeding  corn.  In  three  weeks  all  the 
symptoms  of  disease  had  disappeared,  and  the  hogs  remained 
thrifty  all  Winter. 

Another  case  that  came  under  my  notice  was  a  herd  of  eighty 
stock  hogs  that  began  to  show  signs  of  disease  about  mid- winter. 
The  owner  reduced  their  feed  to  a  single  ear  of  corn  each  per 
day,  but  fed  his  cattle  with  which  the  hogs  were  running  five 
bushels  of  corn  per  day,  and  allowed  the  hogs  to  get  most  of 
their  living  from  the  droppings  of  the  cattle,  and  very  soon 
noticed  an  improvement  in  the  condition  of  the  hogs,  and  they 
wintered  without  further  loss. 

Another  cause  of  disease  I  believe  to  be  the  practice  of  feed- 
ing in  the  same  lot — and  often  the  same  spot  in  the  lot — for 
years,  so  that  the  soil  becomes  contaminated  with  the  excre- 
ment, and  in  muddy  or  dusty  weather  the  hogs  must  take  more 
or  less  of  this  with  their  food.  When  hogs  are  confined  to  a 
feed  lot  there  should  always  be  a  feed  floor,  and  it  should  be 
cleaned  regularly  so  as  to  be  free  from  dung,  mud,  and  dust. 
Irregular  feeding  I  believe  also  to  be  a  cause  of  disease,  for  any 
thing  that  interferes  with  digestion  or  lowers  the  vitality  invites 
disease.  It  is  a  common  thing  to  see  hogs  overfed,  so  that  from 


SWINE  AND  THEIR  MANAGEMENT.  947 

day  to  day  for  weeks  there  is  always  soiled  corn  lying  by  them, 
and  they  do  not  come  to  their  food  with  a  good  appetite.  I 
believe  such  feeding  to  be  not  only  wasteful,  but  also  to  make 
the  hogs  more  susceptible  to  disease,  and  that  the  farmer  who 
feeds  regularly  as  to  time  and  quantity,  and  by  the  use  of  salt, 
ashes,  and  charcoal,  maintains  a  vigorous  appetite  and  good  diges- 
tion, gets  the  largest  gain  from  his  food  and  reduces  the  risk  of 
loss  from  any  and  all  diseases. 

Still  another  fruitful  cause  of  disease  is  often  found  in  the 
arrangements  for  sleeping.  The  hogs  are  not  assorted  so  as  to 
have  large  and  small  by  themselves,  but  a  large  number  of  all 
sizes  are  allowed  to  pile  up  together,  often  in  a  damp  bed,  with 
but  little  protection  from  wind  or  rain.  Those  in  the  center  of 
the  heap  are  too  hot,  and  the  outer  ones  too  cold.  I  have  often 
in  a  cold  winter  morning  seen  the  hogs  come  from  such  a  bed 
steaming  as  though  just  out  of  a  hot  bath.  Even  when  a  dry 
floor  is  provided  with  sufficient  protection  from  cold  it  is  often 
the  case  that  the  bedding  is  allowed  to  become  foul  and  dusty, 
so  as  to  be  unfit  for  use.  The  beds  should  be  changed  before 
they  reach  this  stage  and  fresh  litter  given.  I  have  found  corn 
fodder  excellent  for  this  purpose,  as  the  hogs  will  eat  the  blades 
and  tear  the  stalks  to  shreds,  and  the  bed  will  remain  clean 
much  longer  than  if  made  from  straw. 

I  believe  that  attention  to  the  points  which  I  have  named 
will,  in  a  great  majority  of  cases,  prevent  disease,  and  while  the 
selection  and  application  of  remedies  involves  trouble  and  ex- 
pense, and  is,  after  all  is  done,  of  doubtful  utility,  these  prevent- 
ive measures  are  simple,  and  sure  to  result  in  good  to  the  herd 
and  profit  to  the  owner. 


948  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


XV. 

SWINE— DESCRIPTION    OF"    BREEDS. 

THE  Poland  -  Chinas. — There  has  been  interminable 
wrangling  among  the  breeders  of  the  different  strains  of 
these  hogs,  and  enough  has  been  written  to  fill  volumes 
in  trying  to  prove  or  disprove  the  claims  of  A  or  B  that  they 
were  the  originators  of  the  breed.  It  is  not  my  purpose,  how- 
ever, to  discuss  this  question,  for  it  is  one  in  which  the  general 
public  has  no  interest,  but  rather  to  describe  the  breed  as  I 
have  known  it  from  my  boyhood.  Although  breeders  differ  on 
many  points  in  the  history  of  these  hogs,  they  all  agree  that 
they  originated  in  the  Miami  Valley,  and  the  farmers  on  the  bor- 
ders of  Warren  and  Butler  counties,  Ohio,  claim  the  honor  of 
producing  it.  Previous  to  the  meeting  of  the  National  Conven- 
tion of  Swine  Breeders  at  Indianapolis,  in  November,  1872,  where 
the  name  Poland-China  was  adopted,  these  hogs  were  known  by 
a  great  diversity  of  names,  among  which  were  "  Butler  County," 
"  Warren  County,"  "  Magie,"  "  Miami  Valley,"  " Poland," 
"  Shaker,"  "  Union  Village,"  "  Dick's  Creek,"  and  many  other 
local  names.  It  would  have  been  wise,  I  think,  if  the  conven- 
tion had  named  them  "  The  Miami  Hog,"  thus  perpetuating  the 
locality  which  originated  it,  and  of  which  there  is  no  dispute. 

The  breed  was  produced  by  the  crossing  of  the  various 
breeds  of  improved  hogs  that  had  been  brought  into  the  Miami 
Valley  at  an  early  day,  and  among  the  breeds  claimed  as  hav- 
ing contributed  to  the  formation  of  the  "  Poland-Chinas "  are 
the  "Byfield,"  "Russia,"  "Big  China,"  "Irish  Graziers,"  "Berk- 
shires,"  and  "Poland."  On  this  point  there  has  been  much  con- 
troversy, however,  some  of  the  breeders  claiming  that  there  was 
no  Berkshire  blood  used,  and  others  that  there  was  no  such 


SWINE— DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS. 


949 


breed  of  hogs  as  the  Poland,  but  that  the  name  originated  from 
the  fact  that  one  valuable  strain  of  the  hogs  was  produced  from 
a  boar  owned  by  an  old  Polander  named  Asher  Asher.  The  first 
importation  of  hogs  of  which  we  have  a  record  which  were  used 
in  producing  this  breed  was  of  the  Big  China,  in  1816,  while 


POLAND-CHINA  BOAR,  KINO  OF  P.-C.'S,  5,599. 
Property  of  L.  N.  Bonham  and  S.  E.  Shellenberger,  Oxford,  Butler  County,  Ohio. 

other  breeds  were  brought  later,  the  Irish  Graziers  not  till  1839 
or  1840,  and  it  was  between  1840  and  1850  that  the  breed  be- 
gan to  attract  attention. 

During  the  thirty-five  years  that  I  have  lived  in  Butler 
County,  Ohio,  I  have  seen  great  improvement  in  these  hogs,  and 
I  believe  the  breed  now  to  be  as  pure  and  thoroughly  established 
as  the  Berkshire  or  any  other.  Up  to  twenty  years  ago  I  do  not 
think  this  was  true,  for  there  was  not  at  that  time  uniformity 
of  shape  or  color  such  as  we  now  see.  It  was  very  common 
then  for  sandy  pigs,  or  those  with  more  white  than  black,  to  be 
found  in  litters  bred  from  parents  neither  of  which  showed  these 
colors,  and  some  of  the  pigs  would  be  coarse  and  heavy  boned, 
while  others  were  much  finer  and  of  more  compact  build.  In 
the  hands  of  our  best  breeders  they  are  now  found  of  almost 
perfect  uniformity  in  color  and  shape.  For  ten  years  or  more 
past  the  tendency  has  been  to  dark  colors,  and  among  many  of 
our  best  breeders  the  Poland-China  can  now  hardly  be  called  a 


950  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

spotted  hog,  as  the  most  carefully  bred  specimens  show  but  lit- 
tle more  white  than  the  Berkshire. 

For  the  great  corn-growing  regions  of  the  West,  there  is  per- 
haps, in  the  estimation  of  many  practical  farmers,  no  other  breed 
that  equals  this  as  a  pork  producer  when  purely  bred,  and  cer- 
tainly none  that  produces  a  finer  and  better  hog  when  crossed 
with  the  Berkshire.  The  description  of  this  breed  as  adopted 
by  the  Swine  Breeders'  Convention  that  decided  on  their  name 
is  as  follows  :  "  They  have  good  length ;  short  legs ;  broad,  straight 
backs ;  deep  sides,  flanking  well  down  on  the  leg ;  very  broad, 
full,  square  hams  and  shoulders ;  drooping  ears ;  short  heads ; 
wide  between  the  eyes ;  of  spotted  or  dark  color.  They  are 
hardy,  vigorous,  and  prolific,  and  when  fat  are  perfect  models, 
pre-eminently  combining  the  excellences  of  both  large  and  small 
breeds."  They  fatten  readily  at  an  early  age,  and  may  be  profit- 
ably fed  for  pig  pork,  or  if  kept  till  eighteen  or  twenty  months 
old  they  make  large  heavy  hogs. 


K"V*''^,«*;&yv       ,,,-.->"  ."'•"^Tf^T'*^-'  .V.'  '"1."  — ...-  .  .  V^t>'* 


POLAND-CHINA  SOW,  BLACKFACE  MARY.  7,568. 
Bred  and  owned  by  L.  N.  Bonham,  Oxford,  Butler  County,  Ohio. 

The  above  description,  it  will  be  remembered,  was  adopted 
in  1872,  and  during  the  next  ten  years  the  prominent  object  of 
breeders  was  to  breed  out  the  coarse  heavy  bone  and  ear,  and 
to  produce  a  finer  hog.  In  1883  a  convention  of  our  best  breed- 
ers adopted  the  following  scale  of  points  : 


S  WINE— D  ESC  RIP  TION  OF  BREEDS.  951 

Head  small,  broad,  dished,       .......  10 

Ear  thin,  fine,  drooping,      .......  3 

Neck  short,  full,  well  arched,  .......  4 

Jowl  neat  and  full,      ........  2 

Brisket  full  and  deep,      ........  3 

Shoulder  broad  and  deep, 7 

Girth  about  heart,  .........  9 

Back  straight  and  broad, 5 

Sides  deep  and  full,          ........  9 

Ribs  well  sprung,         ........  9 

Loin  broad  and  strong,    ........  7 

Belly  wide  and  straight,       .......  5 

Flank  well  let  down,        ........  3 

Ham  broad,  full,  and  deep,          ......  10 

Coat  fine  and  thick,         ........  4 

Limbs  strong,  straight,  and  neat,         .....  5 

Tail  tapering,  and  not  coarse,           ......  2 

Color  dark  spotted,      ........  3 

Total, 100 

As  a  specimen  of  the  weight  which  can  be  made  with  these 
hogs  I  give  the  following,  which  has  been  vouched  for  by  the 
owner  of  the  hogs  : 

In  1867  a  sow  belonging  to  Mr.  Thomas  J.  Conover,  of  But- 
ler County,  Ohio,  produced  eleven  pigs  on  the  18th  day  of  April. 
In  October  following  she  and  her  pigs  weighed  2,735  pounds. 
The  sow  pigs  were  kept  for  breeders,  but  five  barrows  of  the 
litter  at  eight  months  and  twenty  days  old  averaged  282  pounds, 
and  the  sow  fattened  the  same  fall  weighed  net  535  pounds. 
In  1869  the  same  gentleman  exhibited  a  sow  and  six  pigs  that 
weighed  2,000  pounds,  the  pigs  being  but  five  months  old. 

The  Berkshires. — In  numbers  and  importance  the  Berk- 
shire hog  stands  next  to  the  Poland-China,  while  by  many  farmers 
they  are  preferred  to  any  or  all  other  breeds.  They  were  intro- 
duced generally  into  the  United  States  about  the  year  1832, 
although  one  or  two  importations  had  been  made  previously,  one 
as  early  as  1823,  and  for  ten  years  there  raged  what  might  be 
called  a  Berkshire  fever.  They  sold  at  fancy  prices,  often  bring- 
ing from  $50  to  $100  per  pair,  and  that  at  a  time  when  hogs  and 
the  hog  products  were  uniformly  low  priced,  ordinary  hogs  sell- 
ing at  from  one  to  three  dollars  per  hundred  pounds.  Doubtless 
stimulated  by  these  high  prices  dishonest  dealers  sold  grades  as 
pure  bred,  and  farmers  at  that  early  day  were  not  prepared  to 


952  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

give  the  care  to  these  hogs  that  they  required,  and  the  conse- 
quence was  that  a  reaction  set  in,  and  farmers  became  disgusted 
with  them  so  that  the  very  name  of  Berkshire  was  an  offense. 

It  was  not  until  new  importations  of  the  finest  specimens 
of  the  improved  Berkshires  that  could  be  found  in  England  were 
brought  to  this  country,  about  1865,  that  the  real  merits  of  the 
breed  became  known,  and  the  prejudice  against  them  began  to 
abate.  They  have  generally  been  called  a  small  breed,  but  the 
improved  Berkshire  now  is  but  little  inferior  in  size  to  the  Po- 
land-China. J.  A.  Brown,  of  Milton,  Illinois,  sold  a  lot  of  Berk- 
shire pigs,  nine  months  old,  that  averaged  three  hundred  and 
five  pounds,  and  they  are  often  found  at  eighteen  and  twenty 
months  old  that  will  weigh  five  hundred  pounds,  or  more. 

The  points  of  excellency  claimed  for  them  are :  1st.  Great 
muscular  power  and  vitality,  which  renders  them  less  liable  to 
disease  than  many  other  breeds.  2d.  Activity  combined  with 
strong  digestive  and  assimilative  powers,  which  enables  them  to 
give  good  returns  in  flesh  and  fat  for  the  food  consumed.  They 
are  excellent  grazers,  and  their  meat  is  marbled  or  streaked  with 
lean,  making  the  hams  more  desirable  than  those  of  other  breeds 
that  are  more  inclined  to  fat.  3d.  The  sows  are  unequaled  as 
mothers,  being  prolific,  good  sucklers  and  very  careful  nurses. 
4th.  The  pigs  are  strong  and  active  at  birth,  and  not  so  liable  to 
mishaps  as  those  of  many  other  breeds.  5th.  They  may  be 
fattened  young,  making  the  finest  quality  of  pig  pork,  or  if 
kept  till  maturity  they  can  be  fed  to  any  reasonable  weight. 
6th.  They  are  unsurpassed  by  any  breed  for  uniformity  of  color, 
marking  and  quality,  and  in  the  power  of  the  boar  to  transmit 
the  valuable  qualities  of  the  breed  to  its  progeny  when  used  as 
a  cross.  When  crossed  with  the  Poland-China  they  make  the 
best  feeding  hog  in  existence,  whether  they  are  to  be  fed  at 
eight  to  ten  months  old,  or  kept  over  to  be  fattened  at  maturity. 
The  breed  is  so  prominent,  and  its  merits  so  well  understood 
that  an  "  American  Berkshire  Association  "  has  been  formed  and 
a  herd  book  published. 

This  convention  agreed  upon  the  following  as  the  character- 
istics and  markings  of  the  Berkshire  hog:  "Color  black,  with 


"954  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

white  on  feet,  face,  tip  of  tail,  and  an  occasional  splash  of 
white  on  the  arm,  and  a  small  spot  of  white  on  some  other 
part  of  the  body  does  not  argue  an  impurity  of  blood,  yet  it  is 
to  be  discouraged  to  the  end  that  uniformity  of  color  may  be 
attained  by  breeders.  White  upon  one  ear,  or  a  bronze  or  copper 
colored  spot  on  some  part  of  the  body  argues  no  impurity,  but 
rather  a  reappearance  of  original  colors.  Markings  of  white 
other  than  those  named  above  are  suspicious,  and  a  pig  so 
marked  should  be  rejected. 

"Face  short,  fine,  and  well  dished,  broad  between  the  eyes; 
ears  generally  almost  erect,  but  sometimes  inclining  forward 
with  advancing  age;  small,  thin,  soft,  and  showing  veins,  jowl 
full,  neck  short  and  thick ;  shoulders  short  from  neck  to  middling? 
deep  from  back  down;  back  broad  and  straight,  or  a  very  little 
arched ;  ribs — long  ribs  well  sprung,  giving  rotundity  of  body, 
short  ribs  of  good  length,  giving  breadth  and  levelness  of  loins ; 
hips  good  length  from  point  of  hip  to  rump;  hams  thick,  round, 
and  deep,  holding  their  thickness  well  back  and  down  to  the 
hocks ;  tail  fine  and  small,  set  on  high  up ;  legs  short  and  fine 
but  straight  and  very  strong,  with  hoofs  erect,  legs  set  wide 
apart,  size  medium,  length  medium  (extremes  are  to  be  avoided); 
bone  fine  and  compact,  offal  very  light,  hair  fine  and  compact, 
skin  pliable." 

With  the  points  of  excellence  combined  in  the  pure  bred 
Berkshires  the  farmer  who  breeds  them  is  not  likely  to  be 
disappointed. 

The  Chester  Whites.— The  Chester  White  hog  belongs 
to  what  are  designated  as  the  large  breeds,  and  have  been  de- 
scribed as  a  coarse,  hardy  breed,  of  good  constitution.  Under 
the  hands  of  our  best  breeders  they  have  been  improved  and 
refined  until  they  are  of  as  good  form  and  quality  as  the  Poland- 
China,  and  if  of  the  same  color  might  easily  be  mistaken  for 
them.  One  thing  has  tended  to  bring  them  into  disrepute,  and 
that  is  that  many  mongrel  white  hogs  were  sold  as  "  Chester 
White"  that  were  as  ill-bred  and  devoid  of  valuable  qualities  as 
it  is  easy  to  conceive  of  a  hog  being,  and  wherever  these  were 
sold  the  entire  neighborhood  became  disgusted  with  the  name. 


956  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

The  breed  originated  in  Chester  County,  Pennsylvania,  from 
which  it  takes  its  name,  and  probably  dates  back  to  an  impor- 
tation made  from  England  in  1818,  thus  outranking  the  Berk- 
shire in  the  length  of  time  they  have  been  bred  in  this  country. 
Some  have  objected  to  them  because  they  are  too  large,  but  as 
they  will  fatten  readily  at  any  age  this  does  not  seem  a  valid 
objection.  There  has  been  a  marked  improvement  in  the  breed 
during  the  past  few  years,  and  the  coarseness  of  bone,  head, 
ears,  and  hair  has  been  greatly  reduced.  Among  the  farmers 
at  the  West  they  have  never  become  popular,  as  they  are  thought 
in  this  climate  and  under  the  Western  system  of  treatment  to  be 
subject  to  skin  disease,  especially  mange. 

The  points  adopted  by  the  National  Convention  for  this  breed 
are  as  follows  :  Head  short,  broad  between  the  eyes ;  ears  thin, 
projecting  forward  and  lap  at  the  point;  neck  short  and  thick, 
body  lengthy  and  deep,  broad  on  back ;  hams  full  and  deep ;  legs 
short  and  well  set  under  for  bearing  the  weight;  coat  thinish 
white,  straight,  and  if  a  little  wavy  not  objectionable;  small  tail, 
and  no  bristles. 

The  Essex. — The  Essex  hog  is  rarely  found  in  the  West, 
and  has  never  been  bred  to  any  great  extent  for  pork.  It 
belongs  to  the  small  breeds,  weighing  when  mature  from  two 
hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred  and  seventy-five  pounds.  No 
hog  ever  bred  in  this  country  can  claim  greater  purity  of  blood, 
and  perhaps  none  is  more  valuable  to  use  for  crossing  on  the 
larger  breeds. 

The  merits  specially  claimed  for  them  are  early  maturity 
and  excellent  quality  of  flesh.  As  graziers  they  are  unexcelled 
by  any  other  breed,  and  will  keep  in  good  breeding  condition  on 
grass  alone,  and  will  often  come  from  the  pastures  fat  enough 
for  the  butcher.  They  are  never  affected  with  mange  or  any 
of  the  skin  diseases  to  which  white  hogs  are  subject.  Their 
greatest  defect  is  a  delicacy  of  constitution,  causing  them  to 
require  much  care  when  young,  and  an  excessive  aptitude  to 
fatten,  which  often  diminishes  the  fertility  of  the  sows. 

They  are  described  as  follows  :  "  Color,  black ;  face,  short 
and  dishing;  ears  small,  soft,  and  stand  erect  when  young,  but 


SWINE— DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS. 


957 


droop  somewhat  with  age ;  carcass  long,  broad,  straight  and 
deep;  ham  heavy  and  well  let  down;  bone  fine;  carcass,  when 
fat,  composed  mostly  of  lard;  hair  ordinarily  rather  thin.  The 


ESSEX  BOAR. 


fattening  qualities  are  very  superior.  They  are  prolific  breeders 
and  fair  nurses. 

There  is  a  larger  strain  of  this  breed  called  the  Improved 
Essex.  This  improvement  was  made  by  an  English  breeder 
who  crossed  with  the  Neapolitan  pig.  They  have  also  been  in- 
troduced into  this  country.  These  improved  Essex,  while  they 
mature  early  and  make  the  best  of  pig  pork  at  from  five  to  eight 
months  old,  will,  if  kept  to  maturity,  attain  a  weight  of  four  to 
five  hundred  pounds. 

Jersey  Reds. — This  breed  seems  to  be  gaining  some  prom- 
inence, and  undoubtedly  possesses  qualities  capable  of  making  it 
valuable.  A  convention  of  the  Western  breeders  of  these  hogs 
was  held  in  June,  1883,  at  which  the  name  of  Duroc  or  Jersey 
Red  was  adopted. 

The  name  Duroc,  it  appears,  had  been  used  for  these  hogs  for 
many  years  before  the  name  Jersey  Red  was  applied  to  them.  The 
Duroc  hog  of  Saratoga  County,  New  York,  has  an  authenticated 
history  dating  back  as  far  as  1824,  while  it  was  not  till  many 
years  later  that  they  were  called  Jersey  Red.  The  above  state- 


958  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

ment  is  on  the  authority  of  Colonel  F.  D.  Curtis,  who  gives  it  as 
his  belief  that  all  the  red  hogs  in  America  are  descended  from 
the  original  Berkshires.  The  same  hog  undoubtedly  is  bred  in 
many  parts  of  the  country  under  the  name  of  Red  Berkshire. 
There  is  at  present  quite  a  diversity  in  the  appearance  of  dif- 
ferent families  of  these  hogs,  some  of  them  being  very  large 
and  coarse,  while  others  have  been  bred  to  a  medium  size  and 
finer  form. 

The  standard  of  characteristics  adopted  by  the  convention  of 
breeders  of  these  hogs  is  as  follows :  "  The  true  Duroc  or  Jersey 
Red  should  be  long,  quite  deep  bodied,  not  round  but  broad  on 
the  back,  and  holding  the  width  well  out  to  the  hips  and  hams. 
The  head  should  be  small  compared  with  the  body,  with  the 
cheek  broad  and  full,  with  considerable  breadth  between  the 
eyes.  The  neck  should  be  short  and  thick,  and  the  face  slightly 
curved,  with  the  nose  rather  longer  than  in  the  English  breeds; 
the  ear  rather  large  and  lopped  over  the  eyes  and  not  erect; 
bone  not  fine  nor  yet  course,  but  medium;  the  legs  medium  in 


JERSEY  RED  HOG. 
From  Wlllinm  Henry  Manic,  Philadelphia,  Penn. 

size  and  length,  but  set  well  under  the  body  and  well  apart,  and 
not  cut  up  high  in  the  flank  or  above  the  knee;  the  hams 
broad  and  full,  well  down  to  the  hock.  There  should  be  a  good 
coat  of  hair  of  medium  fineness,  inclining  to  bristles  at  the  top 
of  the  shoulders,  the  tail  being  hairy  and  not  small.  The  hair 
usually  straight,  but  in  some  cases  a  little  wavy.  The  color 


fiWIXE—  DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS.  959 

should  be  red,  varying  from  dark  glossy  cherry  red,  and  even 
brownish  hair  to  light,  yellowish  red,  with  occasionally  a  small 
fleck  of  black  on  the  belly  and  legs.  The  darker  shades  of  red 
are  preferred  by  most  breeders,  and  this  type  of  color  is  most 
desirable.  In  disposition  they  are  remarkably  mild  and  gentle. 
When  full  grown  they  should  dress  from  four  hundred  to  five 
hundred  pounds,  and  pigs  at  nine  months  old  should  dress  from 
two  hundred  and  fifty  to  three  hundred  pounds." 

The  points  of  value  claimed  for  these  hogs  are,  their  large 
size,  strong  constitution,  and  capacity  for  growth.  They  are  not 
subject  to  mange. 

The  Suffolks. — The  Suffolks  are  not  raised  to  any  great 
extent  in  the  pork-producing  States,  as  they  are  somewhat  del- 
icate, and  difficult  to  raise.  The  objections  to  them  are  their 
small  size,  that  they  are  poor  nurses,  and  that  they  have  a 
tender  skin  and  thin  hair,  and  can  not  endure  the  exposure  to 
which  the  hog  in  the  pork-producing  region  is  subjected.  In 
short,  they  are  a  fancy  pig  for  the  amateur,  rather  than  a  prof- 
itable one  for  the  farmer.  Probably  the  finest  herds  of  Suffolks 
in  this  country  have  been  bred  by  Hon.  John  Wentworth,  of 
Cook  County,  111.,  and  Mr.  William  Smith,  of  Detroit,  Mich., 
both  of  whom  have  bred  them  for  many  years,  and  have  long 
been  enthusiastic  admirers  of  the  breed.  * 

The  characteristics  and  markings  of  the  breed  are  given  as 
follows:  "Head  small,  very  short;  cheeks  prominent  and  full; 
face  dished ;  snout  small  and  very  short ;  jowl  fine ;  ears  short, 
small,  thin,  upright,  soft,  and  silky ;  neck  very  short  and  thick, 
the  head  appearing  almost  as  if  set  on  front  of  the  shoulders ; 
no  arching  of  crest;  chest  wide  and  deep;  elbows  standing  out; 
brisket  wide,  but  not  deep ;  shoulders  thick,  rather  upright, 
rounding  outwards  from  top  to  elbow ;  wide  and  full  sides  and 
flanks ;  long  ribs,  -well  arched  out  from  back  ;  good  length  be- 
tween shoulders  and  hams  ;  flank  well  filled  out,  and  coming 
well  down  to  ham ;  back  broad,  level,  and  straight  from  crest  to 
tail,  no  falling  off*  or  down  at  tail ;  hams  wide  and  full,  well 
rounded  out;  twist  very  wide  and  full  all  the  way  down;  legs 
small  and  very  short,  standing  wide  apart,  in  .sows  just  keeping 


SWINE— DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS.  961 

the  belly  from  the  ground  ;  bone  fine ;  feet  small,  hoofs  rather 
spreading ;  tail  small,  long,  and  tapering ;  skin  thin,  of  a  pinkish 
shade,  free  from  color ;  hair  fine  and  silky,  not  too  thick — color 
of  hair  pale  yellowish  white,  perfectly  free  from  any  spots  or 
other  color ;  size  small  to  medium. 

The  Yorkshire. — The  Yorkshire  hog  is  rarely  to  be  found 
in  the  United  States,  and  for  what  knowledge  I  have  of  them 
I  am  indebted  to  the  report  submitted  to  the  National  Swine 
Breeders'  Convention.  The  committee  claim  "that  the  white 
Yorkshire,  as  now  established  in  this  country  and  England,  is 
the  most  thorough-bred  hog  known."  They  recommend  them  as 
valuable  to  breed  from  or  to  cross  on  other  breeds,  and  give  the 
following  reasons  for  this  recommendation: 

"  1st.  They  are  of  a  size,  shape,  and  flesh  that  are  desirable 
for  the  family  or  the  packers'  use. 

"2d.  They  have  a  hardy,  vigorous  constitution,  and  a  good 
coat  of  hair  protecting  the  skin  so  well,  either  in  extreme  cold 
or  hot  weather,  that  it  rarely  freezes  or  blisters. 

"3d.  They  are  very  quiet  and  good  graziers;  they  feed 
well,  and  fatten  quickly  at  any  age. 

"  4th.  They  are  very  prolific  and  good  mothers ;  and  the 
young  never  vary  in  color,  and  so  little  in  shape  that  their  form 
when  matured  may  be  determined  in  advance  by  an  inspection 
of  the  sire  and  dam." 

There  is  a  strain  of  these  hogs  called  the  "Yorkshire  Me- 
dium or  Middle-breed,"  which  has  been  produced  by  a  cross  of 
the  large  and  the  small  York  and  the  Cumberland.  These  are 
about  the  same  size  as  the  Berkshire,  but  have  smaller  heads, 
and  are  lighter  in  the  bone. 

The  Cheshire. — These  hogs  are  also  called  the  Jefferson 
County  Swine  of  New  York.  Probably  there  is  no  better  au- 
thority on  these  hogs  than  Mr.  J.  H.  Sanders,  editor  of  National 
Live  Stock  Journal.  He  says  of  them,  in  "  Coburn's  Swine 
Husbandry :" 

"In  my  opinion,  the  Cheshire  is  simply  a  derivative  of  the 
Yorkshire.  I  bred  the  so-called  Cheshire  for  six  or  seven  years, 
and  took  a  deep  interest  in  noticing  the  variations  and  changes 

61 


962 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


that  were  produced  in  that  time  by  selection,  in-breeding,  and 
crossing.  Within  the  space  of  seven  years,  without  introducing 
any  blood  but  what  was  supposed  to  be  pure,  I  produced  all  the 
different  types  of  the  Yorkshire,  from  the  large  York  down  to 


CHESHIRE  BOAR— PRINCE  ALBERT. 
Property  of  W.  G.  Smith  &  Co.,  Mansfield,  O. 

the"  Lancashire  Short-face.  The  white  color  was  firmly  fixed; 
and  I  never  knew  one  of  my  Cheshire  boars  to  get  a  pig  that 
had  a  black  hair  on  it,  although  they  were  bred  to  sows  of  all 
breeds,  including  the  purest  Essex. 

"  The  type  which  I  finally  succeeded  in  fixing  upon  the 
Cheshires  was  almost  identical,  in  size,  form,  and  quality,  with 
the  most  approved  medium  Berkshire.  Indeed,  so  marked  was 
this  resemblance  in  every  thing  but  color  that  they  were  often 


CHESHIRE   SOW-ALICE   I. 
Property  of  W.  O.  Smith  &  Co.,  Mansfield,  O. 


facetiously  called  white  Berkshires.  As  bred  by  me,  I  regarded 
them  as  among  the  very  best  of  white  hogs.  They  were  well 
haired,  had  a  very  delicate,  pink  skin,  and  their  meat  was  most 
excellent,  tender,  and  juicy." 


SWINE— DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS.  963 

Mr.  Smith,  who  furnishes  us  the  cuts  of  this  breed,  says  of 
them  :  "  From  the  most  reliable  information,  this  most  valuable 
breed  of  swine  were  originated  by  crossing  the  very  large 
Cheshire  with  the  pure  bred  Yorkshire  and  Lancashire,  and  were 
exhibited  with  very  great  success  at  all  the  leading  fairs  in  the 
State  of  New  York  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  years  since,  car- 
rying off  nearly  all  the  premiums  wherever  exhibited.  They 
were  sometimes  exhibited  as  Cheshire  and  Yorkshire,  or  improved 
Cheshire  in  many  instances;  but  having  been  bred  pure  for  many 
years  in  a  direct  line,  without  a  particle  of  blood  of  any  of  the 
dark  breeds,  they  are  now,  and  have  been  during  many  years 
past,  regarded  as  a  distinct  breed,  and  the  males,  therefore,  pos- 
sess to  a  most  wonderful  degree  the  power  of  impressing  their 
own  form,  characteristics,  and  pure  white  color  when  crossed 
upon  other  breeds.  They  are  larger  than  the  Suffolks,  with  a 
much  finer  bone  and  coat  than  the  Chester  Whites,  and  grow 
equally  as  large,  with  a  much  greater  aptitude  to  fatten  at  an 
early  age.  Their  great  value  over  other  breeds  consists  in  their 
quiet,  gentle  disposition;  their  ability  to  produce  and  care  for 
large  litters ;  their  lean,  juicy  hams  and  shoulders ;  their  choice 
breakfast  slices,  and  fine  grazing  qualities.  All  admirers  of  high 
bred,  pure  and  white  swine  will  be  very  greatly  interested  in 
the  rearing  of  this  important  breed." 

Lancashires. — There  are  three  families  of  this  breed  of 
hogs.  1st.  "The  Short-faced  Lancashire;"  2  d.  "  Large  Lanca- 
shire," and  3d.  "  Lancashire  Middle  Breed." 

The  first  is  described  as  follows  :  Face  short  from  the  eyes 
to  the  end  of  the  snout;  prick  ears,  small  bones,  a  good  coat  of 
white  hair,  cubic  in  form,  with  broad  back  and  broad  hams  well 
set  down.  The  skin  as  well  as  the  hair  is  white,  although  an 
occasional  one  may  be  found  having  a  few  dark  blue  spots  in 
the  skin,  but  never  dark  or  black  hairs.  These  hogs  were  first 
imported  to  the  United  States  in  1870.  Several  subsequent  im- 
portations have  been  made. 

"  The  Large  Lancashires "  have  large  bone,  are  of  great 
height  and  length,  and  are  claimed  to  be  the  largest  breed  of 
hogs  known.  They  were  first  imported  in  1870. 


964 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


"  The  Lancashire  Middle  Breed  "  has  been  obtained  by  cross- 
ing the  large  sows  with  the  small  boars,  and  it  partakes  of  the 
small  breed,  while  it  gets  its  size  from  the  large. 

Victorias. — Colonel  F.  D.  Curtis,  of  New  York,  has  pro- 
duced several  crosses  of  a  pure  white  hog,  to  which  the  name 
"Victorias"  has  been  given.  At  the  National  Swine  Breeder's 
Convention  a  special  committee  was  appointed  to  prepare  a  re- 
port upon  this  breed,  who  offered  the  following,  which  was 
adopted :  "  The  special  committee  to  whom  was  referred  the  re- 
port of  the  committee  on  Victorias,  would  respectfully  report  that 
having  considered  the  same,  we  can  only  add  that  the  efforts 
of  Colonel  Curtis  are  to  be  commended,  arid  that  his  success,  so 


VICTORIA  SOW— QUEEN  VICTORIA. 
Property  of  O.  M.  Emerick,  Chicago,  Illinois. 

well  indorsed,  is  another  evidence  of  the  ability  of  the  swine 
breeders  of  America  to  create,  by  judicious  crossing  of  the  pure 
breeds  upon  the  swine  of  their  respective  localities,  just  such  a 
hog  as  their  climate  and  commercial  interests  demand.  We 
would  bespeak  for  the  Victorias  a  hearty  welcome  and  a  fair 
trial  by  intelligent  breeders  in  the  various  States."" 

CHARACTERISTICS  AND  MARKINGS  OF  THE  VICTORIAS. — The  color 
is  white,  with  a  good  coat  of  fine,  soft  hair ;  the  head  thin,  fine, 
and  closely  set  on  the  shoulders;  the  face  slightly  dishing;  the 
snout  short;  the  ears  erect,  small,  and  very  light  or  thin;  the 


SWINE— DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS.  965 

shoulders  bulging  and  deep;  legs  short  and  fine;  the  back  broad, 
straight,  and  level,  and  the  body  long  ;  the  hams  round  and  swell- 
ing, and  high  at  the  base  of  the  tail,  with  plaits  or  folds  between 
the  thighs ;  the  tail  fine  and  free  from  wrinkles  or  rolls ;  feath- 
ers or  rosettes  on  the  back  are  common;  the  skin  is  thin,  soft, 
and  elastic ;  the  flesh  fine  grained  and  firm,  with  small  bone  and 
thick  side  pork.  The  pigs  easily  keep  in  condition,  and  can  be 
made  ready  for  slaughter  at  any  age."  They  can  easily  be 
made  to  weigh  from  three  hundred  to  four  hundred  pounds  at 
twelve  months  old,  and  even  these  weights  have  been  exceeded. 
They  possess  great  prepotency,  transmitting  with  uniformity 
their  color  and  good  qualities  to  their  offspring.  They  are  ex- 
cellent breeders,  and  the  pigs  are  hardy. 


966  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

SWINE— HOUSING*   AND    FATTENING*. 

HOG-HOUSES  and  Pens.— To  insure  success  with 
young  pigs,  good  shelter  must  be  provided.  An  incalcu- 
lable number  of  pigs  are  lost  every  year  for  the  want  of 
this.  A  good  hog-house  can  be  made  so  cheaply  that  no  farm 
should  be  without  one  or  more.  I  have  experimented  consider- 
ably to  ascertain  the  best  and  cheapest  way  to  build  a  piggery, 
and  have  finally  settled  on  a  plan  that  combines  economy  and 
convenience,  and  possesses,  in  my  judgment,  more  good  points 
than  any  I  have  ever  seen.  In  visiting  and  inspecting  hog- 
houses  before  I  had  put  up  any,  I  found  in  nearly  every  in- 
stance that  they  were  too  expensive,  and  often  that  they  were 
badly  located  or  defective  in  some  way,  that  they  were  not  ar- 
ranged so  as  to  economize  space,  or  to  be  convenient  to  clean; 
or  that  they  were  so  situated  as  to  allow  the  manure  to  waste, 
or  so  managed  as  to  be  an  offense  to  the  nostrils.  I  have  vis- 
ited farms  where  the  hog-house  was  as  strongly  framed  as  the 
barn,  with  sills  a  foot  square,  and  eight-inch  posts,  and  the  frame 
alone,  without  a  board  or  shingle  on  it,  cost  as  much  as  the 
completed  building  should. 

I  have  built  during  the  last  twenty-five  years  six  hog-houses 
on  my  own  farms,  and  in  the  later  built  ones  I  have  secured  better 
accommodations  than  in  those  I  built  first,  and  at  half  the  cost. 
Instead  of  building  one  large,  elaborate  building,  I  prefer  two 
or  more  smaller  ones,  as  may  be  necessary.  One  reason  for 
this  is  that  I  think  it  an  advantage  to  be  able  to  move  the  hog- 
house  occasionally,  as  the  ground  is  likely,  in  the  course  of 
years  to  become  contaminated,  and  such  a  house  as  I  build  can 
be  moved  two  or  three  times  its  length  at  an  expense  of  two  or 


SWINE-HOUSING  AND  FATTENING.  967 

three  dollars.  I  build  with  light  material  and  what  is  called 
a  balloon  frame,  by  which  I  mean  that  there  is  no  mortising  or 
tenons,  but  that  it  is  put  together  with  spikes.  This  in  a  small 
building  I  consider  as  good  as  a  heavy  frame,  for  every  board 
in  such  a  building  is  a  brace,  and  when  complete  it  is  as  firm  as 
if  built  of  the  heaviest  timber.  After  trying  different  widths,  I 
have  adopted  eight  feet,  as  I  find  this  gives  ample  room  for  all 
the  hogs  that  can  be  accommodated  at  the  trough. 

The  pens  can  be  made  any  length  to  suit.  I  have  now  on 
my  farm  four,  one  12,  two  14,  and  one  16  feet  long.  Two  or 
more  of  these  pens  can  be  built  independent  of  each  other,  but, 
if  desirable,  they  can  be  set  end  to  end  so  closely  that  but  one 
of  the  ends  that  come  together  will  need  to  be  weather-boarded. 
I  find  a  house  eight  by  fourteen  feet  will  accommodate  com- 
.fortably  twelve  stock  hogs  of  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five  pounds  each,  and  I  have  fattened  in  one  of  this 
size  ten  weighing  three  hundred  pounds  each,  but  they  were  a 
little  crowded  at  the  last,  and  I  would  not  recommend  more 
than  eight  large  hogs  for  a  pen  of  this  size.  When  we  use  these 
pens  for  brood  sows  we  have  movable  partitions  to  divide  them 
into  two  equal  parts,  and  that  these  partitions  may  be  always 
on  hand,  when  not  in  use,  we  keep  them  on  a  rack  made  for  the 
purpose  under  the  highest  part  of  the  roof.  As  there  should 
be  no  cracks  in  the  partitions  where  there  are  young  pigs,  we 
arrange  to  drop  the  boards  in  singly,  on  top  of  each  other,  till 
the  partition  is  high  enough,  and  then,  to  prevent  the  sows  from 
raising  them  we  put  a  strong  pin  above  the  top  board.  These 
hog-houses  may  be  made  quite  tasty  by  giving  a  little  extra 
pitch  to  the  roof  and  allowing  it  to  project  so  as  to  finish  up 
with  a  cornice. 

If  crib  or  storage-room  is  wanted,  the  posts  can  be  made 
high  enough  to  give  a  loft  above.  One  of  mine,  eight  by  twelve 
feet,  is  made  in  this  way,  and  we  can  store  seventy-five  bushels 
or  more  of  corn  above  it,  and  find  it  a  very  convenient  place  for 
drying  seeds. 

In  connection  with  each  of  these  hog-houses  we  have  an 
outside  pen  of  equal  size,  always  floored  so  as  to  keep  the  hogs 


968  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

from  the  ground,  and  the  floor  from  a  foot  to  eighteen  inches 
lower  than  that  of  the  house.  It  will  be  necessary  to  make 
a  bridge  furnished  with  cleats  to  prevent  the  hogs  from  slipping 
as  they  pass  from  the  lower  floor  to  that  of  the  house.  In  this 
outside  pen  we  keep  a  supply  of  straw,  cornstalks,  or  some 
other  good  absorbent,  and  find  that  the  hogs  make  a  large 
amount  of  valuable  manure  here. 

It  is  impossible  to  keep  a  hog-house  clean  if  the  hogs  are 
confined  to  a  single  room  with  the  floor  on  one  level;  and  if  an 
outside  pen,  without  a  floor,  is  allowed,  the  result  will  be  a  filthy 
wallow,  reeking  with  foul  odors.  With  the  outside  pen  floored 
and  supplied  with  absorbents  a  hog-house  will  never  become 
offensive,  and  it  will  be  an  easy  matter  to  keep  the  house  clean. 
I  make  the  floor  to  the  outside  pen  of  cheap  lumber,  using  inch 
boards  laid  on  old  pieces  of  scantling,  laid  flat  on  the  ground.. 
I  can  get  good  beech  boards  at  one  dollar  and  a  quarter  per 
hundred,  and  at  this  rate  all  the  material  for  the  floor  costs  but 

about  two  dollars,  and  it  will  last 
five  or  six  years,  when  it  will  need 
to  be  renewed. 

The  engraving  shows  a  cut  of 
one  of  my   hog-houses,  eight  feet 
wide   and   fourteen   long,   without 
HOG-HOUSE.  loft.     I  would  advise  that  the  roof 

be  made  steeper  than  shown  in  cut.  For  a  foundation  to  a 
house  of  this  size  you  can  use  locust  or  other  good  posts, 
large  boulders,  or  brick  or  stone  pillars.  The  bill  of  lumber  is 
as  follows : 

2  sills  6  inches  square  and  8  feet  long,          ....  48 

5  joists  2x10  and  14  feet  long, 117 

Flooring  common  inch,  laid  double,     .....  200 

4  posts  4x4,  for  the  corners,    ......  32 

2x4  studding  for  plates,  nail  ties,  etc.,          ....  48 

8  rafters  2x4  and  10  feet  long, 52 

Inch  siding,          .........  280 

Sheathing 100 

Total  feet  of  lumber,    .......       877 


SWINE— HO  USING  AND  FATTENING.  969 

This  877  feet  of  lumber,  at  $1.75  per  100,  would  cost        .  $15  34 

To  which  add  1,000  shingles, 4  25 

Nails 1  50 


Making  a  total  of  .  .  $21  09 

as  the  cost  of  materials  for  this  hog-house. 

Any  one  who  can  use  a  level,  saw,  and  hatchet  can  build  it, 
and  two  men  will  complete  one  of  them  in  two  days,  which 
would  bring  the  cost  to  about  twenty-five  dollars,  and  five  dol- 
lars more  will  make  the  outside  pen.  In  many  localities  where 
lumber  is  cheap  this  cost  could  be  considerably  reduced,  and 
where  the  farmer  could  furnish  logs  for  the  lumber  and  with  his 
farm-help  do  the  work  the  cash  outlay  would  be  very  small. 

Lest  our  readers  who  have  been  accustomed  to  heavy  frames 
should  think  that  such  a  house  as  I  have  described  would  not 
be  strong  and  durable,  I  will  state  that  I  have  one  now  doing 
duty  that  has  been  built  eighteen  years,  and  is  good  for  some 
years'  service  yet. 

To  build  a  house  of  this  kind  first  prepare  the  foundation, 
•and  see  that  it  is  square.  Then  place  the  short  sills  just  four- 
teen feet  apart  from  out  to  out,  and  level  them.  Now  set  the 
joists  on  them,  and  bridge  them  in  the  center,  so  that  the  weight 
will  come  on  all  alike.  Next  lay  the  floor,  and  although  I  rec- 
ommend that  it  be  double,  it  is  better  that  there  be  wide  cracks 
(two  inches  or  more)  in  the  lining,  as  it  will  dry  out  better  than 
if  laid  close.  I  have  tried  two-inch  lumber  for  floors,  and  I  very 
much  prefer  the  double  inch;  it  is  easier  laid  and  makes  a  tighter 
floor  and  is  much  cheaper,  as  the  lining  may  be  of  cheap  lum- 
ber and  need  not  cover  entirely.  Where  no  loft  is  wanted  (and 
the  above  estimate  is  for  a  house  without  a  loft)  I  make  the 
rear  posts  four  and  a  half,  and  the  front  ones  seven  and  a  half, 
feet  long.  This  will  give  sufficient  pitch  to  the  roof,  and  a  four- 
teen foot  board  will  cut  one  length  for  the  front  and  one  for  the 
rear.  Saw  the  posts  square,  and  set  them  on  top  of  the  floor, 
toe-nailing  them  down,  and  spike  a  two  by  four  studding  on  to 
the  top,  front  and  rear,  for  a  plate.  See  that  they  are  plurnb, 
that  the  corners  are  square,  and  that  the  posts,  plates,  nail-ties, 
and  end  rafters  all  stand  flush  with  the  sills  and  floor  joist,  for 


970 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


in  boarding  it  the  boards  should  extend  a  little  below  the  sill 
and  joists,  and  be  nailed  to  them,  both  for  protection  and  to  give 
strength  to  the  building.  The  tops  of  the  end  boards  should  also 
be  nailed  to  the  end  rafters.  An  extra  nail- tie  will  be  needed 
at  each  end  and  one  in  front  at  the  bottom  of  the  windows,  but 
the  plate  will  be  so  low  in  the  rear  that  an  extra  nail-tie  can  be 
dispensed  with.  I  find  four  and  a  half  feet  high  enough  for  the 
roof  at  the  rear,  as  it  rises  so  that  one  can  stand  straight  in  the 
middle  of  the  pen.  No  braces  are  needed  in  a  low  building  of 
this  kind,  for  the  boards  being  nailed  to  plates,  sills,  joists,  and 
rafters  brace  it  perfectly.  If,  however,  tall  posts  are  used  so  as 
to  have  a  loft  of  considerable  size,  and  a  heavy  weight  of  corn 
is  to  be  stored  in  it,  I  would  brace  it  and  use  heavier  posts  and 
ties,  but  this  would  add  but  little  to  its  cost.  I  prefer  to  have 
the  building  extend  east  and  west,  and  face  the  south,  so  as  to 
admit  the  sun,  for  we  use  the  hog-house  more  in  winter  than  in 
summer,  and  if  used  in  hot  weather  the  hogs  can  find  shade  at 
the  north  side  of  the  house  in  the  outside  pen.  When  used  for 
early  pigs  it  is  advisable  to  have  glass  windows  which  can  be 
opened  or  closed  at  pleasure. 

I  do  not  think  best  to  give  descriptions  of  any  of  the  elab- 
orate and  expensive  piggeries,  such  as  are  illustrated  in  most  of 
our  books  on  hogs,  for  I  feel  satisfied  that  this  plan  or  some 
modification  of  it  will  suit  the  practical  man  who  wants  an 
economical  and  convenient  building  for  this  purpose.  The  builder 
can  consult  his  taste  and  means  in  the  material  used,  the  size, 
height  of  story,  amount 
of  ornamental  finish,  etc. ; 
but  by  adhering  to  the 
general  plan  I  give,  I 
believe  he  can  get  the 
most  room  for  the  least 
money.  If  a  large  hog- 
house  is  wanted,  and  a 

feed  and  store  room  attached,  I  would  recommend  that  two 
such  buildings  be  put  up  facing  each  other,  and  eight  or  ten  feet 
apart,  and  the  rafters  allowed  to  project  until  they  meet.  This 


SWINE-HOUSING  AND  FATTENING. 


971 


would  give  a  feed-room  between  the  houses  at  no  expense  ex- 
cept a  little  for  roofing,  and  even  without  increasing  the  length 
of  the  posts  would  give  a  large  amount  of  room  for  storage  over- 
head. I  estimate  that  a  building  twenty-six  by  twenty-eight  feet, 
with  the  outer  posts  ten  feet  long  and  the  inner  thirteen,  which 
would  give  room  for  thirty-two  large  or  fifty  small  hogs  and  a 
commodious  loft,  could  be  built  for  one  hundred  and  fifty  dol- 
lars if  all  the  material  was  bought,  and  where  a  good  part  of 
this  could  be  furnished  from  the  farm  this  sum  could  be  mate- 
rially reduced. 

Portable  Pig-pens. — Among  our  breeders  of  fine  pigs, 
for  shipping,  portable  pig-pens  have  become  quite  common. 
The  portable  hog-house  is  the 
invention  of  L.  N.  Bonham, 
and  is  built  in  sections  and 
fastened  together  with  keys. 
The  object  of  this  is  to  en- 
able them  to  be  taken  apart 
and  stored  under .  cover  when 
not  in  use.  For  practical  use,  however,  this  is  not  necessary, 
and  as  it  is  less  labor  to  make  them  permanent,  I  recommend 
that  they  be  made  so.  When  these  portable  pens  are  used 
for  March  pigs,  it  is  a  great  advantage  to  have  the  short  slope 
of  roof,  with  a  row  of  glass,  so  that  the  sun  will  warm  up  the 
pen ;  but  usually  this  is  omitted,  and  the  roof  allowed  to  run  up 
with  a  single  slope.  It  will  pay  to  make  the  roof  of  matched 
boards  and  paint  it  well,  as  this  will  be  lighter  to  handle  than 
shingles.  For  the  sides  I  use  dressed  stock  boards  one  foot 
wide.  The  best  way  to  move  these  pens  is  to  load  them  on  a 
low  sled,  or  if  they  are  to  be  moved  but  a  short  distance,  four 
men  can  easily  carry  one. 

In  these  and  other  breeding-pens  there  should  be  a  guard  to 
prevent  the  mother  overlaying  her  pigs.  All  that  is  necessary 
is  a  two  by  four  scantling,  six  inches  above  the  floor,  placed 
flat,  so  that  the  width  will  project  into  the  pen.  If  the  sow 
lies  down  against  the  wall  this  gives  room  for  the  pigs  to  pass 
round  undei  this  scantling,  and  prevents  her  from  crushing  them. 


PORTABLE  PIG-PEN. 


972 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


In  the  portable  pen  the  lower  piece  to  which  the  boards  are 
nailed  can  be  placed  in  the  right  position  to  act  as  a  guard. 
The  door  is  hung  with  a  pivot  hinge,  so  as  to  remain  always 
closed.  I  would  recommend,  where  this  is  used,  that  a  small 
aperture  be  made  for  the  pigs,  as  they  will  not  be  able  to  man- 
age the  door  till  some  weeks  old. 

These  pens  are  not  expensive,  as  about  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five  feet  of  lumber  will  be  sufficient  for  one  of  them. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  place  them  where  there  is  no  danger 
of  their  being  flooded,  and  when  used  for  early  spring  pigs  it 
is  prudent  to  bank  up  a  little  around  them  so  no  cold  can  enter. 
As  March  pigs  are  a  necessity  to  the  breeder  of  fine  stock, 
and  also  to  the  farmer  who  wishes  to  fatten  his  pigs  without 
wintering  them,  and  the  weather  is  so  uncertain  at  this  season, 
the  cold  winds  and  driving  storms  causing  enormous  losses  of 
pigs,  I  am  convinced  that  on  farms  where  hogs  are  a  staple 
product  it  would  pay  the  farmer  to  arrange  for  warming  the 
breeding-pens  by  fire.  Some  years  since  I  called  on  Mr.  Wm. 
Greer,  on  a  blustery  March  day,  and  found  him  in  an  old  ten- 
ant house  which  he  had 
partitioned  off  into  eight 
pens,  five  by  six  feet  each, 
with  a  hall  four  feet  wide 
through  the  center,  in 
which  stood  a  stove  (S), 
a  swill-barrel,  and  a  few 
sacks  of  ground  feed. 

The  diagram  shows 
how  the  pens  were  ar- 
ranged. Each  compart- 
ment had  a  small  door 
communicating  with  the  lot  in  which  the  building  stood.  It 
will  be  seen  that  a  building  sixteen  by  twenty  feet  would  ac- 
commodate eight  sows ;  and  a  building  of  this  size  would  not 
be  costly,  and  all  the  partitions  could  be  made  movable,  so  they 
could  be  taken  out,  and  the  room  used  for  other  purposes  during 
the  larger  part  of  the  year.  If  the  double  hog-house  which  I 


S. 


TWENTY   FKET. 

HOUSE  FOR  BROOD  Sows  ARRANGED  FOR  FIRE. 


SWINE— HOUSING  AND  FATTENING.  973 

describe  and  illustrate  was  made  warm,  with  the  cracks  battened 
and  a  tight  floor  overhead  not  more  than  seven  feet  from  the 
feeding-floor,  I  think  a  large  stove  would  soon  raise  the  tem- 
perature so  that  there  would  be  no  danger  of  pigs  chilling  in 
the  worst  weather.  I  do  not  recommend  hot-house  treatment 
for  pigs,  and  probably  no  fire  would  be  needed  after  they  were 
a  week  old,  and  in  favorable  springs  it  might  not  be  necessary 
to  fire  up  at  all ;  but  it  would  certainly  pay  in  bad  seasons,  and 
the  expense  would  be  so  small  that  the  saving  of  a  single  litter 
of  good  pigs  would  pay  for  putting  up  the  stove. 

Swill-barrels  and  Troughs. — An  inspection  of  the  swill-, 
barrel  on  many  farms  would  reveal  one  cause  of  unthrifty  pigs. 
In  summer  it  would  often  be  found  sour  as  vinegar  and  in  win- 
ter frozen.  Hogs  will  eat  and  thrive  on  fermented  food,  and  I 
think  fermentation,  when  properly  regulated,  of  great  value  to 
them ;  but  as  a  loaf  of  bread  burned  to  a  cinder  is  ruined  by 
the  process  of  baking,  which  is  necessary  to  prepare  it  for 
food,  so  a  barrel  of  swill  can  be  rendered  unfit  even  for  the 
stomach  of  a  hog  by  excessive  fermentation.  In  hot  weather 
fermentation  is  so  rapid  that  it  is  necessary  to  give  attention  to 
the  swill-barrel  every  day.  The  better  way  is  to  have  two  bar- 
rels, and  empty  one  each  day,  and  in  this  way  the  swill  will 
not  become  too  sour.  When  I  use  but  one  barrel  I  stir  once  a 
day  enough  meal  to  last  twenty -four  hours.  The  best  time  to 
do  this  is  after  feeding  in  the  evening,  so  there  will  be  time  for 
it  to  be  well  soaked  and  fermentation  to  begin  before  the  next 
feed.  I  leave  a  little  of  the  old  swill  in  the  barrel  to  act  as 
leaven  to  start  it,  and  adjust  the  amount  to  the  weather.  If 
quite  warm  less  will  be  required,  and  if  cool  more. 

In  cold  weather  I  raise  the  temperature  by  the  addition  of 
boiling  water,  and  either  use  two  barrels  or  add  a  little  bran 
and  meal  each  time  I  feed,  for  I  wish  to  have  the  food  slightly 
fermented  the  year  round,  and  with  proper  management  I  find 
this  as  easy  in  winter  as  in  summer. 

For  winter  I  pack  the  swill-barrel  in  sawdust.  I  set  it  in  a 
box  of  such  size  that  there  shall  be  a  space  of  at  least  eight 
inches  around  it,  which  I  fill  with  dry  sawdust.  The  box 


974 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


should  be  a  few  inches  deeper  than  the  barrel,  so  that  there  will 
be  room  to  cover  the  latter  with  two  or  three  thicknesses  of  old 

carpet,  and  shut  the  lid  to  the 
box.  A  barrel  arranged  in  this 
way  will  not  freeze  unless  the 
temperature  is  very  low,  and  then 
a  gallon  or  so  of  boiling  water 
poured  in,  night  and  morning,  will 
prevent  it.  It  will  be  but  little 
trouble  or  expense  to  arrange  a 
box  of  this  kind,  and  if  it  is  emp- 
tied in  the  spring  and  stored  in 
a  dry  place  it  will  last  for  years. 
PROTECTED  SWILL-BABKKL.  I  would  recommend  that  it  be  al- 

ways  emptied  in  the  spring,  as  the  sawdust  will  get  wet 
and  rot  the  box,  and  is  likely  to  become  contaminated  and 
unwholesome. 

I  have  found  no  trough  so  cheap  and  satisfactory  as  the  V 
trough.  Where  the  hogs  have  access  to  both  sides  of  it  it 
should  be  made  of  two-inch  lumber,  but  when  placed  against  a 
wall  an  inch  board  will  answer  for  the  back  side.  It  should  be 
strongly  nailed  together,  the  ends  well  fitted,  and  be  securely 
fastened  to  its  place.  A  good  spout  or  conductor  should  lead 
to  it,  or  if  more  than  eight  feet  long  there  should  be  two  of 
them,  as  if  the  trough  is  long  the  hogs  will  huddle  around  the 
spout  so  as  to  keep  the  swill  from  flowing  readily.  Strips 
nailed  across  the  top  and  notched  into  the  sides,  so  as  to  be 
level,  will  prevent  the  hogs  from  lying  down  in  the  trough  and 
straining  and  spreading  it  so  as  to  cause  it  to  leak.  Unless 
there  is  water  in  the  lot  a  separate  trough  should  be  provided, 
and  a  supply  of  pure  water  given  them  in  it,  for  slop  will  not 
take  the  place  of  water. 

Shall  We  Cook  Food  for  Hogs  ? — Twenty-five  years 
ago  I  should  have  answered  this  question  in  the  affirmative  with 
not  a  doubt  in  my  mind  that  I  was  right,  and  that  no  good  ar- 
gument could  be  given  against  it.  At  different  times  I  invested 
in  steamers,  boilers,  furnaces,  and  other  apparatus  for  cooking 


SWINE— HOUSING  AND  FATTENING.  975 

food,  but  in  every  case  the  labor  and  expense  seemed  to  me  to 
outweigh  any  gain  received  from  it.  I  still,  however,  accepted 
as  true  the  statement  that  one-third  of  the  food  could  be  saved 
by  cooking,  and  attributed  my  want  of  success  to  the  fact  that 
I  did  not  keep  hogs  enough  to  make  it  an  object,  and  that  fuel 
was  expensive,  as  my  farm  is  without  timber.  Finally,  I  deter- 
mined to  investigate  the  matter  more  fully.  On  looking  around 
among  my  neighbors  I  could  not  find  a  single  one  who  had 
begun  the  practice  of  cooking  food  some  years  before  but  had 
abandoned  it.  When  asked  why  they  were  not  cooking  food  for 
their  hogs  the  general  reply  was,  "too  much  trouble." 

In  1877  Mr.  Simon  Emerick,  an  enterprising  farmer  of  Mont- 
gomery County,  Ohio,  determined  to  investigate  the  matter,  and 
entered  into  correspondence  with  a  large  number  of  farmers 
living  in  ten  different  States,  with  a  view  to  getting  at  the 
truth  of  the  matter.  He  found  wonderful  claims  for  the  supe- 
riority of  cooked  food  from  those  who  were  new  in  the  business 
or  who  were  interested  in  the  sale  of  apparatus  for  cooking, 
some  claiming  that  a  given  amount  of  corn  fed  raw  gave  but 
five  pounds  of  pork,  while  the  same  amount  cooked  gave  over 
fourteen  pounds,  and  when  ground  and  cooked  gave  from  six- 
teen to  eighteen  pounds.  Others  stated  that  half  the  corn  was 
saved,  and  still  others,  one-third. 

Mr.  Emerick  kept  up  his  investigation  for  several  years,  and 
found  that  some  of  the  most  ardent  advocates  of  cooking  food 
changed  their  minds.  For  example,  a  gentleman  in  Wisconsin 
wrote  in  1872  as  follows:  "I  find  by  a  test  with  the  scales 
that  seventy-two  pounds  of  ear  corn  steamed  made  twenty 
pounds  of  pork ;  the  same  amount  fed  raw  made  ten  and  a  half 
pounds.  I  sold  at  eight  cents  a  pound,  and  this  paid  me 
eighty-four  cents  for  raw  corn,  and  one  dollar  and  sixty  cents 
for  cooked." 

Seven  years  later  the  same  man  wrote  Mr.  Emerick  :  "  I 
have  had  considerable  experience  in  cooking  food  for  stock.  I 
do  not  consider  it  of  any  increased  value  for  cattle,  but  think 
that  in  warm  weather  or  with  warm  pens  in  winter  there  is  a 
saving  of  about  one-third  the  grain  when  fed  to  hogs,  but  the. 


976  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

pork  is  soft.  I  first  used  a  Prindle  steamer,  then  an  Anderson, 
the  latter  costing  me  one  hundred  and  sixty  dollars.  I  used  it 
two  years,  and  was  obliged  to  throw  it  away.  I  am  done  with 
all  fancy  implements.  At  present  prices  of  corn  and  pork  I 
find  clover  and  whole  corn  best,  except  for  sows  and  pigs,  and 
I  feed  them  slop  made  from  ground  feed." 

Still  another  gentleman,  Mr.  H.  P.  Beattie,  of  Davenport, 
Iowa,  wrote  to  Mr.  Emerick  in  response  to  his  letter  of  inquiry 
on  the  subject  of  cooking  food  for  hogs.  He  says  :%  "I  have 
cooked  or  steamed  corn  for  hogs  for  four  years.  My  hog-house 
cost  me  nearly  one  thousand  dollars,  and  the  pens  are  so 
arranged  that  I  can  keep  them  perfectly  clean.  The  hogs  are 
allowed  to  go  out  for  water  to  runs  where  there  is  clean  gravel, 
and  the  pens  are  swept  every  day.  I  have  a  steam-engine, 
corn-sheller,  mill,  vats,  and  every  convenience  that  money  can 
buy,  and  I  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  there  is  no  advan- 
tage in  cooking  food  for  hogs.  I  have  now  large  casks  for  sour- 
ing slop  for  hogs,  so  arranged  that  I  can  pump  water  into  them. 
I  start  with  three  or  four  bushels  of  fine  meal  and  water  enough 
to  thin  it,  stir  every  day,  and  when  it  sours  begin  feeding,  and 
by  the  addition  of  meal,  water,  and  the  house-slops  keep  it  in 
the  right  condition.  I  find  it  an  advantage  to  put  some  flax- 
seed  into  the  slop,  as  I  think  it  keeps  the  hogs  healthy.  I  find 
this  better  than  any  cooked  food." 

Mr.  Emerick  says :  "  When  I  began  this  investigation  I  was 
under  the  impression  that  steaming  food  for  farm  stock  could 
be  made  quite  profitable,  and  I  have  pushed  these  inquiries 
solely  with  a  view  to  determine  whether  I  would  introduce  the 
business  on  my  farm,  without  expecting  at  all  to  prepare  this 
paper  for  the  public,  and  now  in  summing  up  the  matter,  by 
making  a  careful  estimate  of  the  character  of  the  testimony,  I 
come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  margin  of  profit  is  too  small 
to  induce  me  to  undertake  it." 

A  series  of  experiments  were  conducted  for  nine  years 
(1870-1878  inclusive)  at  the  Maine  State  College.  Four  pigs 
were  fed  each  year,  two  eating  raw  meal  while  the  other  two 
were  eating  cooked,  the  same  quantity  of  meal  being  given  in 


SWINE— HOUSING  AND  FATTENING.  977 

each  case.  The  pigs  were  weighed  at  the  beginning  of  the  exper- 
iment and  at  the  end  of  each  week  while  it  continued.  The 
experiment  continued  several  months  each  time  it  was  con- 
ducted. Great  care  was  taken  in  selecting  the  pigs,  in  order  to 
secure  uniformity,  and  to  avoid  error  as  much  as  possible.  The 
pigs  were  changed  about  so  that  those  at  first  getting  raw  meal 
received  cooked,  and  vice  versa.  Excepting  the  first  year  the 
cooked  meal  was  fed  cold.  The  results  for  nine  years  are  as 
follows  : 

1870,  value  cooked  meal  to  value  raw  meal  as,         .  95.5  to  100 

1871, 74.8  to  100 

1872, 82      to  100 

1873, 91.6  to  100 

1874, 98.8  to  100 

1875 72.3  to  100 

1876, 88.8  to  100 

1877 64.2  to  100 

1878, 78.5  to  100 

Average  for  nine  years,    .         .         .         .  83.3  to  100 

These  figures  are  from  the  report  of  the  Maine  State  College 
for  1878. 

It  is  a  matter  of  surprise  that  in  not  a  single  instance  during 
these  nine  years  did  the  pigs  fed  on  cooked  meal  gain  as  much 
as  those  fed  on  raw  meal.  With  the  single  exception  of  pota- 
toes, I  do  not  believe  that  it  will  pay  to  cook  food  for  hogs, 
and  large  experience  in  feeding  both  cooked  and  fermented 
slop  leads  me  to  believe  that  the  former  has  no  advantage  over 
the  latter,  while  it  requires  expensive  fixtures  and  extra  labor. 
I  do  believe  in  warm  slop  for  nursing  sows  and  young  pigs  in 
cold  weather;  but  would  not  advise  any  expensive  apparatus 
for  preparing  it,  as  I  have  already  shown  how  it  can  be  done 
cheaply  in  summer  or  winter. 

Green  Food  for  Hogs. — While  corn  is  the  staple  food 
for  hogs  we  can  not  produce  cheap  pork  on  corn  alone,  and  no 
farmer  is  prepared  to  raise  hogs  largely  and  economically  unless 
provided  with  good  pasture,  with  abundant  water,  and  shade.  I 
have  little  doubt  that  long-continued  corn  feeding  is  one  great 
cause  of  reduced  vitality  and  predisposition  to  disease  which  has 
made  the  raising  of  hogs  so  precarious  during  the  last  quarter 

62 


978  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

of  a  century.  The  hog  in  a  state  of  nature  lived  during  the 
larger  part  of  the  year  on  coarse,  fibrous  food.  In  summer  he 
ate  the  various  grasses,  and  in  the  winter  mast,  roots,  and  grubs, 
and  his  life  was  one  of  constant  activity.  It  is  little  wonder 
that  disease  and  loss  has  followed  from  the  change  to  corn  feed- 
ing and  close  confinement. 

As  with  cattle  so  with  hogs,  much  cheaper  meat  can  be  pro- 
duced by  grass  than  corn,  but  in  the  case  of  the  hog  there  is  a 
matter  of  still  greater  importance,  and  that  is  that  a  hog  that 
has  been  on  pasture  without  any  grain  for  a  few  months  is  in  a 
much  better  condition  for  fattening  than  one  that  has  been  fed 
some  grain  through  the  summer.  Among  our  large  hog  grow- 
ers this  matter  has  been  repeatedly  tested,  and  it  may  be  con- 
sidered fully  settled,  that  when  a  hog  is  not  to  be  fattened  till 
the  new  crop  of  corn  is  ready  to  feed,  it  is  better  that  it  should 
have  no  corn  through  the  summer.  The  bulky  diet  distends 
the  stomach,  and  bone  and  muscle  are  built  up  rather  than  fat, 
so  that  when  the  animal  is  put  on  a  corn  diet  it  will  make  a 
much  greater  gain  than  one  will  which  has  been  fed  grain 
through  the  ummer.  Some  experiments  have  been  made  with 
hogs  confined  in  pens,  one  lot  being  fed  in  summer  on  corn- 
meal  alone,  and  another  with  meal  mixed  with  cut  clover;  and 
again  in  winter  when  clover  hay  was  cut  fine  and  mixed  with 
the  meal  for  one  lot.  In  both  cases  the  gain  from  the  lot  to 
which  the  clover  was  fed  was  much  the  greater.  Mr.  Coburn, 
in  his  book  on  hogs,  claims  that  an  acre  of  good  clover  will, 
when  fed  to  hogs,  produce  nearly  one-third  more  pounds  of  pork 
than  an  average  acre  of  corn,  but  I  doubt  very  much  whether 
the  claim  can  be  sustained;  but  even  if  it  will  produce  half  as- 
much  it  would  be  much  the  cheaper  food,  as  it  grows  without 
cultivation  and  the  land  is  greatly  improved  by  the  crop.  The 
hog  will  also  gain  faster  and  feed  at  a  profit  for  a  longer  period 
after  summering  on  clover  than  on  corn. 

I  would  advise  that  hogs  never  be  turned  on  clover  till  it 
begins  to  blossom,  and  as  this  is  usually  not  till  late  in  May,  to 
lengthen  the  pasture  season  we  need  some  earlier  crops,  and  for 
this  purpose  we  have  two  excellent  plants — rye  and  blue-grass. 


SWINE— HOUSING  AND  FATTENING.  979 

I  think  it  will  pay  every  hog  raiser  to  grow  rye  for  early  feed- 
ing. In  its  early  stages  of  growth  it  is  succulent  and  nutritious, 
and  will  come  on  some  weeks  earlier  in  spring  than  any  other 
green  crop.  I  have  known  cases  where  a  herd  was  unthrifty 
and  the  owner  feared  cholera,  when  a  run  of  two  weeks  in  a 
rye-field  in  November  removed  all  symptoms  of  disease  and 
started  them  into  a  thrifty  growth.  A  rye-field  may  be  pas- 
tured till  the  blue-grass  is  ready,  and  then  will  make  a  fair 
crop,  which  may  be  "hogged  down"  or  left  to  cut.  Blue-grass 
in  its  early  stages,  or  as  long  as  it  is  kept  fed  short,  is,  I  think, 
equal  to  clover  for  hogs  and  better  for  brood  sows.  In  fact,  our 
best  breeders  will  not  turn  sows  with  their  litters  on  a  clover- 
field,  as  the  heavy  dew  drenches  and  chills  the  pigs  and  injures 
them.  When  the  clover  blossoms,  the  hogs  will  make  their  liv- 
ing on  it  until  corn  is  ready  to  cut  up. 

In  the  chapter  on  fencing  I  refer  to  the  fact  that  allowing 
hogs  to  run  at  large  on  the  farm  involves  a  heavy  expense  in 
fencing.  It  seems  to  me  that  no  other  farm  stock  could  be  so 
easily  provided  with  green  food  in  the  pen  or  barn-yard  as  hogs. 
They  are  not  fastidious,  like  cattle,  refusing  to  eat  food  which 
is  a  little  soiled,  and  a  large  number  of  them  can  be  fed  on  a 
small  spot.  Fifty  or  more  hogs  could  be  confined  in  an  acre  lot, 
and  fed  on  the  product  of  a  small  amount  of  land,  and  for  their 
maintenance  we  have  quite  a  variety  of  crops  that  could  be 
easily  grown  and  handled.  I  should  recommend  rye  for  the  first 
and  earliest  feeding,  and  should  begin  to  cut  it  as  soon  as  I 
could  mow  a  fair  swath  and  before  the  heads  appeared.  Clover 
and  oats  would  follow,  and  all  these  crops  would,  if  cut  early, 
give  a  second  cutting.  I  would  also  experiment  with  field  beets, 
peas,  and  sorgo.  The  beets  I  would  drill  thick  in  the  row  on 
rich  land  and  give  thorough  cultivation,  but  would  grow  them 
with  reference  to  tops  and  not  roots,  and  would  pull  and  feed 
them  entire.  Peas  might  be  sown  broad-cast  or  in  drills,  but 
should  be  on  rich,  clean  land.  Sorgo,  when  grown  for  this  pur- 
pose, should  be  sown  in  drills  much  thicker  than  if  to  be  man- 
ufactured. For  later  feeding  I  doubt  if  any  other  crop  would 
produce  as  much  valuable  food  as  sweet  corn,  and  I  would 


980  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

recommend  the  Stowell  Evergreen  as  the  best  variety.  It  will 
bear  much  closer  planting  than  field-corn,  and  a  majority  of  the 
stalks  will  produce  two  ears.  It  remains  a  long  time  in  good 
feeding  condition,  and  I  have  long  been  of  the  opinion  that  an 
acre  of  this  corn  would  produce  more  valuable  food  for  early 
feeding  than  any  of  the  large  field  varieties.  Pumpkins  would 
also  be  found  a  cheap  and  valuable  food  for  hogs  managed  on 
this  plan. 

One  advantage  of  this  method  of  managing  hogs  would  be 
that  the  land  could  be  made  to  grow  two  or  more  crops.  For 
example,  the  rye  could  be  cut  twice,  and  then  plowed  under 
and  planted  with  pumpkins  or  sweet  corn.  By  taking  out 
alternate  rows  of  beets,  sweet  corn  could  be  grown  as  a  second 
crop,  and  the  clover,  after  furnishing  a  cutting,  could  be  plowed 
under,  and  put  in  a  later  crop.  I  plant  for  family  use  more  or 
less  of  Stowell  corn  each  year  as  late  as  July  4th,  and  rarely 
fail  to  have  roasting-ears  from  it  for  two  or  three  weeks  before 
frost.  This  corn  will  make  profitable  green  food  for  at  least  two 
weeks  before  it  is  ready  for  the  table.  A  succession  of  crops 
of  this  kind  would  enable  the  farmer  to  feed  a  large  number  of 
hogs  from  much  less  land  than  is  now  required,  besides  sav- 
ing fences. 

There  is  no  other  stock  that  can  be  so  easily  soiled  as  hogs, 
for  in  rainy  weather  they  can  be  fed  corn  or  ground  feed,  and 
will  not  suffer  from  the  change. 

"Winter  Care  of  Hogs. — Whatever  system  of  management 
is  adopted,  some  hogs  will  need  to  be  wintered  on  the  farm ;  for 
even  if  we  grow  only  spring  pigs,  and  market  them  the  coming 
fall,  the  breeding  stock  must  be  wintered.  There  are  a  few 
simple  rules  which  should  be  observed  in  the  winter  care  of 
hogs,  which  will  go  far  towards  insuring  success. 

1st.  There  should  not  be  too  large  a  number  of  hogs  kept 
together. 

2d.  Large  and  small  hogs  should  not  be  wintered  together. 

3d.  A  suitable  bed  must  be  provided. 

4th.  Some  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  food,  to  see  that 
they  have  sufficient  variety  and  some  bulky  food. 


SWINE— HOUSING  AND  FATTENING.  981 

I  have  often  seen  thirty  or  more  hogs,  varying  in  size  from 
three  hundred  pounds  down  to  fifty  or  less,  allowed  to  eat  and 
sleep  together  during  the  winter;  and  the  large  ones  would 
get  more  than  their  share  of  the  food,  and  at  night  would 
either  overlay  the  smaller  ones  or  crowd  them  out  in  the  cold. 
It  is  not  uncommon,  on  a  cold,  frosty  morning,  to  see  a  lot  of 
hogs  come  out  of  a  damp  bed,  where  they  have  been  huddled 
all  night,  the  outer  ones  suffering  with  cold  and  the  inner  with 
heat,  and  in  the  cold  air  they  will  steam  like  a  furnace.  Little 
wonder  that  with  such  management  disease  and  death  ensue, 
and  the  owner  finds  hog-raising  unprofitable. 

The  bed  for  hogs  must  be  both  dry  and  clean  if  we  expect 
them  to  thrive,  and  to  insure  this  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  floor, 
and  to  have  it  supplied  with  litter,  which  must  be  changed  as 
often  as  it  becomes  soiled  or  dusty.  I  have  used  corn-fodder 
for  a  bed  for  hogs  for  several  winters,  as  I  find  that  they  will 
eat  the  blades  and  husks,  and  tear  the  stalks  into  shreds,  so  as 
to  make  a  very  good  bed,  and  one  that  will  keep  clean  much 
longer  than  straw.  I  like  the  plan  of  having  the  hog-house 
adjoining  the  barn-yard,  so  that  the  hogs  can  run  in  the  barn- 
yard, and  if  this  is  kept  littered  as  it  should  be  there  will  be 
no  mud  for  them  to  carry  into  their  sleeping-place. 

I  think  it  necessary  that  fall  pigs  have  special  care  in  win- 
ter. They  should  always  be  kept  separate  from  the  older  hogs, 
and  given  warm  slop.  It  is  also  a  matter  of  importance  that 
they  be  fed  regularly,  and  only  what  they  will  eat  clean.  I 
have  never  succeeded  in  keeping  hogs  thrifty  and  growing  when 
fed  so  much  that  soiled  corn  was  to  be  found  in  the  pens  at  all 
times  or  swill  left  to  freeze  in  the  troughs.  With  proper  care 
und  watchfulness  there  is  no  difficulty  in  keeping  the  stock  hogs 
thrifty  and  growing  through  the  winter. 

I  have  in  the  cattle  chapter  spoken  of  the  economy  of  hav- 
ing hogs  to  follow  the  cattle  in  winter.  I  find  that  every  feeder 
who  has  had  experience  in  this  plan  testifies  to  its  profit,  and  I 
can  recommend  the  plan  to  farmers  with  great  confidence.  Feed 
your  cattle  liberally  with  corn,  and  provide  two  hogs  to  follow 
each  one,  and  your  cattle  will  come  through  the  winter  in  good 


982  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Condition,  and  your  hogs  will  grow  and  thrive  at  but  little 
expense. 

Fattening. — As  "the  chief  end"  of  a  hog  is  to  become  fat, 
and  the  price  he  will  sell  for  depends  in  a  great  measure  on  the 
degree  of  fatness,  it  becomes  a  question  of  importance  to  know 
when  and  how  we  can  best  fatten  our  hogs.  Probably  no  rule 
can  be  laid  down  that  will  be  best  for  all  farmers  to  follow,  but 
each  should  decide  for  himself  what  is  the  best  for  him. 

The  plan  of  fattening  spring  pigs  for  a  fall  or  winter  market 
has  much  to  recommend  it. 

1st.  It  enables  the  farmer  to  realize  sooner  on  the  capital 
invested,  illustrating  the  proverb  that  the  "nimble  sixpence  is 
better  than  the  slow  shilling." 

2d.  We  can  make  cheaper  meat  from  a  young  animal  than 
from  an  older  one.  A  certain  amount  of  food  must  always  be 
expended  in  supplying  the  waste  of  the  system,  and  the  more 
we  can  hasten  the  maturity  of  an  animal  the  less  will  be  the 
amount  of  food  expended  in  merely  supplying  the  waste.  Even 
if  a  pig  weighed  two  hundred  pounds  at  nine  months  old  and 
four  hundred  pounds  at  eighteen,  there  would  be  a  greater  profit 
in  selling  at  the  first  than  at  the  latter  period  at  the  same  price 
per  pound,  because  it  would  take  much  less  food  to  produce  the 
first  than  the  last  two  hundred  pounds.  The  fact,  however,  is, 
that  it  is  easier  to  make  a  pig  weigh  three  hundred  pounds  at 
nine  months  old  than  five  hundred  at  eighteen,  and  yet  the  hog 
must  consume  much  more  food  during  the  second  period  than 
the  first  period. 

3d.  As  there  is  always  more  or  less  risk  of  loss  from  dis- 
ease, the  shortening  of  the  period  of  feeding  will  correspondingly 
reduce  the  risk. 

How  shall  pigs  be  managed  so  as  to  make  them  large  and 
fat  enough  to  bring  a  good  price  in  the  market  at  nine  months 
old?  In  the  first  place,  you  must  have  a  good  breed.  It  mat- 
ters but  little  by  what  name  it  is  called;  but  the  hog  must  be 
one  with  a  predisposition  to  early  maturity,  with  a  good  consti- 
tution and  digestive  organs.  Fortunately,  we  have  several 
breeds  that  combine  enough  of  these  points  to  make  them  ex- 


SWINE— HOUSING  AND  FATTENING.  983 

ceedingly  valuable  to  cross  on  selected  mothers  from  our  com- 
mon stock. 

Next,  we  must  give  them  good  care.  If  the  pig  is  neglected 
and  its  growth  checked  the  chances  will  be  very  much  against 
it.  I  have  already  said  that  the  food  for  the  first  four  months 
should  be  such  as  to  contribute  to  growth  of  bone  and  muscle, 
rather  than  fat.  Slop  and  grass,  with  moderate  corn  feeding,  is 
better  than  all  corn.  During  the  three  months  succeeding 
weaning  there  is  no  food  that  will  produce  so  good  results  as 
milk,  and  even  a  small  amount  of  it  mixed  with  bran  and  corn- 
meal  will  be  found  of  great  benefit.  I  believe  also,  at  this  period 
of  growth,  that  bran  is  worth  more,  pound  for  pound,  than  corn- 
meal,  and  would  recommend  that  at  least  two  bulks  of  bran  to 
one  of  corn-meal  be  used.  I  also  place  a  very  high  feeding  value 
on  potatoes  for  this  purpose.  A  peck  of  small  potatoes,  that  can 
be  boiled  on  the  cooking-stove  while  the  family  are  at  breakfast, 
and  mashed  in  the  slop-pail,  will  flavor  twenty  gallons  of  slop  so 
as  to  make  it  nearly  as  palatable  as  milk ;  and,  if  the  bran  and 
meal  are  added  at  the  same  time  as  the  potatoes,  in  a  few  hours 
the  mass  will  be  found  rising  as  though  bakers'  yeast  had  been 
used.  If  mixed  every  morning,  this  slop  will  not  be  too  sour 
in  the  hottest  weather. 

If  any  one  objects  that  this  is  too  much  trouble,  I  have 
only  to  say  that  success  in  any  branch  of  farming  is  to  be  at- 
tained only  by  care,  pains,  and  labor,  and  if  we  can  make  pork 
for  one  or  two  cents  less  per  pound,  it  is  profitable  to  do  so. 

Professer  E.  W.  Stewart,  in  the  Rural  New  Yorker,  writes 
on  this  subject  so  much  in  accordance  with  my  views,  that  I 
quote  his  article  entire.  He  says:  "The  science  of  feeding  an- 
imals is  becoming  much  better  understood,  and  the  best  feeders 
are  fast  changing  their  ideas  of  the  proper  management  of  young 
animals.  It  is  not  long  since  pig  feeders  thought  a  slow,  early 
growth  the  best  for  the  constitution,  and  even  the  profit  of  the 
feeder.  This  was  carried  to  such  an  extent  that  pigs  were  not 
ready  for  market  till  eighteen  to  twenty-four  months  old,  and  it 
was  thought  desirable  to  reach  a  weight  of  four  hundred  to  six 
hundred  pounds.  The  storing  system,  or  suspended  growth, 


984  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

was  almost  universal.     Pigs  were  kept  over  winter  with  little  if 
any  increase  in  weight.     The  feeders  did  not  seem   to  discover 
that  this  food  given  to  store  animals  was  even  worse  than  lost, 
for  the  animals  took  on  an  unthrifty  habit,  contracted  their  pow- 
ers of  digestion,   and    required,   in   spring,   nearly  a   month    of 
good  feeding  to  recover  from  this  penurious  winter  feeding.     A 
thrifty  animal,  with  good  management,  progresses  without  check 
from  its  first  to  its  last  day.     When  a  little  attention  was  given 
to  the  matter,  it  became  evident  that  the  profit  of  growing  meat 
was  to  be  found  in  pushing  the  young  animal  as  rapidly  as  pos- 
sible, that  it  cost  the  least  to  produce  a  pound  of  growth  in  the 
earliest  period  of  life,  and  this  cost  in  food  grew  proportionately 
greater  as  the  animal  increased  in  age  and  size.     This,  then,  is 
the  great  fact  underlying  all  successful  feeding  of  young  animals. 
"  Experiments  were  tried  in  1866—68,  at  the  Michigan  Ag- 
ricultural College  Farm.     In  the  first,  three,  and  in  the  last,  six 
pigs  were   fed  upon  milk.      The   pigs    were   from   four   to    six 
weeks  old  at  the  commencement  of  the  experiment.     The  aver- 
age amount   of  milk   required  to   produce  a  pound,  live  weight, 
was:  First  week,  6.76  pounds;  second  week,  7.75  pounds;  third 
week,    12.28    pounds;  fourth   week,    10.42    pounds.     Professor 
Miles  says  the  cause  of  its  requiring  a  greater  amount  of  food 
the  third  week  is  explained  by  a  'derangement  of   the  diges- 
tive organs   during  this  week,  as   shown  in  a   tendency  to   con- 
stipation.'     He   calls  attention  to   the    fact  that  '  the    milk   to 
produce  a  pound  of  live  weight  constantly  increases.'    After  end- 
ing the  experiment  in  1868  on  milk,  he  continued  it  upon  corn- 
meal.     Pigs  and  food  were  weighed  as  before,  and  the  feeding 
continued  twenty  weeks,  divided  into  five  periods  of  four  weeks 
each.     Amount  of  corn-meal   required    for  a  pound   live  weight 
was:  First  period,   3.81    pounds;  second,   4.05    pounds;  third, 
4.22   pounds ;  fourth,  5.24   pounds;  fifth    period,   5.98  pounds. 
Another  experiment  was  tried  in  1869  with  a  larger  number  of 
pigs,  with  nearly  the  same  result,  in  regard  to  amount  of  meal 
required  to  make  a  pound   of  live  weight,  and  showing,  practi- 
cally, the  same  increase  in  the  food  required  to  make  each  ad- 
ditional pound  live  weight  as  the  pigs  grow  older  or  heavier. 


SWINE-HOUSING  AND  FATTENING.  985 

"  The  point  here  illustrated  is  of  the  highest  importance,  and 
should  be  carefully  studied.  It  will  be  seen  that  in  the  fifth 
period,  when  the  pigs  were  from  twenty-four  to  twenty-eight 
weeks  old,  it  took  seventy-five  per  cent  more  of  meal  to  put  on  a 
pound  live  weight  than  in  the  first  period,  when  the  pigs  were 
eight  to  twelve  weeks  old.  In  1874  the  writer  tried  an  exper- 
iment with  ten  calves  upon  skim-milk,  running  through  twelve 
weeks,  in  which  the  milk  for  each  pound  of  gain  increased  from 
11.02  pounds  the  first  week  to  17.01  the  last  week. 

"  That  most  pains-taking  experimenter,  J.  B.  Lawes,  of  Roth- 
amsted,  England,  has  also  settled  this  question  in  the  same  way, 
proving  conclusively  that  all  profitable  feeding  of  animals  for 
human  food  must  be  made  before  the  animal  reaches  maturity. 

"  These  facts  all  point  to  the  importance  of  feeding  the 
young  pigs  in  the  most  liberal  manner.  Some  breeders  think 
it  quite  sufficient  to  stint  the  pig  to  the  milk  of  the  dam,  and 
thus  seldom  give  any  extra  food  to  even  a  litter  of  ten  pigs. 
But  such  breeders  have  not  estimated  the  amount  of  food  re- 
quired to  feed  a  thrifty  litter  of  eight  pigs.  Pigs,  at  birth,  sel- 
dom weigh  more  than  three  pounds  each,  and  when  four  weeks 
old  should  weigh  fifteen  to  eighteen  pounds  each,  and  must, 
therefore,  gain  twelve  to  fifteen  pounds  each,  which  is  an  ag- 
gregate gain  of  say,  one  hundred  and  twelve  pounds.  This  re- 
quires the  sow  to  yield  milk  enough  each  day  to  produce  a 
growth  of  four  pounds  live  weight;  and  the  production  of  milk 
by  the  sow  weighing,  say  three  hundred  pounds,  equal  to  that 
of  a  cow  weighing  eight  hundred  to  one  thousand  pounds.  How 
important,  then,  that  the  pigs  should  be  taught  to  take  food 
very  early." 

On  this  subject  of  the  management  of  pigs  that  are  to  be 
fattened  the  first  fall,  I  find  in  the  Ohio  Fanner  the  following, 
which  I  fully  indorse:  "Feed  regularly.  I  do  not  mean  by  this 
simply  at  stilted  hours  of  the  day,  but  that  the  feed  should  be 
as  nearly  as  practicable  uniform  in  quantity  and  quality.  It  will 
not  do  to  feed  lightly  to-day  and  heavily  to-morrow,  to  give 
them  bran  one  day  and  all  the  corn-meal  they  will  eat  the  next. 
Try  to  so  manage  that  while  giving  a  variety  of  feed  of  a  given 


986  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

bulk,  enough  to  fill  their  stomachs,  of  the  different  kinds,  it  shall 
contain  nearly  equal  amounts  of  nutriment.  Irregular  feeding, 
or  sudden  changes  of  feed,  are  almost  certain  to  bring  on  diar- 
rhoea in  pigs,  resulting,  if  not  in  the  loss  of  pigs,  at  least  in 
loss  of  weeks  of  growth. 

"  For  their  own  good  and  as  a  relief  to  their  mother  let  the 
pigs  be  taught  as  soon  as  possible  to  get  a  part  of  their  living 
independent  of  the  mother.  They  will  learn  at  a  very  early  age 
to  drink  milk  if  furnished  in  shallow  troughs.  As  soon  as  they 
take  this  readily,  a  little  scalded  shorts,  oat-meal,  or  even  corn- 
meal,  may  be  added,  and  the  quantity  gradually  increased  until 
you  have  a  thick  slop.  As  soon  as  well  accustomed  to  it,  give 
them  all  they  will  eat,  and  in  addition  let  them  have  whole 
corn  and  oats.  They  appear  to  take  delight  in  cracking  and 
eating  the  grains.  The  small,  unsalable  potatoes,  if  not  used  up 
in  the  fall,  may  now  be  utilized  to  good  advantage  by  boiling 
and  mixing  with  the  slops  and  fed  to  either  the  sows  or  pigs. 
Furnish  good,  clean,  dry,  warm  quarters,  and  if  well-bred  pigs, 
they  will  grow  rapidly. 

"  The  three  requisites  of  good  management  from  this  time 
till  ready  to  begin  fattening,  are  plenty  of  good  feed  (a  large 
portion  of  which  is  to  be  grass),  shade,  and  water.  They  are 
to  be  kept  growing  without  getting  them  too  fat.  There  is  little 
danger,  however,  that  they  will  become  too  fat.  Too  many 
mistake  good  or  high  condition  for  fatness,  especially  in  the 
well-bred  hogs." 

The  following  experiments  show  the  gain  made  from  feeding 
milk  alone  to  pigs.  "  On  May  1st  I  took  four  Yorkshire  pigs, 
weighing  one  hundred  and  twenty  pounds,  of  an  average  weight 
each  of  thirty  pounds,  being  just  two  months  old.  I  fed  them 
on  clear  skim-milk,  with  no  grain  or  refuse  food  whatever,  till 
June  1st.  The  milk  was  soured,  and  fed  three  times  a  day. 
They  consumed  seven  hundred  and  five  quarts  of  milk,  and 
gained  ninety  pounds,  or  twenty-two  and  a  half  pounds  each. 
Reckoning  the  gain  in  weight  as  worth  eight  cents  a  pound,  gives 
us  an  increase  of  $7.20,  or  about  one  cent  a  quart  for  the  milk 
consumed,  making  no  allowance  for  the  manure. 


SWINE—HOUSING  AND  FATTENING.  987 

"  To  learn  the  value  of  sour  milk  for  feeding  pigs,  I  weighed 
three  pure-bred  Berkshire  pigs,  about  seven  weeks  old,  and  fed 
them  for  ten  days.  They  weighed  one  hundred  and  four  pounds. 
I  fed  them  five  hundred  and  twenty  pounds  of  sour  milk,  and  then 
weighed  them  again.  They  had  gained  thirty-five  and  one-half 
pounds,  showing  that  less  than  fifteen  pounds  of  milk  had  made 
a  pound  of  live  weight  of  pork.  I  was  surprised  to  find  so  large 
a  gain  in  the  weight  of  the  pigs  for  so  small  an  amount  of  milk." 

In  my  judgment,  milk  fed  in  connection  with  other  food 
would,  by  increasing  its  digestibility  and  making  it  more  palat- 
able, be  worth  much  more  than  it  would  when  fed  alone.  A 
slop  made  with  one  gallon  of  milk  to  eight  or  ten  of  bran,  meal, 
and  water  will  be  eaten  in  larger  quantities  and  will  be  less 
likely  to  produce  indigestion  than  any  slop  that  can  be  made 
from  meal  and  water  alone,  and  our  object  in  fattening  a  pig  is, 
not  to  see  how  cheaply  we  can  keep  him,  but  how  can  we  get 
him  to  eat  and  digest  the  most  feed. 

While  there  can  be  no  question  that  the  cheapest  pork  can 
be  made  by  feeding  good  spring  pigs  for  a  fall  market,  it  is  ob- 
vious that  this  system  can  not  be  adopted  universally,  for  sev- 
eral reasons :  1st.  The  market  demands  more  or  less  hogs  at  all 
seasons  of  the  year.  2d.  The  cattle  feeder  wants  thrifty  stock 
hogs  to  run  with  his  cattle  in  winter.  3d.  It  is  often  the  case 
that  from  unusually  bad  weather,  or  some  other  cause  beyond 
the  control  of  the  farmer,  he  loses  his  spring  pigs,  and  must 
breed  for  a  second  litter  or  do  without  hogs ;  or  in  cases  where 
the  farmer  has  adopted  the  plan  of  getting  two  litters  a  year 
from  his  mature  sows.  4th.  On  farms  where  large  numbers  of 
hogs  are  kept  it  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  take  such  care 
of  the  pigs  that  all  can  be  profitably  made  ready  for  market  the 
first  fall,  and  with  many  farmers  who  wish  to  clover  their  hogs 
through  the  summer  it  is  not  desirable. 

On  many  farms  both  systems  of  feeding  might  be  followed. 
The  sows  could  be  bred  to  come  in  early  in  March,  and  the  best 
and  thriftiest  of  these  pigs  fed  for  a  December  market,  and  the 
lighter  pigs  and  the  September  litters  fed  to  be  sold  at  an  earlier 
period  the  next  year. 


988  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

To  make  the  cheapest  pork  from  these  hogs  they  should  be 
fattened  in  lute  summer  or  early  fall.  If  the  farmer  provides 
rye  or  blue-grass  pasture — or  better  both — he  can  lengthen  the 
grazing  season  so  that  his  hogs  will  be  in  good  condition  for 
feeding  by  the  middle  of  July  or  first  of  August.  The  clover- 
field  is  the  best  place  to  feed  them,  provided  they  can  have  a 
good  supply  of  pure  water  and  shade.  The  latter  can  be  cheaply 
provided  by  temporary  sheds  covered  with  brush,  straw,  or  clover. 
The  advantages  of  feeding  in  the  clover-field  will  be  that  the 
hogs  will  still  eat  enough  clover  to  keep  their  digestive  organs 
in  good  condition,  so  that  the  change  of  diet  will  not  be  too 
sudden  or  radical.  The  clover-field  will  give  a  clean  place  for 
feeding,  and  by  choosing  a  new  spot  every  day  or  two  you  will 
not  only  avoid  mud  and  dust,  but  will  be  able  to  enrich  the  field 
more  evenly.  The  most  convenient  crib  from  which  to  feed  hogs 
in  the  field  is  an  old  wagon,  a  thing  which  can  always  be  bought 
cheaply  at  &  farm  auction.  A  load  of  corn  can  be  placed  in  the 
old  wagon  and  fed  out  on  all  sides  of  it,  and  then  the  wagon 
moved  to  a  new  spot.  I  recommend  that  corn  be  fed  moderately 
for  a  few  days,  but  would  get  the  hogs  on  full  feed  as  soon  as 
prudent. 

As  soon  as  new  corn  is  past  roasting-ear  stage  begin  feeding 
some  of  it  cut  up,  but  keep  up  feeding  with  old  corn.  It  will 
pay  the  farmer  who  expects  to  feed  at  this  season  of  the  year 
to  grow  enough  of  some  early  variety  of  corn  to  supply  his  hogs 
for  two  or  three  weeks  ;  and  although  I  have  not  fully  tested 
the  matter,  I  think  one  of  the  large  varieties  of  sweet  corn  would 
be  more  profitable  than  field  corn  for  this  purpose.  Either 
Stowell,  Evergreen,  or  Mammoth  is  earlier  than  field  corn,  and 
will  bear  considerably  closer  planting,  and  yields  two  ears  on 
most  of  the  stalks.  If  feeding  begins  earlier,  and  the  hogs  are 
to  be  sold  before  the  new  crop  of  corn  is  ready  for  feeding,  it 
will  pay  to  feed  some  slop,  as  heavy  corn  feeding  in  hot  weather 
will  not  produce  as  good  results  as  a  more  varied  diet.  The 
hogs  will  eat  and  gain  more  and  keep  in  better  condition  if  some 
bran  is  fed  in  the  slop.  Hogs  of  suitable  age  and  a  good  breed 
that  were  in  good  flesh  when  turned  to  pasture  in  the  spring 


SWINE— HOUSING  AND  FATTENING.  989 

can  be  fitted  for  market  with  quite  a  short  period  of  summer 
feeding. 

When  you  do  begin  feeding,  I  advise  that  you  push  and  get 
as  much  gain  as  possible,  and  at  the  same  time  watch  the  mar- 
kets closely.  I  have  known  profitable  sales  made  after  a  very 
short  period  of  feeding,  and  often  by  holding  a  little  too  long  a 
drop  in  the  price  takes  all  the  profit  from  several  weeks'  feeding. 

Keep  salt  and  ashes  before  your  hogs  all  the  time  when  fatten- 
ing them,  and  if  you  can  buy  charcoal  feed  them  what  they  will 
eat  of  it.  Our  best  feeders  buy  a  wagon-load  of  it  at  a  time. 

Even  when  hogs  are  to  be  fed  for  a  December  or  January 
market  it  is  best  to  begin  early  as  the  green  corn  will  do  to  feed, 
for  it  has  been  demonstrated  over  and  over  that  pork  can  be 
made  much  cheaper  in  warm  than  in  cold  weather.  I  have  be- 
fore me  the  report  of  a  lot  of  hogs  that  were  put  up  to  feed  in 
October,  when  the  weather  was  warm,  and  the  gain  they  made 
paid  eighty  cents  a  bushel  for  the  corn.  The  first  week  in  No- 
vember, the  weather  being  colder,  the  gain  paid  sixty-two  cents 
per  bushel  for  the  corn.  As  the  cold  increased  the  gain  grew 
less,  and  the  last  week  in  November  the  gain  paid  but  twenty- 
five  cents  a  bushel  for  the  corn.  Another  lot  was  then  put  up, 
and  during  December  the  gain  paid  just  twenty-five  cents  a 
bushel  for  the  corn  consumed.  The  middle  of  January  the 
weather  grew  colder,  and  another  weighing  showed  that  the 
gain  paid  only  five  cents  a  bushel  for  the  corn  eaten,  and  the 
week  following,  with  mercury  ranging  to  ten  degrees  below  zero, 
they  made  no  gain  whatever. 

How  much  Pork  from  a  Bushel  of  Corn. — There 
have  been  many  and  long-continued  experiments  made  to  ascer- 
tain how  much  gain  can  be  reasonably  expected  from  a  bushel 
of  corn  when  fed  to  good  stock,  under  good  management,  and  the 
average  is  found  to  be  not  far  from  ten  pounds.  This  estimate 
does  not  include  the  corn  fed  in  rearing  the  pig,  but  only  that 
fed  during  the  fattening  process.  At  ten  pounds  per  bushel  it 
is  very  easy  to  calculate  what  we  are  getting  for  our  corn,  as 
each  cent  a  pound  for  the  pork  represents  ten  cents  a  bushel 
for  the  corn. 


990  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

In  exceptional  cases  on  record  a  considerably  larger  gain  has 
been  made,  but  usually  for  only  a  short  period,  and  it  is  safe  to 
assume  that  it  will  take  both  good  stock  and  good  management 
to  reach  this  result.  It  also  shows  the  importance  of  making 
as  much  of  the  growth  of  the  hog  as  possible  from  cheaper  food 
than  corn,  and  of  getting  his  system  into  the  condition  that  will 
enable  him  to  make  the  greatest  gain  while  on  a  corn  diet,  of 
pushing  the  fattening  process  as  rapidly  as  possible,  and  selling 
as  soon  as  the  point  is  reached  at  which  the  gain  does  not  pay 
for  the  corn. 

The  facts  connected  with  profitable  pork  production  may  be 
summarized  somewhat  as  follows : 

1st.  The  profitable  production  of  pork  requires  good  stock. 

2d.  Good  stock  calls  for  good  care,  and  only  the  careful 
farmer  will  make  hog-raising  profitable. 

3d.  As  a  large  per  cent  of  the  food  goes  to  supply  the  ani- 
mal waste,  the  shortest  period  in  which  we  can  get  our  hogs 
ready  for  the  market  will  ordinarily  give  the  greatest  profit. 

4th.  An  exception  to  this  rule  will  be  found  where  hogs  are 
wanted  to  follow  cattle  or  to  consume  clover. 

5th.  Grass  or  other  green  food  will  enable  the  farmer  to 
produce  much  cheaper  pork  than  corn  alone. 

6th.  A  greater  gain  can  be  made  in  a  given  time  from  feed- 
ing slop  with  corn  than  from  corn  alone. 

7th.  It  costs  much  less  to  make  a  pound  of  pork  in  warm 
than  in  cold  weather. 

The  Hog  as  a  Manure  Maker. — Manure  produced  by 
fattening  hogs  is  valuable  because  it  is  so  condensed.  Corn 
being  a  rich,  concentrated  food,  the  manure  made  from  it  is  of 
the  same  character.  I  conceive  the  great  value  of  the  hog  as  a 
manure  maker  to  be,  however,  not  so  much  on  account  of  the 
richness  of  the  product  as  from  the  fact  that  he  can  be  made  to 
work  over  crude  material  and  reduce  it  rapidly  to  a  condition  in 
which  it  can  be  used.  In  the  chapter  on  manures  I  tell  how  to 
use  hogs  in  the  barn-yard  to  rapidly  reduce  corn-stalks  and  old 
straw-stacks  to  a  condition  in  which  they  can  be  used  even  as 
a  top-dressing  before  the  wheat-drill.  Any  farmer  who  will  test 


SWINE-HOUSING  AND  FATTENING.  991 

this  matter  will  find  that  the  labor  of  turning  and  fining  can  he- 
reduced  at  least  one-half  by  a  judicious  use  of  hogs  in  the  barn- 
yard. I  find,  also,  that  when  hogs  are  confined,  and  furnished, 
as  I  recommend,  an  outside  floored  peri,  they  can  be  made  to 
work  over  waste  material,  such  as  corn  or  broom-corn  stalks, 
sawdust,  potato-vines,  or  the  coarse  bedding  from  the  cow  or 
horse  stable,  and  get  it  into  a  condition  for  use  quicker  than  in 
any  other  way ;  and  I  estimate  that  hogs  will  half  pay  for  their 
keeping  in  this  way.  They  will  reduce  in  a  short  time  the 
coarsest  material  to  a  condition  in  which  it  can  be  forked  inlo  a 
heap  to  rot,  and  at  the  same  time  will  thoroughly  mix  with  it 
their  rich  droppings. 

It  is  an  excellent  plan  to  wheel  the  manure  from  the  horse 
and  cow  stables,  and  dump  it  where  the  hogs  can  be  allowed  to 
run,  and  once  in  two  or  three  weeks  fork  the  contents  of  the 
outer  pig-pen  on  to  the  heap.  A  pig-pen  can  be  kept  free  from 
offensive  odors  in  this  way,  and  all  the  manure  will  be  improved 
in  quality,  as  the  horse  manure  is  so  heating  as  to  be  in  danger 
of  loss  by  too  active  fermentation,  while  that  of  the  pig  and  cow 
is  of  a  cold,  sluggish  nature. 


SHEEP.  993 


CHAPTKR  XVII. 


OF  the  various  breeds  known  to  man,  the  reader  is  practi- 
cally interested  only  in  the  English  and  the  Spanish,  in 
their  different  varieties.  The  English  breeds  are,  first, 
the  long-wooled,  comprising  the  Cotswold,  Leicester,  and  Lin- 
coln ;  second,  the  short-wooled,  the  South  -Down;  third,  the 
middle-wooled,  as  the  Shropshire,  Oxfordshire,  Hampshire  —  all 
of  which  are  known  as  Downs,  but  were  originated  by  crosses 
between  the  Downs  and  the  long-wools,  and  partake  of  the 
qualities  of  one  or  the  other  ancestor  in  proportion  as  either 
was  preponderantly  employed  in  the  several  crosses.  They  are 
all  considered  pure  breeds.  Some  of  them  approach  very  near 
the  long-wools  in  length  of  staple;  others,  the  short-wools.  The 
long-wools  are  pre-eminent  for  a  long,  coarse  staple;  the  short- 
wools,  for  mutton;  and  in  the  middle-wools  the  object  has  gen- 
erally been  to  combine  these  excellences. 

The  Spanish  Breed,  the  Merino,  is  the  source  from 
which  have  sprung,  through  the  influence  of  climate  and  the 
molding  hand  of  man,  a  number  of  sub-breeds  —  the  French, 
Saxon,  Silesian,  American  (with  a  variety  known  as  the  Delaine 
or  Black-top),  and,  possibly,  the  Australian.  The  Merino,  trac- 
ing its  descent  back  in  a  direct  line,  probably  to  the  flocks  of 
the  Patriarchs,  was  for  ages  the  clothier  of  civilization  —  first 
with  its  skin,  in  later  times  with  its  fleece.  So  long  as  that 
civilization  was  confined  mainly  to  the  sub-tropical  belt  of 
Southern  Europe,  the  adaptability  of  this  breed  to  the  vast  un- 
enclosed ranges  of  those  lands,  and  the  careless  husbandry  of 
those  times,  rendered  it  almost,  if  not  quite,  the  most  valuable 
of  the  domestic  animals.  Its  long  descent  gave  it  a  purity,  a 

•Contributed  by  STEPHEN  POWERS,  Author  of  Sheep  Experience  Papers,  etc. 

63 


994  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

prepotency,  and  a  hardiness  which  have  projected  it  into  other 
climates  and  other  civilizations,  where  the  constantly  increasing 
density  of  population  created  a  demand  for  meat  and  a  long 
staple,  which  the  Merino  could  not  always  furnish  to  the  best 
advantage.  Hence  the  claim  of  the  advocates  of  the  English 
breeds  that  they  are  the  accompaniment  and  support  of  a  higher 
civilization  is  not  perhaps  wholly  unjust. 

Still,  after  the  most  liberal  concessions  are  made  to  its  great 
competitors,  the  Merino  undoubtedly  holds  the  first  rank  yet, 
both  in  number  and  in  economic  importance.  Notwithstanding 
a  century  of  acclimation  and  wonting  to  Anglo-Saxon  thriftiness 
in  farming,  the  Merino  still  retains  many  of  the  characteristics 
stamped  on  it  by  two  thousand  years  of  Oriental  unthrift.  It 
is  an  industrious  and  roving  feeder,  impatient  of  restraint,  lov- 
ing nothing  so  well  as  the  hilltops  and  wide  expanses.  To  sum 
it  all  in  a  word,  the  English  breeds  are  the  sheep  for  the  small 
farm,  and  the  Merino  for  the  poor  farm.  On  the  great  plains  of 
Texas,  California,  and  Australia  the  Merino  returns  with  satis- 
faction and  with  profit  to  the  owner  to  its  habits  in  Spain,  which 
were  more  or  less  migratory. 

In  considering  which  breed  would  be  most  profitable  for 
himself  the  farmer  must  take  account,  first,  of  the  qualities  of 
the  sheep  themselves;  second,  of  his  farm  and  surroundings. 
No  manufacturer's  advice  is  likely  to  be  of  much  value,  for  he 
will  almost  invariably  counsel  the  production  of  that  class  of 
wool  he  himself  requires.  Neither  need  the  flock-master  debate 
long  over  the  particular  class  of  wool  he  shall  produce  with  ab- 
stract reference  to  its  selling  qualities  (not,  however,  that  any 
one  should  engage  in  the  growth  of  a  coarse  carpet  wool  which 
can  be  grown  profitably  only  in  a  semi-barbarous  society),  for 
in  these  days  of  rapid  transportation  it  may  be  set  down  as 
an  axiom  that  every  civilized  country  furnishes  somewhere  a 
good  market  for  every  kind  of  wool.  And  wool  will  keep  until 
the  location  of  that  market  can  be  found. 

All  sheep  do  best  in  a  climate  which  has  sufficient  equable 
rainfall  to  keep  the  fleece  mellow,  not  subject  to  extreme 
changes,  especially  changes  from  dampness  to  severe  cold,  and 


SHEEP.  995 

where  the  soil  is  porous  enough  to  absorb  that  rainfall,  free 
from  swamps  and  marshes.  The  English  sheep  are  more  toler- 
ant of  moisture  than  the  Merino,  less  subject  to  foot-rot.  All 
sheep  had  better  be  wet  in  the  fleece  than  on  the  feet;  the)' 
should  have  dry  flooring  at  all  hazards.  The  Leicester  is  per- 
haps best  adapted  to  low  grounds — if  these  must  be  employed — 
is  somewhat  more  sluggish  than  the  Cotswold,  not  so  hearty  a 
feeder,  the  equivalent  of  the  Jersey  and  the  Holstein.  The 
Cotswold  has  been  not  inaptly  compared  to  the  lordly  Durham. 
English  shepherds  hold  that  their  own  distinctive  breeds  achieve 
the  highest  sum  total  of  results  where  bred  with  sole  reference 
to  mutton;  and  the  production  of  mutton  requires  a  rich,  succu- 
lent herbage,  lasting  many  months  of  the  year.  Hence  the 
sheltered  milder  slopes  of  the  Atlantic  Coast  and  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  a  strip  comprising  Humboldt  and  Mendocino  counties  in 
California  and  Western  Oregon,  Washington  and  British  Colum- 
bia, are  indicated  as  a  propitious  climate  for  the  British  breeds. 

Mutton. — To  the  great  majority  all  kinds  of  mutton  are 
alike,  provided  the  age,  general  condition  and  methods  of  butch- 
ering are  alike.  But  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  chalky  downs 
of  Dorset,  and  the  limestone  pastures  of  the  blue-grass  region 
(home  of  the  Improved  Kentucky),  furnish  the  finest  mutton 
known.  But  the  crowning  point  in  the  superiority  of  the  English 
mutton  breeds  over  the  Merino  is  their  precocity.  And  it  is 
simply  a  truism  to  say  that  the  flesh  of  a  young  animal  is  bet- 
ter than  an  old  one.  Hence  a  Cotswold  lamb  which  will  furnish 
forty-five  pounds  of  dressed  meat  where  a  Merino  of  the  same 
age  will  yield  but  eighteen  or  twenty  is  the  more  profitable, 
even  though  it  may  have  consumed  thrice  the  amount  of  feed. 

Neither  need  the  farmer  be  deterred  from  entering  upon  the 
more  strictly  meat-producing  branch  of  sheep  husbandry  by  con- 
siderations of  distance  from  market  if  his  soil  and  climate  are 
specially  adapted.  When  Kentucky  can  send  twenty  thousand 
sheep  in  a  year  to  the  single  city  of  Boston,  and  sell  them  at 
six  cents  a  pound  while  New  England  mutton  is  selling  at  four, 
there  is  little  danger  in  growing  good  mutton  anywhere.  Mer- 
inos for  the  granite  hills  of  Middlesex,  and  Cotswolds  or  Downs 


SHEEP.  997 

for  the  rich  limestone  pastures  of  Bourbon  County,  would  be  the 
dictate  of  a  sound  business  system,  notwithstanding  wool  is  so 
much  more  readily  transported  than  mutton. 

The  feeding  of  animals  for  the  shambles  requires  a  higher 
and  more  artificial  system  of  management  than  the  growing  of 
wool ;  hence  the  former  class  of  sheep  need  to  be  kept  in  smaller 
flocks,  that  they  may  be  more  closely  watched  and  more  care- 
fully handled.  The  English  breeds  are  wholly  unfit  for  unfenced 
ranges ;  they  scatter  and  make  herding  extremely  difficult.  la 
fenced  enclosures  there  is  a  natural  limit  to  the  number  that 
should  be  kept  together,  which  is  determined  by  the  capacity 
of  the  pasture,  whatever  the  breed.  Cotswolds  and  Leicesters 
desire  to  be  spread  out  separate  and  quiet;  Merinos  keep  in 
bands,  but  travel;  hence  they  would  tread  down  and  waste  the 
rich  pasturage  suitable  for  the  heavy  feeders.  All  breeds  alike 
are  impatient  of  close  housing,  and  it  is  difficult  to  say  whether 
one  is  injured  more  by  it  than  another. 

Referring  to  climate  once  more,  I  may  say  that  the  Merino 
will  endure  a  sudden  removal  across  many  degrees  of  latitude 
better  than  the  English  sheep,  though  all  sheep,  like  the  human 
race,  do  best  when  emigrating  on  climatic  parallels.  The  En- 
glish breeds  bear  transportation  to  a  cold  climate  better  than  a 
hot  one.  They  do  well  when  carried  from  England  to  the  rig- 
orous winter  of  Canada,  but  when  brought  suddenly  to  the 
sweltering  summer  of  the  Ohio  Valley  they  wilt  and  perish 
under  the  dry  heat.  The  Merino,  like  the  Andalusian  cow  of 
Texas,  has  some  of  the  old  wildness  and  sun-fever  of  Spain  in 
its  blood  yet,  and  is  not  so  good  a  nurser  or  milker  as  the  gentle 
large-uddered  Cotswold.  It  can  take  care  of  itself  better  than 
the  latter,  endures  hardship  better,  but  does  not  take  so  good 
care  of  its  young. 

British  sheep  husbandry  is  based  upon  rape  and  turnips, 
what  might  be  called  open-air  soiling  with  a  system  of  movable 
hurdles,  depositing  the  invaluable  sheep  manure  directly  where 
it  is  wanted,  covering  an  acre  or  half  acre  at  a  time.  Their 
moist  climate  and  mild  winters  enable  them  to  produce  from 
these  vegetables  an  enormous  quantity  of  herbage,  rendering 


998  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

their  mutton  tender  and  juicy ;  then  with  their  mellow,  shade- 
cured  hay  (not  sunburnt  like  ours),  with  oil-cake,  oats,  and 
other  rich  nitrogenous  feeds,  they  make  it  fat,  well  "marbled" 
with  lean,  as  in  the  South-Down,  and  fit  for  an  epicure. 

The  rigorous  winters  and  the  dry  hot  summers  of  the  United 
States  render  this  system  more  or  less  impracticable  here.  On 
the  Atlantic  slope,  where  corn  is  less  thrifty,  and  where  English 
custom  and  precedent  have  more  influence,  the  growing  of  these 
vegetables  and  roots  has  been  engaged  in  to  some  extent,  but 
not  with  eminent  success.  But  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  the 
foundation  of  all  husbandry  is,  and  probably  will  always  be, 
that  prolific  and  sufficient  plant,  Indian  corn.  The  leafage  and 
grain  taken  together  furnish  an  almost  perfect  ration,  even  for 
sheep.  But  of  this  more  further  on. 

On  the  Atlantic  slope,  with  the  exception  of  limited 
areas,  as  in  Vermont,  etc.,  the  production  of  wool  and  mutton 
is  an  entirely  subordinate  industry,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  is 
a  region  very  much  superior  to  others  devoted  more  largely  to 
wool-growing  in  requisites  necessary  to  success  in  mixed  farm- 
ing. And  this  fact  makes  it  creditable  to  sheep  that  they  retain 
as  permanent  a  foothold  as  they  do  there.  The  breeds  of  sheep 
are  perhaps  not  as  well  defined  or  as  highly  improved  as  in  the 
West;  there  lingers  a  greater  proportion  of  the  old  native  Amer- 
ican stock,  described  by  Youatt  as  being  a  sort  of  mongrel  scrub 
Leicester,  mixed  with  South-Down  and  Cotswold. 

The  limited  product  of  grain  and  the  greater  cheapness  with 
which  it  can  be  produced  in  the  West  render  it  too  high-priced 
to  be  given  to  sheep  in  any  quantity.  Eastern  farmers  endeavor 
to  winter  their  stock  or  breeding  flocks  without  grain — on  clover 
hay,  chaff,  pea,  bean,  wheat  and  oat  straw — thus  making  them 
serve  as  scavengers  or  consumers  of  refuse  products.  This  for 
the  reason  that  there  is  a  cash  market  for  nearly  every  thing, 
even  rye  and  wheat  straw.  A  prominent  object  with  them  is 
the  growing  of  early  lambs  for  the  market.  They  buy  ewes 
shipped  from  the  West,  generally  those  which  have  passed  their 
prime;  rangy,  good-sized,  open-wooled  grade  Merinos;  on  which 
they  cross  a  South-Down  or  Cotswold  ram  two  years  old  or  up- 


SHEEP.  999 

wards.  The  earliest  lambs  are  dropped  from  January  15th  to 
February  15th ;  the  ewes  are  well  sheltered  and  fed  to  improve 
their  condition,  so  that  they  generally  yean  fine,  strong,  growthy 
lambs.  When  the  latter  are  a  few  weeks  old  they  are  allowed 
access  to  a  separate  apartment,  and  are  fed  bran,  meal,  and 
ground  oats  in  troughs.  They  generally  bring  four  dollars  and 
fifty  cents  to  five  dollars  per  head  when  they  will  weigh  thirty 
or  forty  pounds  gross.  If  not  too  aged  the  ewes  are  retained 
for  further  service ;  if  they  are,  they  are  fattened  for  the  fall 
market.  A  South -Down  ram  generally  costs  from  ten  dol- 
lars to  twenty  dollars.  They  are  preferred  to  the  Cots  wold, 
Lincoln,  or  middle -wool  rams,  because  their  lambs,  though 
smaller,  fatten  better,  have  better  hams,  and  produce  a  mar- 
bled flesh. 

The  celebrated  Merino  stud-flocks  of  Vermont  and  Ohio  are 
a  specialty  upon  which  it  is  not  necessary  to  enter.  The  sys- 
tems of  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  its  tributaries  are  based  on 
Indian  corn,  timothy,  hay,  and  fodder.  The  size  of  flocks  in- 
creases as  we  go  West.  In  Western  New  York,  Pennsylvania 
and  Virginia,  Ohio  and  Indiana,  Merinos  and  their  grades  pre- 
vail, of  established  breeds,  though  in  the  southern  half  of  this 
region  there  are  still  immense  numbers  of  the  old  natives,  or 
"  mountain  rangers,"  whose  bald  heads  denote  a  mongrel  Leicester 
blood  coming  from  Virginia.  The  Pan-handle  and  adjacent  regions 
still  have  some  large  flocks  yielding  the  superfine  or  electoral 
wools.  Washington  County,  Pennsylvania,  is  the  home  of  the 
Black-tops  or  Delaine  Merinos.  Western  Pennsylvania  and  Vir- 
ginia and  Southern  Ohio  grow  a  plainer  sheep  and  a  longer  sta- 
ple than  Vermont,  Western  New  York,  and  Northern  Ohio. 
Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia,  and  Ohio  sheep  are  accounted  the 
truest  representatives  of  the  American  Merino,  and  their  wool 
has  long  been  quoted  highest  in  the  Eastern  markets.  But  in 
Ohio  of  late  years  the  breeding  of  very  wrinkly  and  yolky  sheep 
to  cross  on  the  coarse  Mexicans  of  the  West  has  somewhat  de- 
based the  staple — as  happened  in  Vermont  from  a  similar  cause— 
which,  together  with  frauds  and  carelessness  in  the  preparation 
of  the  clips  for  market,  has  hurt  the  good  name  of  Ohio  wool. 


1000          THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Michigan  and  Wisconsin  fleece,  long  holding  the  second  rank,  is 
now  pressing  for  admission  to  the  first. 

In  the  sub-montane  district  under  consideration  wool- 
holds  precedence  over  mutton.  Hay,  principally  timothy,  some 
clover,  red-top,  blue-grass,  with  corn,  oats,  and  bran  constitute 
the  staple  feed.  Some  careful  flock-masters  grow  turnips  and 
fodder-corn  for  breeding  ewes,  but  a  vast  majority  depend  on 
bran  and  clover-hay  for  a  laxative.  Corn-fodder  is  given  out 
far  less  than  in  the  West.  Shelled  corn  is  the  principal  grain- 
feed  for  fattening  wethers,  while  the  favorite  ration  for  lambs 
and  tegs  is  corn,  oats,  and  bran,  mixed  in  about  equal  propor- 
tions. The  bulk  of  the  wethers  are  shorn  unwashed  in  March, 
April,  and  May,  sold  at  four  dollars  and  twenty-five  cents  to 
three  dollars  and  fifty  cents  a  hundred,  and  shipped  East.  Many 
young  ewes  are  sent  West  to  found  new  flocks ;  oldish  ones  to 
the  East,  for  the  use  above  mentioned.  The  flocks  are  washed 
the  latter  part  of  May,  shorn  about  two  weeks  later,  and  the 
wool  sold  to  agents,  who  generally  receive  a  cent  a  pound 
commission. 

The  prairie  section  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  may  be 
held  roughly  to  include  Kentucky,  the  home  of  the  famous  Im- 
proved Kentucky.  Here  the  English  long-wools  are  gaining 
a  strong  and  permanent  foothold,  though  there  are  many  fine 
flocks  of  Merinos  in  Northern  Missouri,  Iowa,  and  Wisconsin. 
Sheep  are  here  housed  far  less  than  in  the  Ohio  Valley,  not  only 
because  of  the  scarcity  of  building  material,  but  because  wool 
is  less  sought  after.  Corn  is  often  given  to  flocks  in  the  ear, 
and  on  the  ground  in  a  wasteful  manner ;  they  are  sometimes 
fed  with  the  corn  unhusked ;  and  even  in  the  fall  or  early  win- 
ter turned  into  the  standing  grain.  They  are  frequently  win- 
tered in  the  same  inclosures  with  cattle.  In  hard  winters  thou- 
sands of  sheep  are  driven  East  from  the  plains  to  the  cheap 
corn-fields  of  Kansas  and  Missouri,  to  return  in  the  spring.  In 
Minnesota  sheep  winter  well  on  clover-hay  alone ;  when  there 
is  none  of  that  they  receive  grain.  In  Nebraska  the  maximum 
cost  of  keeping  a  sheep  a  year  is  placed  at  one  dollar,  from  that 
down  to  sixty-five  cents.  Twelve  tons  of  prairie  hay,  worth 


SHEEP.  1001 

twenty-eight  dollars  and  twenty-cents,  and  two  hundred  bushels 
of  corn,  worth  thirty  dollars  to  fifty  dollars,  will  winter  one 
hundred  head.  A  shed  and  racks  of  pine  lumber  for  one  thou- 
sand sheep  will  cost  five  hundred  dollars ;  "  a  Kansas  shed "  of 
poles,  hay,  sorghum  stalks,  etc.,  can  be  built  for  a  trifle.  In 
Kansas,  sorghum  and  millet  are  given  to  sheep.  More  are  shorn 
unwashed  than  in  the  East  (about  April  15th  in  the  latitude  of 
Kansas  City).  Merinos  increasingly  predominate  over  all  other 
breeds  as  we  approach  the  one  hundredth  meridian  and  the  arid 
plains.  Scab  and  foot-rot  are  stated  to  be  almost  unknown  in 
Minnesota.  Foot-rot  is  troublesome  in  Illinois  and  Iowa ;  scab 
in  Kansas. 

The  systems  of  the  Far  West,  including  California, 
Oregon,  and  Texas,  were  at  first  essentially  vagabondizing ;  but 
are  now  assuming  permanence.  Some  roving,  adventurous  man 
would  purchase  five  hundred  to  one  thousand  ewes,  generally 
Mexican,  at  one  dollar  to  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents  a  head,  get 
a  mustang  or  two,  and  follow  them  up  with  tent  and  "  chuck- 
box,"  camping  where  night  overtook  him,  and  resuming  his  wan- 
derings in  the  morning.  Soon  the  flocks  crystallized  about  the 
watering-places.  Frequently  the  pre-emption  of  a  spring  or 
pond  or  an  eligible  water-front  gave  a  monopoly  of  thousands 
of  acres  of  government  land,  and  insured  the  pioneer  a  speedy 
fortune.  The  basis  of  sheep  husbandry  in  the  vast  Rocky  Mount- 
ain and  Pacific  coast  region  is  bunch-grass,  with  buffalo  grass  as 
the  main  adjunct  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  circle  and  sage  grass 
in  the  Utah  basin,  and  alfilerilla  and  burr-clover  in  California. 
In  Texas  it  is  the  various  kinds  of  mesquite  grass ;  in  New 
Mexico  and  Arizona  the  grama  grass.  The  bunch-grass  is  a 
wonderful  compensation  of  nature  in  those  desert  and  alkali 
wastes,  curing  into  standing  hay,  nutritious  as  grain ;  but  the 
absence  of  it  in  Texas,  New  Mexico  and  Arizona  is  more  than 
balanced  by  the  two  rainy  seasons  of  that  region,  and  the  almost 
unequaled  grama. 

In  the  interior  of  the  continent,  remote  from  all  cultivation, 
the  sole  resource  winter  and  summer  is  the  native  grasses,  with 
some  sporadic  chance  provision  of  wild  hay  for  a  hard  season. 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

In  California  and  Oregon  many  large  flocks  are  managed  some- 
what in  the  Spanish  fashion,  being  driven  in  summer  to  the 
high  sierra,  where  there  are  luxuriant  meadows  between  the 
double  crest,  or  over  to  the  vast  sage-brush  plateaus  and  river 
basins  of  Nevada  and  Idaho.  Some  flock-masters  have  their 
summer  ranges,  which  they  claim  by  prescriptive  right,  and 
over  these  they  wander  and  camp  in  pioneer  fashion.  Little 
flocks  of  Merino  rams  are  driven  up  to  the  flocks  in  September, 
often  in  the  proportion  of  two  or  three  to  the  hundred  ewes,  as 
the  unrestrained  character  of  the  service  is  wasting  and  de- 
structive. The  flocks  are  driven  down  in  the  fall  and  wintered 
in  the  foothills  of  the  sierra  or  the  coast  range  or  in  the  vast 
tule  swamps  of  the  San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento  Rivers.  Many 
perish  unsheltered  in  the  cold  rains  and  northers  of  winter — 
more  probably  than  in  the  colder,  but  drier  interior.  From  ten 
to  forty  per  cent  of  the  lambs  have  died  in  a  single  cold  rain 
in  the  Eel  River  Mountains.  More  than  two-thirds  of  the 
flocks  have  succumbed  to  an  occasional  drought  in  Southern 
California. 

Still,  California  and  Oregon  have  been  a  hive  from  which 
bands  of  sheep  have  swarmed  all  over  the  central  and  northern 
West,  even  to  Nebraska  and  Minnesota.  The  large,  rangy  Cali- 
fornia Merinos  are  sought  as  breeders  on  the  northern  parallels. 
Crossed  with  the  British  mutton  breeds  they  yield  excellent 
flesh-formers,  which  sell  in  Chicago  at  five  dollars  and  a  half  to 
six  dollars  a  hundred.  Thousands  of  French  and  Spanish  Me- 
rinos have  been  shipped  by  rail  from  Los  Angeles  to  western 
Texas,  to  start  flocks.  On  the  Pacific  coast  wethers  are  often 
fattened  on  wheat  stubble ;  the  saying  of  California  farmers  is 
that  their  stubble  must  pay  their  taxes.  Large  flocks  are  driven 
eastward  by  slow  marches  until  they  meet  the  western  corn ; 
fed  on  this  a  few  weeks  their  large  grass-grown  frames  make 
exceptionally  good  mutton. 

Wool  is  generally  shorn  unwashed — on  the  Pacific  coast  in 
March  and  April ;  in  the  interior  later.  Lambs  are  clipped  in 
the  fall.  The  yield  is  from  three  to  six  pounds  per  head,  vary- 
ing as  the  flock  has  been  graded  up  from  the  Mexican  originals. 


SHEEP.  1003 

The  cost  of  shearing  ranges  from  two  cents  a  head  (where  Mex- 
icans or  Indians  are  employed)  to  six  cents  for  good  American 
shearers.  Throughout  the  Territories  the  average  estimate  of  cost 
of  keep  is  thirty  cents  per  head  per  year.  In  Nebraska,  Dakota, 
and  Montana  (the  latter  is  especially  adapted  to  Merino)  the  cost 
is  even  lower;  thirteen  cents  a  head  will  cover  the  expense  of 
wintering.  One  man  often  herds  two  thousand  head  alone,  ex- 
cept in  lambing  time — then  two  or  three  are  required  to  a  flock. 
Every  morning  during  the  lambing  season  the  flock  is  allowed 
to  drift  slowly  away  from  camp,  leaving  behind  the  ewes  with 
freshly  dropped  lambs.  These  are  then  removed  and  herded  in 
a  separate  band. 

Sheep  are  remarkably  exempt  from  disease  (except  scab)  in 
all  this  region.  And  scab  can  be  kept  well  in  hand  by  vigor- 
ous preventive  treatment.  This  consists  of  a  tobacco  and  sul- 
phur bath  twice  a  year,  into  which  the  sheep  are  dipped  or, 
preferably,  driven  one  by  one,  falling  in  suddenly  and  coming 
out  by  a  long  ascent,  at  the  top  of  which  the  wool  is  squeezed. 
In  Texas  there  is  a  malady  locally  known  as  "  lombrieze," 
apparently  the  same  as  paperskin  (treated  further  on).  Mag- 
gots and  the  "  screw  worm  "  are  a  troublesome  pest  in  hot,  muggy 
weather  in  that  latitude,  and  compel  close  tagging  and  careful 
watching  of  the  flocks.  The  normal  profit  in  Texas  has  been 
for  some  years  twenty-five  per  cent ;  in  exceptional  cases  it 
reaches  thirty-three  and  a  third — or  falls  to  zero. 

Sheep  husbandry  in  the  South  is  so  sporadic  and  so  jeop- 
ardized by  the  dog  that,  in  the  limited  space  here  allowed,  it 
can  be  treated  only  with  good  wishes.  Maryland  and  Virginia 
(Tidewater)  may  be  included  in  the  Atlantic  slope  with  the 
system  above  outlined. 

In  Australia,  on  the  vast  plains,  sheep  husbandry  is  pros- 
ecuted on  a  scale  to  which  America  can  furnish  no  parallel. 
One  individual  in  New  Zealand  owns  386,000;  another  in  New 
South  Wales  261,000,  etc.  A  sheep-run  is  called  a  station ;  in 
all  the  colonies,  except  Victoria,  it  is  generally  hired  from  the 
government  on  a  long  lease  at  about  ten  shillings  ($2.30)  per 
mile,  with  the  reservation  that  any  bona  fide  settler  may  choose 


1004  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

up  to  320  acres,  and  pay  for  it  in  easy  installments.  A  run  is 
seldom  less  than  twenty-five  square  miles;  an  average  is  from 
150  to  600  square  miles,  and  they  sometimes  exceed  2,000. 

Immense  tracts  of  territory  suffer  seriously  from  the  depre- 
dations of  the  kangaroo,  which  lives  mostly  in  the  open,  and  of 
the  "wallaby,"  which  infests  the  "bush."  These  animals  make 
their  appearance  suddenly  in  enormous  numbers  and  consume 
all  the  grass,  so  that  the  sheep  have  to  be  driven  off.  The 
settlers  make  war  on  them  by  hiring  bands  of  hunters  to  shoot 
them.  As  in  all  these  arid,  dusty  countries,  scab  is  a  terrible 
plague  to  the  shepherd.  Government  inspectors  are  appointed 
over  designated  districts,  and  the  requirements  as  to  the  inspec- 
tion of  infected  flocks  are  very  rigid,  though  less  rigidly  enforced. 

Shearing  is  done  in  November  and  December,  running 
through  both  months  on  large  ranges.  Shearers  are  paid  about 
a  sovereign  ($5.11)  per  one  hundred  head;  "roustabouts"  an 
equal  sum  per  week,  and  "musterers"  six  shillings  ($1.38)  per 
day.  The  skirts  are  detached  from  the  fleeces,  leaving  clear 
body-wool,  which  is  loosely  tied  with  very  light  twine  and 
packed  in  bales  of  four  hundred  to  four  hundred  and  twenty 
pounds.  The  wool  fetches  in  Melbourne  or  Sidney  from  four- 
teen to  twenty-seven  cents,  according  to  grade,  the  former  being 
the  price  of  offal,  while  choice  clips,  with  skirts  out,  bring  the 
higher  figure. 

Australia  fleeces  average  from  four  and  a  half  to  six  pounds 
of  unwashed  wool,  the  fiber  being  generally  fine,  true,  and 
sound,  though  an  occasional  severe  and  protracted  drought  makes 
it  jointed.  American  manufacturers  rather  prefer  it  over  do- 
mestic fleece  at  the  same  figure  on  account  of  its  fine  working 
qualities,  the  absence  of  dung  and  fribs  in  the  fleeces,  and  the 
light  wastage  in  the  scouring-tub.  Australian  unwashed  loses  only 
two  or  three  per  cent  more  in  scouring  than  American  washed. 

South  America  offers  great  attractions  to  the  flock-mas- 
ter in  some  respects.  For  instance,  in  Buenos  Ayres,  one  hun- 
dred Spanish  squares  (450  acres)  will  support  one  thousand 
sheep,  while  in  Texas  two  acres  are  allowed  to  the  sheep.  There 
are  over  fifty-seven  million  sheep  in  the  Argentine  Republic.  So- 


SHEEP. 


1005 


excellent  is  the  native  pasturage  that  a  sheep  frequently  yields 
from  eighteen  to  twenty-five  pounds  of  tallow.  But  the  gov- 
ernment is  so  unstable,  the  native  laborers  so  worthless,  and 
that  great  pest,  the  scab,  so  prevalent  and  severe  that  the  re- 
markable natural  advantages  of  the  country  are  more  than  over- 
balanced. As  proof  of  the  miserable  management  of  the  shep- 
herds, it  is  sufficient  to  mention  that  the  actual  annual  increase 
of  the  flocks  is  only  thirty  to  forty  per  cent,  while  the  average 
fleece  is  only  about  four  pounds  of  unwashed  wool,  worth  ten  to 


— 


COT8WOLD  RAM. 
Property  of  Beiison,  Muule  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. 

twelve  cents  per  pound.  Sheep  are  generally  let  out  on  shares 
in  Buenos  Ayres;  the  herder  has  one-fourth  or  one-third  of  the 
clip  and  actual  increase,  "finding"  himself.  The  rent  of  one 
hundred  squares  (450  acres)  is  about  two  hundred  dollars  in 
gold  per  year,  with  house  and  corral  furnished. 

Mexico  offers  attractions  much  superior  to  the  above.  Good 
grazing  land  can  be  had  for  $500  the  league  (4,400  acres);  and 
fairly  good  land  can  be  had  at  $270  to  $300.  Twelve  to  eighteen 


1006  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

dollars  per  league  per  year  will  lease  the  same  lands.  Titles 
are  good  for  sales,  and  lease-contracts  are  honestly  complied 
with.  Herders  can  be  hired  at  $9  to  $14  a  month,  to  which 
must  be  added  $1.75  to  $2.50  for  keep.  Ewes  can  be  bought 
at  $1.80  to  $2  a  head.  The  shearer  receives,  for  the  light- 
fleeced  Mexican  sheep,  one  and  a  half  cents  a  head.  The 
principal  drawback  is  the  bad  government,  and  the  consequent 
brigandage. 

In  the  selection  of  breeders  there  are  several  points  which 
are  quite  as  important  as  purity  of  blood — perhaps  more  so. 
Constitution  is  of  pre-eminent  importance,  arid  those  sheep  which 
have  the  distinctive  race  or  breed  characteristics  best  developed 
have,  generally  speaking,  the  best  constitution.  These  charac- 
teristics should  be  carefully  noted. 

The  Representative  Cotswold  is  an  animal  of  a  majes- 
tic port,  perhaps  to  an  impartial  layman  the  most  beautiful  of 
the  various  breeds,  whose  only  drawback  is  the  "shortness  of 
space  between  the  hip  and  flank."  Here  is  the  weak  point  in 
the  breed — too  light  in  the  flank  and  too  leggy;  these  are  faults 
which  should  be  carefully  avoided.  There  should  be  a  broad, 
bold  breast,  a  short  scrag  or  neck,  of  a  spirited  carriage,  and  a 
small,  clean,  bony  head,  with  bright,  prominent  eyes,  and  a 
conspicuous  foretop  of  wool,  often  nearly  covering  the  eyes — • 
this  being  the  characteristic  point  which  distinguishes  the  breed 
from  the  Leicester;  a  broad  back  and  good  barrel  well  sprung 
out;  a  broad,  heavy  tail;  hind  legs  set  somewhat  under,  both 
they  and  the  fore-legs  standing  wide  apart,  erect  and  strong, 
with  a  heavy  bone ;  top  and  bottom  lines  straight.  There  has 
been  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  gray  or  mottled  face. 
It  is  agreed  that  it  is  an  index  of  power  and  hardiness,  and  it 
is  now  pretty  well  settled  that  it  should  not  be  held  to  throw 
any  suspicion  of  impurity  on  the  blood.  Wool,  curly,  long,  and 
lustrous,  not  dry  and  harsh  to  the  feel,  but  with  a  slight  amount 
of  yolk ;  skin  of  a  healthy  pink.  At  maturity  it  ought  to  be 
eight  inches  long,  and  the  fleece  averages  six  or  seven  pounds. 
More  than  that  should  be  obtained  from  a  flock  of  twenty  or 
thirty.  The  male  should  be  broad  between  the  eyes. 


SHEEP. 


1007 


The  Leicester  differs  from  the  Cotswold  in  having  a  more 
delicate  frame,  somewhat  smaller  and  a  finer  bone;  finer  and 
more  lustrous  wool ;  a  bald  head,  which  is  also  smaller ;  white 
face  and  legs.  The  hind-quarters  are  not  so  heavy  at  the  tail, 
and  the  ham  is  lighter,  though  both  it  and  the  Cotswold  are  in- 
ferior to  the  South-Down  in  this  respect. 

The  South-Down  is  a  fourth  or  a  third  smaller  than  the 
foregoing,  with  black  or  dark  face  and  legs  (all  three  breeds  are 
hornless);  low,  square,  and  stocky  figure ;  powerful  bone ;  scrag 
finely  arched ;  eyes  bright  and  keen,  with  a  general  appearance 
of  great  liveliness  and  hardiness. 

The  farmer  seeking  to  found  a  flock  of  Merinos  for  out-door 
work,  which  must 
"  rough  it "  more 
or  less,  at  least 
through  the  sum- 
mer, should  reject 
every  animal  (un- 
less phenomenally 
valuable  in  other 
points)  which  has 
wrinkles  on  the 
body  sufficiently 
prominent  to  show 
on  the  surface  of 
the  fleece  at  maturity.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  desirable  to 
have  the  skin  so  generously  put  on  that  it  shall  present  that 
fine  spider-webbed  or  crinkled  appearance  seen  in  the  well-bred 
lamb ;  rich,  soft,  and  loose  to  the  feel ;  pink  or  rosy.  It  should 
hang  in  a  pendulous  fold  or  web  in  the  flank,  giving  an  appear- 
ance of  depth  ;  a  like  fold  should  extend  from  the  dewlap  up 
the  median  line  of  the  neck,  terminating  in  a  pocket  under  the 
chin.  The  ram  may  have  several  heavy  folds  about  the  neck, 
like  irregular  horse-collars,  and  the  ham  may  be  slashed  with 
two  or  three  wrinkles  across  the  stifle,  extending  forward  and 
down  ;  but  beyond  this  we  should  not  go.  The  body  should 
present  a  plain  broadside.  The  distinguishing  crown  of  beauty 


-, -- 


SOUTH-DOWN  RAM. 


1008  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

and  proof  of  blood  is  what  may  be  called  the  escutcheon — a 
broad,  generous  tail,  spanning  nearly  across  the  rump,  the  sides 
neatly  folded  or  tucked  under. 

It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  have  the  body  covered 
all  over  with  a  fleece  of  deep-grown,  dense,  white  or  buff  wool, 
nicely  crimped  or  crinkled  to  the  extreme  end,  not  terminating 
in  black  points  or  indurations  (which  the  manufacturer  has  to 
.clip  off  with  the  shears  by  hand),  furnished  with  a  lively  semi- 


CASH,  101. 

One   of  the  Stock  Rams   In  the   Sock    of  Merino    Sheep  owned  by  Captain  J.  G.   Blue, 
Cardiugton,  Morrow  County,  Ohio. 

liquid  yolk,  white,  or  slightly  buff,  and  not  so  abundant  as  to 
collect  in  waxy  masses  along  the  fiber,  or  cause  the  blocks  or 
sections  of  the  fleece  to  open  flatly  or  greasily.  The  fleece 
should  be  well  buttoned  up,  extending  to  the  coronet  of  the 
hoofs ;  thick,  long,  and  not  saffron  colored  on  the  belly ;  com- 
pletely covering  the  scrotum ;  reaching  down  to  the  point  of 
the  chin,  capping  the  head  and  extending  down  in  a  full-rounded 


SHEEP.  1009 

cape  between  and  below  the  eyes,  but  leaving  a  clean  margin 
around  the  eyes,  and  terminating  in  an  even  edge,  not  strag- 
gling in  patches  down  the  face,  which  should  be  covered  with 
white  silken  hair;  hams  broad,  stout,  and  low,  falling  straight 
from  the  tail;  legs  wide  apart;  capacious  barrel;  heavy  brisket 
and  breast ;  eyes  bright  and  not  hidden  by  wool ;  lower  jaw 
wide.  The  ram,  as  a  mark  of  vigor,  should  show  powerful  sper- 
matic cords,  and  have  the  nose  deeply  fluted  or  grooved  from 
the  corner  of  the  eyes  down. 

The  breeders  of  the  Delaine  Merino  insist  on  a  white  free 
yolk,  a  three-inch  staple,  short,  sharp  hoofs.  The  hair  which 
crops  out  on  the  thigh  of  the  Cotswold  or  on  the  fold  of  the 
Merino  (called  kemp  in  the  former,  jar  in  the  latter)  is  objec- 
tionable, and  ought  to  be  carefully  avoided  in  breeding  animals. 
It  will  not  take  dyes  like  wool. 

Cotswolds  and  Leicesters,  maturing  quickly,  are  less  hardy 
and  long-lived  than  Merinos,  though  they  are  held  to  keep  up 
the  wool-producing  capacity  better  with  advancing  age.  They 
may  bear  lambs  at  two,  or  even  at  one  (this  is  not  desirable), 
and  should  cease  at  five;  Merinos  may  begin  at  three  and  cease 
at  seven.  Very  small  flocks  or  exceptional  ewes  of  either  breed 
may  continue  in  service  two  or  three  years  longer.  Ram  lambs 
may,  with  caution,  serve  a  dozen  ewes ;  yearlings,  five  times  as 
many;  two-year-olds  are  capable  of  full  service.  Very  fastidi- 
ous breeders  restrict  a  ram  to  three  services  a  day,  with  some 
hours  between,  and  sixty  or  seventy -five  for  the  season.  A 
very  powerful  Merino  ram  has  been  known  to  cover  three  hun- 
dred ewes  in  a  season ;  but  it  is  not  advisable  to  let  him  go 
beyond  half  that  number.  Only  careless  breeders,  or  those  on 
the  great  plains  of  the  West,  allow  the  ram  unrestricted  range 
in  the  flock. 

There  are  several  methods  of  regulating  the  service,  of  which 
the  best  is  as  follows :  Screw  a  bolt  and  ring  into  the  front  of 
the  left  horn,  and  tie  him  up  with  a  leather  strap.  Bring  the 
flock  into  the  inclosure,  and  turn  the  rain  loose.  When  he  serves 
a  ewe,  catch  her  with  the  sheep-hook  and  remove  her  to  another 
pen.  if  the  ram  resists  interference  he  must  be  kept  tied.  The 

64 


1010  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

ewes  in  season  will  cluster  about  him,  when  they  can  be  caught 
and  penned  separate,  and  the  ram  admitted  at  the  end  of  a  strap. 
After  about  three  services,  runninir  half  an  hour,  he  should  be 
tied  up  and  removed  and  kept  quiet  two  or  three  hours.  There 
are  other  plans  which  will  economize  time,  but  they  are  not  so 
business-like. 

Theoretically,  rams  should  have  grain  rich  in  albuminoids, 
as  wheat  or  oats;  but  I  have  found  them  do  as  well  on  shelled 
corn  as  any  thing — two  medium  ears  per  day.  With  his  hay 
he  should  have  sliced  pumpkin  or  roots  or  sweet-corn  fodder  cut 
up  green.  Water  and  salt  daily.  Through  the  winter  he  may 
be  kept  tied  up  with  the  leather  strap  in  a  stall  without  injury, 
or  the  monotony  of  his  imprisonment  may  be  relieved  by  an 
occasional  promenade  in  a  tight  yard.  If  there  are  two,  and 
they  fight,  cut  off  a  section  of  a  boot-leg,  slip  it  on  his  head,  and 
tie  it  to  the  base  of  his  horns.  Slit  it  on  the  under  side,  and 
tie  it  together  loose  enough  so  that  he  can  see  down  along 
his  nose. 

It  is  advisable  to  condemn  ewes  for  certain  faults  in  the 
spring,  and  indicate  it  by  a  durable  mark ;  but  most  farmers 
delay  the  main  business  of  drafting  until  fall.  A  "pony  sheep" 
is  generally  a  good  breeder.  But  when  one  is  seen  with  hind- 
quarters conspicuously  heavier  than  the  fore,  choose  her;  she  is 
of  good  promise,  whether  low  and  stocky  or  rangy.  Marks  ought 
to  be  affixed  to  the  short-stapled  light  shearers  in  the  spring. 
Reject  rigorously  the  leggy,  the  flat-ribbed,  the  long-necked,  and 
the  sharp-rumped,  with  the  tail  set  on  low.  They  will  produce 
unhandsome  lambs,  which  will  be  certain  to  turn  up  when  the 
flock  is  paraded  for  inspection. 

There  are  principles,  or,  rather,  an  intuition,  in  selecting  and 
breeding  which  can  not  be  imparted  by  one  person  to  another 
except  by  long  communication,  and  then  only  more  or  less  super- 
ficially. It  is  a  gift  of  nature.  The  ordinary  breeder  can  not 
expect  to  accomplish  more  than  is  attempted  by  the  writer  of 
these  lines — to  keep  a  standard,  an  ideal,  and  breed  straight 
toward  it  continually.  If  only  one  ram  is  employed,  and  he  is 
of  a  marked  prepotency,  transmitting  his  qualities  strongly  to 


1012  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

his  progeny,  and  those  qualities  are  desirable,  he  will  promote 
uniformity,  jirid  should  be  retained  as  long  as  possible.  If  two 
or  more  are  needed  they  should  be  worked  by  a  system  of 
checks  and  balances.  Employ  each  to  fortify  the  points  in 
which  the  individual  ewe  is  deficient. 

In-and-in-breeding,  if  in  a  flock  of  a  hundred  or  more,  and 
regulated  by  a  deep  insight  and  a  painstaking  record  of  individ- 
uals, is  only  moderately  harmful  by  reducing  the  caliber  of  the 
bone  and  impairing  the  constitution  somewhat,  and,  indeed,  the 
eminent  example  of  Bake  well  and  Hammond  has  shown  that  it 
is  almost  necessary  to  fix  and  perpetuate  certain  qualities;  but 
the  ordinary  breeder  had  better  avoid  it  altogether. 

The  question  of  the  relative  influence  of  the  male  and  female 
in  determining  certain  characteristics,  as  form,  constitution,  size, 
etc.,  is  one  which  need  concern  the  average  flock-master  very 
little.  The  most  eminent  authorities  are  often  diametrically 
opposed.  Constitution  is  of  paramount  importance  in  both 
parents,  and  unless  a  sheep  is  of  extraordinary  excellence  in 
certain  directions,  not  a  single  point  ought  to  be  sacrificed  in 
constitution  if  it  is  destined  for  a  breeder.  I  have  indicated  the 
most  important  features  of  good  breeding  animals  in  the  various 
kinds  of  sheep,  and  in  addition  I  will  only  say,  in  reference  to- 
Merinos,  that  there  are  certain  ultra-fashionable  points  which 
had  better  be  avoided  by  the  farmer  seeking  to  build  up  an. 
average  wool-bearing  flock.  Very  yolky  and  wrinkly  sheep  lack 
hardiness.  In  the  sudden  changes  of  the  American  climate  the 
wrinkles  become  chilled  first,  their  nutrition  is  impaired,  and 
the  wool  frequently  peels  off  them,  leaving  the  animal  ragged- 
looking.  Besides,  the  wool  on  wrinkles  is  wild  and  coarse. 

Whether  lambs  should  come  early  or  late  depends  on  sev- 
eral conditions — as  the  breed,  the  size  of  the  flock,  the  farmer's 
situation,  etc.  The  English  breeds  are  presumably  not  kept  in 
large  flocks,  and  they  are  good  milkers  and  nurses  anyhow;  so 
they  may  well  be  bred  to  drop  their  lambs  in  the  winter,  though 
even  with  these  I  would  not  advise  that  lambing  should  be 
brought  on  before  the  backbone  of  winter  is  broken,  say  Feb- 
ruary 15th.  With  Merinos  there  are  also  certain  circumstances 


SHEEP.  1013 

under  which  it  would  be  advisable  to  have  lambs  begin  to  come 
by  March  1st.  If  the  flock  is  small — not  exceeding  fifty;  if  the 
owner  is  an  excellent  care-taker,  cleans  out  the  sheep-house  so 
often  through  the  winter  (say  once  a  month)  that  the  flock  keep 
in  perfect  health;  if  he  is  prepared  to  feed  liberally  with  clover 
hay  and  bran  or  roots,  and  willing  to  spend  much  time  and 
trouble  with  recusant  ewes,  he  may  with  advantage  begin 
lambing  early  in  March.  But  if  the  flock  is  large,  and  he  has 
no  roots,  and  is  a  rather  careless  shepherd,  he  had  better  lamb 
on  grass,  even  if  he  has  to  employ  a  little  extra  help  to  carry 
forward  other  farm-work.  If  the  coupling  season  is  thrown 
late,  and  the  pasture  is  scanty  or  slushy  from  excessive  rains, 
the  ewes  should  receive  a  daily  grain  ration,  say  a  half-bushel 
of  shelled  corn  to  the  hundred.  This  assists  to  bring  them  in 
season,  and  to  prevent  a  failure  of  the  service  and  the  neces- 
sity of  repetition.  They  ought  to  be  housed  in  cold  rains  as 
early  as  October  15th. 

It  is  impossible  to  overestimate  the  importance  of  good  treat- 
ment of  the  ewes  during  winter ;  on  this  depends  in  large 
measure  the  success  of  lambing.  The  number  of  men  who  feed 
too  little  is  comparatively  small ;  a  good  many  feed  too  much. 
But  the  matters  in  which  most  flock-masters  come  short  are 
water,  exercise,  and  clean  quarters.  It  is  absolutely  necessary 
that  pregnant  ewes  should  have  all  they  want  of  clean  water 
at  least  every  other  day  ;  better  every  day.  Pure  cistern  water 
is  better  than  ice  water,  of  course,  though  the  injury  resulting 
from  ice  water  does  not  amount  to  much  if  it  is  furnished  daily. 
Better  ice  water  with  exercise  than  cistern  water  without — far 
better.  But  the  shepherd  should  never  be  without  a  cistern  at 
each  sheep-house,  for  use  at  convenience.  The  ewes  ought  to 
have  at  least  three  hours'  exercise  every  day.  A  piece  of 
woods  or  an  old  tough  blue-grass  or  June-grass  sod  (they  will 
injure  clover  or  timothy)  is  best;  but  an  excellent  substitute  is 
a  corn-stubble,  from  which  all  the  fodder  has  been  hauled  off. 
A  sheep  derives  a  great  deal  of  satisfaction  and  the  all-important 
exercise  in  searching  for  a  portion  of  its  feed  "in  place."  It 
will  often  quit  first-class  hay  in  the  rack  to  roam  a  field  after 


1014  TEE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

third-rate  corn-stubble  or  old  rowen,  the  value  of  which  to  the 
animal  is  far  less  than  the  exertion  necessary  in  collecting  it. 

Ewes  fed  generously  on  bright  corn-fodder  and  fine  green- 
cut  hay  do  not  require  a  grain  ration  until  about  the  middle  of 
the  fourth  month  of  pregnancy.  In  the  early  stages  of  this 
condition  there  is  a  tendency  toward  plethora  and  the  laying-on 
of  fat,  but  the  shepherd  must  not  allow  himself  to  be  deceived 
by  this.  Six  weeks  or  so  before  parturition  a  grain  ration 
becomes  imperative.  It  need  not  be  large — a  half  bushel  of 
shelled  corn  per  hundred  daily,  or  its  equivalent,  is  enough.  If 
running  with  the  dry  flock  hitherto  they  ought  now  to  do  so 
no  longer.  Gestation  goes  on  well  enough  on  dry  feed  (with 
plenty  of  exercise),  but  lactation  demands  more  succulent  nour- 
ishment. A  week  or  ten  days  before  lambing  begins  clover,, 
hay,  and  bran  should  be  supplied,  the  latter  at  the  rate  of  a 
bushel  or  more  per  hundred,  mixed  with  thirty  pounds  of  oats 
or  shelled  corn.  If  roots  are  given,  they  are  better  pulped, 
though  ewes  will  soon  learn  to  eat  them  whole  when  thrown 
into  the  hay-racks  on  the  orts.  It  is  not  safe  to  give  pregnant 
ewes  all  they  will  consume  of  such  cold  watery  feed  as  turnips 
or  potatoes ;  it  is  liable  to  produce  abortion.  After  lambing  is 
over  there  is  no  danger  if  the  ration  is  increased  gradually. 

In  the  Eastern  States  it  is  doubtless  profitable  to  grow  roots 
for  sheep  in  some  instances.  But  in  the  region  west  of  the 
Alleghenies,  with  its  abundance  of  corn-fodder  and  clover  and 
cheap  bran,  I  doubt  if,  for  wool-growing,  it  will  be  found  ad- 
vantageous to  provide  turnips  for  winter  feeding,  at  least  for 
many  years  to  come.  For  the  production  of  very  choice,  juicy 
mutton,  such  as  will  command  a  remunerative  price  only  in 
large  cities,  roots  are  important  when  grass  is  lacking.  Oil-cake 
meal  and  cotton-seed  cake  should  be  given  to  pregnant  ewes 
with  caution,  not  over  a  good  handful  per  head  per  day. 

I  wish  to  make  here  a  strong  representation,  founded  on 
years  of  personal  experience  as  to  the  value  of  corn-fodder  for 
sheep,  especially  breeding  ewes.  It  is  healthfully  cooling  and 
laxative,  a  corrective  of  the  constipation  which  is  a  natural 
accompaniment  of  pregnancy.  If  I  were  limited  to  one  feed- 


SHEEP.  1015 

stuff  I  would  give  them  fodder  in  preference  to  the  best  timothy 
that  ever  was  put  into  a  hay-mow.  If  I  could  give  only  one 
feed  to  each  I  would  give  the  fodder  to  ewes  and  the  timothy 
to  cattle.  Sheep  consume  fodder  almost  without  waste,  even 
the  "  thimbles  ;"  cattle  leave  a  third  of  it.  Fodder  in  the  morn- 
ing, grain  at  noon,  hay  in  the  evening  I  consider  the  perfect 
ration  for  sheep.  It  takes  some  trouble  and  time — a  week  or 
so — to  train  sheep  to  eat  fodder,  but  the  result  is  abundantly 
worth  the  expenditure. 

For  ewes  in  the  lambing  season  the  transition  from  hay  to 
grass  is  a  critical  period.  If  they  have  not  been  allowed  to 
range  freely  on  a  sod  through  the  winter,  the  first  half-day's 
grazing  on  the  young  and  tender  grass  destroys  their  appetite 
for  dry  feed,  and  if  the  grass  is  not  of  sufficient  body  to  carry 
the  flock  they  will  fare  hardly.  Old  grass,  no  matter  how 
abundant,  does  not  impair  the  appetite  for  hay.  Hence,  if  they 
are  turned  on  an  old  sod  or  rowen  about  two  weeks  before 
lambing  begins,  they  will  continue  to  relish  hay,  especially  if 
salt  is  withheld  from  them,  and  brine  sprinkled  on  the  hay  in 
the  racks.  Then,  when  the  grass  is  well  advanced  in  the  other 
pastures,  they  may  be  turned  on  it  and  the  hay  discontinued ; 
but  they  should  receive  the  bran  and  grain  ration  a  week  or 
ten  days  longer. 

Where  a  grain  ration  is  mentioned  above  and  elsewhere  it  is 
intended  for  Merinos,  with  which  the  writer  happens  to  be  most 
familiar — for  the  larger  English  breeds  it  should  be  increased  in 
proportion  to  their  size,  say  one-half  for  South-Downs,  doubled 
for  Cotswolds,  etc. 

Pure  sheep  manure  trodden  solid  in  the  winter  does  not 
throw  off  ammonia  to  any  hurtful  extent,  but  when  mixed  with 
hay  or  straw  it  does.  The  shepherd  may  not  be  aware  of  it 
when  he  enters  the  sheep-house,  but  the  animals  are.  Their 
nostrils  are  down  close  to  it.  It  is  not  safe  to  decide  whether 
the  stable  needs  to  be  cleaned  out  or  not  from  simply  passing 
through  it.  The  thoroughgoing  shepherd  will  find  a  way  to 
bring  down  his  nostrils  where  the  sheep  are  compelled  to  carry 
theirs.  There  he  will  very  soon  discover  whether  the  manure 


1016  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

ought  to  be  removed  or  not.  If  the  ewes  pasture  freely  on  old 
grass  the  stable  ought  to  be  cleaned  out  every  ten  days ;  if  on 
dry  feed,  once  a  month  will  answer.  The  penalty  for  allowing 
ewes  to  sleep  in  an  atmosphere  foul  with  ammonia  is,  a  number  of 
still-born  lambs  in  the  spring,  ewes  disowning  their  lambs  be- 
cause they  are  sick  and  have  no  milk,  and,  lastly,  a  quantity 
of  cotted  fleeces  at  shearing-time.  When  sheep  begin  to  dig 
their  bellies  with  their  hind  feet  it  is  a  proof  that  the  stable 
ought  to  be  cleaned  out,  and  that  it  ought  to  have  been  done 
before. 

In  default  of  roots  grown  specially  for  them  the  small  refuse 
potatoes  or  apples  of  the  farm  may  be  given  to  breeding  ewes 
with  advantage.  It  is  much  better  to  feed  out  small  potatoes 
than  to  plant  them.  An  excellent  provision  of  green  rye  may 
be  had  by  sowing  a  bushel  of  seed  per  acre  in  the  standing  corn — 
if  it  is  not  lodged — about  the  first  of  September,  just  after  or 
before  a  good  rain.  If  not  required  for  fall  and  winter  pasturage 
it  may  be  sown  after  the  corn  is  cut,  and  plowed  in  with  a  shovel- 
plow.  The  greatest,  perhaps  the  only,  drawback  to  the  use  of 
green  rye  for  pregnant  ewes  is,  that  on  rich  bottom-land  the 
young  plant  is  apt  to  contain  the  same  fungoid  spores  which  in 
the  mature  grain  develop  into  ergot ;  and  this  will  cause  prema- 
ture delivery  and  a  disowning  of  the  lamb.  Hence  ewes  should 
not  be  turned  upon  it  until  a  week  or  ten  days  after  yeaning. 
On  uplands  green  rye  is  safe. 

The  necessity  of  tagging  before  the  flock  is  turned  upon  grass 
is  so  obvious  as  to  require  mere  mention  to  the  observant  farmer ; 
but  many  are  deterred  from  tagging  pregnant  ewes  by  fear  of 
injury  to  the  unborn  lambs.  With  any  decent  care  in  handling 
this  danger  is  very  slight.  The  ewe  may  with  safety  be  turned 
in  any  position  if  it  is  not  done  with  violence.  And  the  impor- 
tance of  tagging  is  so  great,  the  results  arising  from  a  neglect 
of  it  are  so  abominable,  that  it  ought  to  be  done  at  all  hazards. 
Let  the  udder  be  shorn  clean,  the  inside  of  the  hind  legs,  and  a 
liberal  margin  along  the  posterior  of  the  hams,  and  so  around 
and  quite  above  the  tail,  for  if  the  wool  is  as  long  as  it  ought 
to  be  it  will  soon  fall  over  after  tagging  and  collect  filth.  At 


SHEEP.  1017 

shearing-time  the  space  clipped  in  tagging  should  not  be  gone 
over  a  second  time ;  it  is  only  a  waste. 

Lambing. — It  is  in  his  preparations  /or  lambing  that  the 
consummate  art  of  the  shepherd  is  shown;  this  is  the  touch- 
stone of  his  success.  If  lambing  is  not  done  well  no  after-spurt 
of  exertion  will  atone  for  it,  and  the  profits  of  the  flock  will  be 
seriously  cut  into,  if  not  quite  destroyed.  The  shepherd's  motto 
should  be  :  Eternal  vigilance  is  the  price  of  lambs.  Some  flock- 
masters  make  it  a  point  to  visit  the  sheep-house  during  the  night. 
Unless  the  weather  is  phenomenally  severe,  or  the  previous  man- 
agement of  the  ewes  has  been  unpardonably  bad,  this  is  not  nec- 
essary, even  with  the  comparatively  poor  nurses,  the  Merinos, 
and  still  less  with  the  English  breeds.  I  take  it  for  granted 
lambing  will  be  carried  on  under  cover,  except  during  warm, 
sunny  days  and  balmy  nights,  when  the  weather  has  become  set- 
tled. The  sheep-house  used  for  this  purpose  should  be  wholly 
above  ground,  thoroughly  tight  and  dry,  but  furnished  with 
plenty  of  glass  windows,  so  that  it  can  be  ventilated  in  warm 
nights  or  on  rainy,  muggy  days.  Newly  dropped  lambs  are 
prone  to  crawl  into  crevices,  especially  if  neglected  by  the  ewes, 
and  get  fastened  and  chilled ;  hence  all  these  ought  to  be  stopped. 
There  ought  to  be  no  stone  foundations,  or  these  should  be  cov- 
ered with  litter,  as  the  lamb  is  likely  to  lie  on  them  and  get  chilled. 

At  night  when  the  flock  is  shut  in  the  ewes  and  lambs  al- 
ready dropped  should  be  removed  to  a  separate  inclosure ;  this 
prevents  a  great  deal  of  confusion  and  trouble.  Then  at  bed- 
time let  the  flock-master  go  carefully  through  the  flock  with  a 
lantern,  and  make  matters  secure.  If  the  ewes  were  fed  and  ex- 
ercised as  they  ought  to  have  been  during  the  winter,  a  lamb 
yeaned  after  nine  o'clock  will  get  up  and  do  well  enough  until 
six  next  morning  without  milk.  The  thermometer  may  mark 
ten  degrees,  and  its  feet  may  even  be  frost-bitten,  yet  if  its 
mother  is  healthy  and  hardy  from  exercise  it  will  be  on  its  feet 
and  dry  in  the  morning.  If  it  succumbs  under  this  temperature 
or  a  higher  one,  it  is  a  clear  case  of  bad  management  through 
the  winter,  or  else  it  is  a  lamb  of  so  poor  a  constitution  that  it 
is  not  worth  any  thing. 


1018  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Merino  ewes  are  rather  proverbial  for  stricture  of  the  womb, 
and  for  false  presentations.  A  healthy  ewe  may  without  injury 
be  left  to  herself  twelve  hours  from  the  time  she  first  goes  apart 
from  the  flock  and  gives  evidence  of  approaching  labor,  but  it  is 
best  to  make  an  examination  sooner.  A  man  is  not  fit  for  a 
shepherd  if  he  is  squeamish ;  he  must  address  himself  to  these 
disagreeable  duties  with  a  sympathetic  human  interest.  If  there 
is  stricture,  or  the  womb  is  grown  up,  an  aperture  may  some- 
times be  fretted  with  the  finger-nail ;  otherwise,  a  small  knife- 
blade  should  be  pressed  close  against  the  forefinger,  the  point 
not  projecting  beyond  the  end  of  the  finger,  which  thus  guides 
it  in  carefully,  making  a  puncture  large  enough  for  itself,  after 
which  the  knife  should  be  used  no  longer.  A  false  presentation 
need  not  necessarily  be  corrected,  and  frequently  can  not  be,  by 
a  man's  large  hand.  If  the  head  is  doubled  back,  or  the  side  is 
presented,  delivery  can  not  be  accomplished.  But  one  or  both 
of  the  fore-legs  may  be  doubled  back  and  delivery  yet  take  place 
safely,  if  assistance  is  rendered.  The  English  books  recommend 
many  different  stimulants  for  a  ewe  in  protracted  labor,  but  none 
of  them  is  to  be  compared  with  a  little  mechanical  assistance, 
judiciously  rendered.  After  a  ewe  has  been  two  hours  in  actual 
labor-pains  she  ought  to  be  relieved ;  it  is  cruelty  to  leave  her 
longer.  If  the  pulling  is  distributed  evenly  between  the  two 
legs  and  the  head  it  may  amount  to  fifteen  or  twenty  pounds 
without  injury. 

As  soon  as  the  lamb  has  drawn  a  few  breaths  the  umbilical 
cord  is  severed,  and  the  lamb  is  laid  directly  at  the  ewe's  nose. 
If  she  falls  to  licking  it,  all  is  well.  If  the  pain  of  a  tedious 
parturition  has  rendered  her  insensible  to  the  claims  of  natural 
affection,  she  will  have  to  be  confined  with  it  in  a  very  small 
pen.  There,  if  she  has  a  good  supply  of  milk,  she  will  proba- 
bly own  it  in  a  few  hours ;  but  if  she  is  destitute  of  milk  there 
will  be  trouble.  A  Merino  ewe  had  better  have  her  first  lamb 
on  grass.  There  is  nothing  else  on  earth  equal  to  it  for  making 
a  flow  of  milk,  and  the  consequent  flow  of  natural  affection. 

If  it  is  possible  to  save  the  lamb's  life  without  carrying  it 
into  the  house  it  ought  to  be  done;  the  ewe  is  apt  to  disown  it 


SHEEP.  1019' 

if  it  is  removed  and  the  scent  on  it  (by  which  she  recognizes  it) 
confused.  On  the  other  hand,  she  will  own  any  thing,  if,  while 
still  lying  on  her  side,  before  she  has  seen  or  smelled  her  own 
lamb,  the  stranger  is  well  rubbed  in  the  liquor  amnii  and  laid 
before  her.  If  it  is  chilled  and  unable  to  suck,  bring  out  hot 
flannels  and  put  around  it,  leaving  the  head  out  for  the  ewe ; 
give  it  a  tea-spoonful  or  two  of  warm  (ewe's)  milk.  Give  no 
cow's  milk  for  the  first  three  or  four  feeds,  if  it  is  possible  to 
avoid  it.  After  the  lamb  has  once  sucked  its  fill  there  will  be 
no  further  danger.  Still,  all  this  puddering  only  makes  accusa- 
tion against  a  man's  mismanagement  through  winter.  Even  full- 
blood  Merinos,  seven  or  eight  years  old,  if  well  exercised  (this 
ought  to  be  burned  in),  wili  rear  their  lambs  under  the  above- 
mentioned  temperature  with  very  little  assistance. 

Nothing  ought  to  be  taken  for  granted  as  to  the  establish- 
ment of  working  relations  between  ewe  and  lamb  until  the  latter 
is  actually  seen  to  suck.  When  for  any  reason  it  is  unable  to  do 
so,  but  is  lively,  the  ewe  should  be  laid  on  her  left  side,  the  lamb 
on  its  right,  the  jaws  opened  with  the  left  hand,  and  the  teat 
inserted.  It  will  soon  get  a  taste  and  begin  to  draw.  A  owe 
lambing  on  a  full  feed  of  grass  sometimes  gives  an  excess  of 
milk,  and  the  lamb  will  neglect  one  teat.  It  will  become  swollen 
and  ruined  unless  relieved.  The  milk  ought  to  be  drawn  from 
it,  and  the  ewe  confined  to  dry  feed  three  or  four  days. 

Ewes  restricted  to  timothy  hay  and  corn,  even  when  most 
liberally  fed,  sometimes  lose  their  lambs  when  ten  days  or  more 
old.  They  die  of  constipation,  and  the  remedy  is  more  relaxing 
feed  for  the  dams,  with  a  teaspoonful  of  magnesia  and  two  table- 
spoonfuls  of  black  molasses  to  the  lamb.  On  the  other  hand, 
breeding  flocks  running  on  flat,  sour  lands  frequently  suffer 
heavy  losses  in  lambs,  generally  the  fattest  and  largest.  The 
head  is  thrown  back,  there  is  tremor  and  convulsions,  some  froth 
at  the  mouth.  The  disease  is  popularly  called  "lamb  cholera." 
In  most  cases  it  is  probably  only  a  severe  case  of  colic,  the  pre- 
ventive for  which  is  a  liberal  admixture  of  lime  or  wood  ashes 
in  the  dams'  salt,  which  should  be  kept  constantly  in  a  covered 
trough. 


1020  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Lambs  are  best  castrated  when  very  young;  as  soon,  in  fact, 
as  they  are  owned  by  the  ewes  beyond  question.  They  suffer 
less  then.  The  best  way  is  to  seize  the  pouch  in  the  left  hand, 
work  the  testicles  well  down,  draw  it  across  the  top  of  a  hay- 
rack, and  with  a  single  stroke  of  a  sharp  knife  cut  it  off  smooth 
with  the  belly.  This  leaves  no  cod  to  interfere  with  shearing. 
The  sooner  the  tails  are  cut  off  the  better,  too.  An  assistant 
holds  the  lamb's  back  to  his  breast,  head  uppermost,  a  hind  leg 
grasped  in  each  hand  and  drawn  well  up.  The  knife  is  applied 
at  a  joint — a  bone  cuts  hard — and  a  vigorous  cut  made  down- 
ward and  outward,  which  leaves  a  hood  or  apron  to  protect  and 
cicatrize  the  disjointed  bone.  An  application  of  fish  oil  prevents 
the  attacks  of  flies,  and  is  less  objectionable  than  tar.  If  the 
whole  flock  is  docked  and  castrated  at  once  it  is  best  done  in 
the  evening,  in  cold  weather;  then  in  the  morning  the  lambs 
are  ready  to  follow  the  flock,  and  no  measures  have  to  be  taken 
against  flies. 

Lambs  should  not  run  with  the  flock  much,  if  any,  beyond 
four  months.  This  gives  the  ewe  only  three  months  rest  in  the 
year.  When  weaned  it  is  well  to  let  them  remain  in  the  same 
field  and  remove  the  ewes  to  another  one  out  of  sight  and  hear- 
ing. I  have  never  known  Merino  ewes  to  be  injured  by  the 
sudden  cessation  of  the  flow  of  milk.  In  the  case  of  the  English 
breeds  it  is  well  to  relieve  the  freest  milkers  by  hand  in  twenty- 
four  or  thirty-six  hours  after  the  lambs  are  removed. 

On  the  short,  sweet  grass  of  uplands  lambs  kept  for  wool 
mainly  will  do  fairly  well  without  grain  until  frost  comes;  but 
they  should  not  be  stinted  for  water.  Careful  watching  is  need- 
ful to  forestall  the  maggots.  It  is  best  to  tag  the  ewe  lambs  at 
weaning.  A  good  shade  should  be  furnished.  If  an  open  shed 
on  rising  ground  is  accessible  they  soon  learn  to  prefer  it  to 
trees,  and  the  gad-fly  is  not  so  liable  to  attack  them  here.  If 
salt  is  given  them  in  a  trough  while  with  the  ewes  they  will 
learn  to  approach  it  more  readily  for  grain.  When  rations  of 
this  are  first  given  salt  should  be  withheld,  except  a  very  little 
sprinkled  along  the  bran.  In  a  few  days  they  will  take  it  with- 
out salt. 


SHEEP.  1021 

If  lambs  are  from  young  ewes  or  are  behindhand  for  any 
other  reason  the  bran  ration  should  be  given  at  weaning  and 
slowly  increased  until  they  have  all  they  will  eat  twice  a  day, 
else  there  is  great  danger  that  the  weaker  ones  will  not  survive 
the  winter.  A  weak  lamb  in  the  fall  is  a  wretchedly  poor  piece 
of  property.  By  the  first  of  October  they  should  be  housed  at 
night  and  not  let  out  until  the  frost  is  off  in  the  morning.  A 
sprinkle  of  very  green,  fine  hay  should  be  strewn  along  the 
boxes,  and  they  will  soon  learn  to  eat  it  up  clean  before  they 
go  afield. 

The  care  of  lambs  in  winter  is  a  matter  of  the  first 
importance,  and  should  be  managed  by  the  owner  himself.  A 
little  oats  ought  to  be  added  to  the  bran  as  the  grass  gets 
shorter,  and  presently  corn.  By  Christmas  one  hundred  Merino 
lambs  need  daily  a  half  bushel  of  feed  composed  of  equal  parts 
of  bran,  oats,  and  corn.  The  three  feed-stuffs  are  here  men- 
tioned in  the  order  of  their  preference ;  but,  in  default  of  the 
first  two,  I  have  wintered  lambs  very  well  on  shelled  corn, 
three  or  four  gallons  a  day,  to  one  hundred,  varying  a  little 
according  to  the  weather.  Grain  is  best  given  twice  a  day,  but 
should  not  be  offered  (to  lambs)  the  first  thing  in  the  morning. 
They  are  more  sluggish  at  rising  than  older  sheep,  and  several— 
the  neediest  ones — would  lose  most  of  their  ration  if  given  in 
the  morning.  It  is  very  poor  economy  to  crowd  them  at  the 
troughs ;  let  these  be  ample  in  number,  flat-bottomed  by  all 
means,  and  ranged  around  the  side  of  the  yard  to  keep  the  lambs 
from  jumping  into  and  fouling  them. 

Pure  water  at  least  every  other  day,  three  or  four  hours* 
exercise  every  day,  and  constant  access  to  salt  will  not  be  denied 
by  the  wise  flock-master.  The  shed  is  best  left  open  on  one  or 
two  sides,  except  in  heavy  storms. 

As  with  ewes,  the  operation  of  letting  down  the  flock  from 
hay  to  grass  needs  judicious  management.  The  greenest,  finest 
hay  should  be  reserved  for  the  capricious  appetite  of  spring. 
The  best  resource  is  an  old  stiff  sod  of  such  small  compass  that 
they  will  keep  it  depastured  close  until  it  is  time  to  turn  wholly 
on  grass.  At  all  seasons  of  the  year  when  flocks  are  housed  at 


1022  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

all  I  favor  housing  or  feeding  in  the  forenoon  until  they  eat 
their  dry  feed.  This  is  the  flesh-maker  and  tonic,  the  food  and 
the  medicine,  and  must  be  taken.  Grass  is  yet  only  the  apple 
after  dinner. 

Fattening. — Perhaps  I  may  as  well  speak  here  of  the  sub- 
ject of  feeding  sheep  (wethers)  for  the  shambles.  It  is  a  matter 
of  difficulty  and  often  a  discouragement  to  the  beginner,  because 
the  dainty  sheep,  especially  the  Merino,  will  not  lend  himself 
to  the  fattening  process  like  the  omnivorous  hog.  No  Merino 
under  three  and  a  half  years  should  be  selected  for  winter  feed- 
ing; from  that  age  upward,  as  long  as  they  have  sound  teeth. 
It  is  a  waste  of  time  and  feed  to  attempt  to  do  any  thing  with 
an  animal  not  in  fair  condition  in  the  fall.  Nearly  every  body 
feeds  for  the  early  spring  market,  intending  to  retain  the 
fleeces;  hence  the  best  results  can  often  be  secured  by  selling 
in  the  wool  in  midwinter.  This  is  especially  the  case  where  the 
feeder  has  facilities  for  grazing  until  January  or  February.  They 
should  be  put  on  a  daily  feed  of  shelled  corn — sown  broad-cast 
on  a  clean,  short  sod — early  enough  in  autumn  to  prevent  any 
falling  off  in  condition  from  frosted  grass,  and  housed  at  night. 
If  more  convenient,  feed  in  troughs.  One  hundred  large  wethers 
require  a  house,  say  thirty  by  thirty-five  feet,  with  a  yard  at- 
tached. When  sheep  are  heavily  fed  on  grain  I  prefer  good 
corn  fodder  at  least  once  a  day  to  a  steady  regimen  of  hay. 
Oat  straw  or  wheat  straw  cut  when  the  kernel  is  in  the  doughy 
state  is  a  good  coarse  feed  for  heavily  grained  sheep.  Clear 
timothy  is  too  binding;  clover  is  preferable.  A  good  grain  ration 
may  be  made  by  combining  shelled  corn  one-half,  chopped  rye, 
shipstuff  or  oil-cake  meal  one  quarter,  shelled  oats  one  quarter, 
giving  all  they  will  eat  clean  twice  a  day.  It  is  careless  feed- 
ing even  with  hogs  to  leave  grain  lying  by  them,  and  still  more 
with  sheep.  Sheep  highly  fed  have  capricious  appetites,  vary- 
ing with  the  weather.  The  flock-master  should  watch  them  at 
every  feed.  If  there  is  a  considerable  remnant  of  corn  left  in 
the  troughs  and  a  few  linger  to  clean  it  up,  they  ought  to  be 
driven  out  of  the  pen  and  the  feed  removed,  else  at  the  next 
feeding-time  one  or  more  will  be  "off."  Water  and  salt  freely, 


SHEEP.  1023 

keeping  in  the  salt  about  &  of  fine  copperas  and  a  sprinkle  of 
sulphur.  If  sheep  are  fed  exclusively  on  corn  a  little  sharp 
wood  ashes  in  the  salt  is  good  to  keep  their  stomachs  sweet; 
they  are  liable  to  vomit  up  the  corn.  Plenty  of  bedding  is  re- 
quisite, else  the  dung  will  accumulate  between  the  hoofs  and 
cause  scald-foot,  which  has  a  tendency  to  pull  the  animal  down. 
After  they  are  once  put  on  heavy  rations  of  grain  the  fattening 
process  ought  to  be  closed  up  in  five  or  six  weeks  at  the  out- 
side. A  longer  period  diminishes  the  profits.  Some  will  prob- 
ably have  to  be  drafted  out  anyhow  and  reserved  for  fattening 
on  grass. 

In  selling  unshorn  mutton-sheep  the  farmer  is  liable  to  be 
overreached  unless  he  keeps  distinctly  in  view  the  two  elements, 
the  carcass  and  the  fleece.  Do  not  "  lump  "  them.  Weigh  the 
sheep  for  its  carcass,  and  estimate  the  fleece  by  the  average  of 
the  flock  in  previous  years,  and  the  number  of  months'  growth, 
adding  a  pound  on  account  of  the  greater  amount  of  yolk  secreted 
by  fattening  sheep. 

When  wool  is  the  object  sought  in  feeding,  corn-fodder  and 
oats  will  produce  more  of  it  than  timothy  and  corn,  value  for 
value.  A  given  sum  of  money  invested  in  good  wheat  straw 
and  corn  will  produce  more  wool  than  the  same  amount  expended 
for  timothy — at  least  west  of  the  Alleghenies.  With  three 
hundred  pounds  of  straw  feed  one  hundred  and  twenty  pounds 
of  corn  (this  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  Merinos).  A  flock  fed 
this  way,  and  given  an  appetizer  twice  or  three  times  a  week  by 
a  run  on  an  old  sod,  will  winter  satisfactorily  to  the  middle  of 
March  ;  then  they  should  have  hay  for  a  month,  with  a  half- 
bushel  less  of  corn. 

Sheep  should  never  be  allowed  to  run  at  will  to  a  straw- 
stack;  they  get  chaff  in  their  fleeces,  besides  wasting  a  vast 
amount  of  material  too  valuable  for  mere  bedding.  At  thresh- 
ing-time, if  the  farmer  can  make  such  arrangements  that  the 
chaff  will  be  well  disseminated  throughout  the  stack,  it  is  well 
to  dispose  of  it  this  way.  Otherwise  store  the  chaff  by  itself, 
in  a  rail  pen,  if  no  better  method  offers,  very  thoroughly  roofed 
with  straw.  Have  the  roof  so  supported  that  the  chaff  can  be 


1024  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

excavated  and  carried  away  underneath  during  the  winter. 
Have  a  basketmaker  make  a  basket  of  two  or  three  bushels' 
capacity,  in  which  to  carry  out  the  chaff  to  the  hay-boxes. 
Give  straw  in  the  morning,  chaff  in  the  evening.  If  the  straw 
is  stacked  as  it  ought  to  be,  with  a  smooth  and  even  surface, 
it  will  keep  well ;  a  slice  at  a  time  can  be  cut  down  with  an 
upright  hay-cutter,  pitched  down  with  a  common  fork,  and  car- 
ried out  on  a  straw-fork.  This  can  be  made  by  any  blacksmith 
in  the  following  manner :  Take  a  bar  of  steel  five  feet  four 
inches  long,  three-quarters  of  an  inch  wide,  and  one-half  inch 
thick ;  split  it  down  at  the  ends  far  enough  so  that  the  tines 
(four)  shall  be  two  feet  long,  and  have  an  entire  spread  of 
twenty-one  inches.  Weld  on  a  shank,  and  insert  it  into  a  handle. 

The  flock-master  must  bear  in  mind  that  there  is  a  wide  and 
important  difference  between  the  stud-flock  and  wool-flock. 
When  he  hears  or  reads  that  a  certain  celebrated  ram  produces 
a  fleece  of  twenty-five,  thirty,  or  thirty-three  pounds,  he  must 
remember  that  every  pound  of  that  fleece  may  have  cost  the 
owner  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  cents  in  extra  keep  and  care. 
In  other  words,  the  animal  is  not  kept  for  wool  as  a  primary 
object,  and  the  statement  of  the  weight  of  his  fleece  is  very 
liable  to  be  misleading. 

Just  here  present  themselves  considerations  of  housing  and 
other  ultra  artificialities  of  breeding.  If  men  choose  to  house 
their  sheep  as  they  would  callow  turkeys,  touch  up  the 
frayed  places  in  their  fleeces  with  lampblack,  supply  a  little  oil 
judiciously,  "  stubble  "  their  caps  and  their  legs  to  promote  the 
growth  of  wool  on  those  parts,  etc.,  in  order  to  compete  against 
each  other  at  a  fair,  they  have  a  perfect  right  to  do  so.  But 
to  offer  these  pampered  animals  to  the  average  farmer  as  a  foun- 
dation for  an  outdoor,  wool-bearing  flock,  destined  to  climb 
rugged  hillsides  for  a  living,  is  scarcely  legitimate.  The  fash- 
ionable, dark-surfaced  (almost  black)  fleece,  opening  up  deep 
with  the  rich,  dull  luster  of  "  old  gold  "  or  buff,  oily  as  a  hickory- 
nut,  and  a  mellow  pink  skin  folded  in  ample  corrugations — the 
very  presentment  of  fat  double-chinned  opulence — these  are  very 
captivating  to  the  eyes  of  most  novices.  But  the  eye  should 


SHEEP.  1025 

be  trained  to  penetrate  beneath  these  disguises.  It  is  an  error 
to  suppose  that  a  buff-colored  staple  is  necessary  in  the  ram  as  an 
indication  of  vigor.  The  greatest  hardiness  is  oftener  associated 
with  white  wool.  It  is  more  important  to  seek  an  animal  pos- 
sessing heat  and  vitality  enough  to  keep  the  yolk  semi-liquid, 
glistening,  and  well-diffused  along  the  fiber.  Next  after  consti- 
tution it  is  important,  above  all,  to  have  a  good-stapled,  deep- 
grown  fleece,  well  crimped  to  the  very  end  and  free  from 
black-tops. 

It  is  also  erroneous  to  suppose  that  a  small  amount  of  native 
blood  ought  to  be  retained  in  the  veins  as  a  conservator  of  hard- 
iness and  of  the  milking  and  nursing  aptitudes  in  the  Merino. 
As  between  an  average  full  blood  and  a  grade  treated  alike,  and 
from  ancestors  also  treated  alike,  the  full-blood  is  the  better 
every  way.  It  not  only  reproduces  itself  with  more  certainty, 
but  also  bears  wool  more  nearly  equal  in  length  wherever  any 
grows  at  all,  of  a  greater  number  of  fibers  to  the  square  inch. 
Nor  does  it  fall  behind  in  constitutional  force  as  mutton  or  as 
a  nurse.  The  full-blood  has  become  the  object  of  wrong  notions 
and  prejudice  simply  from  the  false  and  pampering  methods  to 
which  it  has  been  subjected. 

As  between  systematic  exposure  to  all  kinds  of  weather, 
winter  and  summer,  and  too  close  housing  in  an  atmosphere 
vitiated  by  animal  exhalations  and  ammonia  escaping  from  the 
manure,  the  former  is  unquestionably  to  be  preferred,  even  for 
breeding  ewes.  But  this  is  no  argument  against  judicious  yard- 
ing and  housing.  The  retention  of  the  yolk  in  the  fleece  is  the 
least  worthy  of  the  motives  presented  for  this  practice.  The 
swift,  drenching  rains  of  the  fickle  American  climate,  quickly 
followed  by  biting  cold  winds,  furnish  the  true  reason  for  hous- 
ing. The  very  argument  which  many  present  for  leaving  the 
flocks  exposed  to  the  storms — that  they  are  protected  by  thick 
fleeces  which  prevent  the  water  from  reaching  the  skin  for  a  long 
time — makes  in  favor  of  housing,  because  animals  covered  only 
with  hair  dry  off  sooner  than  sheep.  An  average  fleece  will 
absorb  and  carry  from  seven  to  ten  pounds  of  water ;  and  the 
sudden  conversion  of  a  considerable  portion  of  this  into  ice  in 

65 


1026  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

close  proximity  to  the  body  subjects  the  animal  to  much  un- 
necessary suffering.  It  will  endure,  with  impunity,  a  high  degree 
of  dry  cold ;  but,  above  all  things,  sheep  ought  to  be  kept  out 
of  water,  both  that  from  above  and  that  on  the  ground,  at  least 
in  the  winter.  Let  the  advocate  of  open-air  management,  who 
argues  volubly  on  the  sheep's  abundant  "  natural  covering,"  con- 
ceive of  himself  exposed  to  the  long  rains  of  winter,  protected 
with  a  coating  of  sponge  instead  of  water-proof  oil-cloth,  and  he 
will  have  the  subject  before  him  in  a  personal  and  comprehen- 
sive shape. 

Washing. — This  leads  naturally  to  the  subject  of  washing. 
It  would  undoubtedly  be  better  for  all  concerned — manufacturer, 
farmer,  and  the  sheep  itself — if  the  practice  was  wholly  abol- 
ished ;  but  it  is  useless  to  make  outcry  against  it  so  long  as  the 
farmers  are  firmly  grounded  in  the  belief  that  the  rule  requir- 
ing a  deduction  of  one-third  on  unwashed  fleeces  operates  un- 
equally and  in  a  majority  of  cases  unjustly.  Washing  is  an 
operation  which  may  be  performed  so  thoroughly  or  so  slightly 
that  it  has  been  the  source  of  endless  humbug  and  swindling. 
But  the  mere  color  of  the  wool  deceives  no  expert.  The  great 
remedy  for  all  the  evils  wrhich  have  barnacled  over  the  whole 
business  of  wool-growing  and  wool-selling  lies  in  the  closer  ap- 
proximation of  the  manufacturer  and  the  farmer,  which  will 
come  only  with  the  cessation  of  the  "  lumping "  methods  of  a 
comparatively  new  society  and  the  introduction  of  closer  special- 
ization. When  every  man's  clip  is  thoroughly  inspected  by  an 
expert  buyer,  and  a  just  system  of  deduction  enforced  in  each 
individual  case — for  there  must  always  be  a  current  market 
price — when  that  time  arrives,  the  farmer  can  act  his  pleasure 
as  to  washing.  Until  that  time  comes  the  interest  of  his  pocket 
will  leave  him  little  option. 

Washing  is  best  done  in  a  small  stream  of  soft  water,  dammed 
or  conducted  into  a  vat,  and  the  earlier  it  can  be  done  in  the 
season  without  discomfort  to  the  men  the  better.  There  are 
often  hot  days  late  in  April  or  early  in  May  when  the  water  in 
a  brook  is  warm  enough  after  nine  o'clock  to  cause  no  serious 
inconvenience  to  man  or  beast.  A  pond  large  enough  to  accom- 


SHEEP.  1027 

modate  four  men  will  cleanse  five  hundred  sheep  by  four  o'clock, 
giving  them  time  to  drip  sufficiently  not  to  suffer  during  the 
night.  A  rising  barometer  should  be  selected,  with  a  fair  pros- 
pect of  at  least  one  sunny  day  succeeding  the  washing.  As  in 
hay-making,  it  is  best  to  enter  on  this  work  soon  after  a  storm 
rather  than  just  before  one.  If  the  men  are  not  all  equally  good 
workmen,  let  the  sheep  be  passed  along  the  line,  the  best  man 
handling  them  last ;  and  let  him  stand  up-stream,  so  that  the 
rinsing  may  be  finished  in  clean  water.  Freshly  washed  sheep, 
especially  the  open-fleeced  English  breeds,  ought  to  be  protected 
from  cold,  drying  winds  as  much  as  if  they  were  shorn. 

If  the  water  is  cold  and  the  yolk  half  thickened,  tending 
to  waxy  lumps,  only  a  little,  if  any,  will  be  removed.  This  is 
washing  only  in  name.  Yolk  will  reform  in  the  fleece  as  rapidly 
on  cool  days  as  on  warm  ones,  but  it  is  not  so  apparent.  The 
farmer  can  let  his  flock  run  after  washing  as  long  as  he  chooses, 
but  if  a  long  time  is  allowed  to  elapse — say  over  two  weeks- 
certain  fleeces  will  resume  the  strong  sheepy  odor  and  the  abun- 
dant yolk  which  they  had  before  washing,  and  which  will  prob- 
ably cause  them  to  be  "docked." 

The  Art  of  Shearing  can  not  be  taught  on  paper.  But 
the  master  should  insist  on  the  shearers  attending  to  certain 
points.  The  fleece  ought  to  be  opened  up  the  neck  and  not  on 
the  shoulder,  for  both  shoulders  should  be  kept  intact,  as  the 
best  wool  comes  from  this  quarter.  The  belly-piece  ought  also 
to  be  left  hanging  wholly  on  one  side  or  the  other,  not  divided 
down  the  middle.  The  fleece  should  never  be  cut  twice,  and  it 
is  not  worth  while  to  go  a  second  time  over  the  surface  tagged 
early  in  the  spring. 

When  the  fleece  has  been  spread  out  on  the  table,  outside 
uppermost,  and  gathered  into  its  natural  position,  backbone 
straight,  the  first  thing  is  to  examine  the  breech  and  remove 
the  dung-balls.  Now  fold  the  breech  over  about  six  inches, 
then  the  flank,  then  the  neck,  and  last  the  belly-piece ;  this 
leaves  the  latter  where  it  is  convenient  for  the  sorter  to  find 
and  detach  it.  The  fleece  now  lies  on  the  table  nearly  square. 
The  folder  then  lays  his  right  arm  across  the  middle,  and  by  a 


1028 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


quick  skillful  motion  of  the  left  doubles  this  square  upon  itself 
with  a  clean  fold  (not  rolling  it  up),  when  it  is  ready  to  be 
placed  in  the  press. 

The  press  figured  herewith  is  for  average  Merino  fleeces;  for 
very  large  ones  or  for  Cotswold  fleeces  the  box  would  need  to 
be  somewhat  wider.  The  table  is  two  feet  six  inches  high,  two 
feet  two  inches  wide,  and  four  feet  long.  The  leaves  are  four 


a. \.    \e  \ 


WOOL-PRESS. 

a  a,  upright  leaf ;  6  6,  drop-leaf ;  a  e  c,  head-piece ;  d  d,  leather  band ;  e,  roller ;  /,  support  for 
drop-leaf;  g,  the  twine  ;  1,  2,  3,  the  slits  in  the  strap  for  strings. 

feet  long  and  one  foot  wide.  The  box  inclosed  between  the 
leaves  is  eleven  inches  wide.  The  head-piece,  c  c,  is  six  and 
one-half  inches  high.  The  side-pieces  of  the  table  project  far 
enough  beyond  the  end  to  support  the  roller,  e,  which  is  three 
inches  in  diameter  at  the  thickest  part,  tapering  slightly  toward 
the  ends.  The  drop-leaf,  b  b,  is  hinged,  and  falls  forward  toward 
the  operator.  When  the  fleece  is  placed  in  position  the  drop- 
leaf  is  raised,  the  leather  band,  d  d  (six  feet  long  and  eleven  inches 
wide),  is  carried  forward  and  wound  up  on  the  roller.  The  fleece 
should  not  be  drawn  down  too  tight,  as  it  makes  it  hard  and 
soggy.  The  strings,  three  in  number,  should  be  light,  and  they 


SHEEP.  1029 

ought  to  be  cut  close  to  the  knot,  so  as  not  to  give  the  owner 
an  appearance  of  seeking  to  sell  twine  for  wool. 

All  fribs  from  the  shearing-bible,  spring-cut  tags,  and  pulled 
wool,  whether  washed  or  not,  ought  to  be  kept  by  themselves, 
not  put  into  the  fleeces. 

Sheep  dying  through  the  winter  should  be  skinned  at  once; 
the  pelts  may  be  sold,  washed  or  unwashed,  or  the  wool  may 
be  loosened  with  lime-water  and  sold  as  pulled — whichever  is 
found  most  profitable. 

If  unwashed,  sheep  should  be  shorn  from  the  20th  of  April 
to  the  15th  of  May,  according  to  the  latitude  and  weather;  if 
washed,  from  the  20th  of  May  to  the  middle  of  June.  It  is  a 
well  established  fact  that  flocks  do  better  when  shorn  in  April, 
if  reasonable  provision  is  made  for  housing  in  storms  for  a  week 
or  ten  days  afterward.  This  is  especially  true  of  suckling  ewes. 
The  heat  retained  in  their  bodies  by  heavy,  burdensome  fleeces, 
worn  late  in  May  or  June,  tends  to  dry  up  the  milk  and  ener- 
vate the  system.  They  can  withstand  the  loss  of  the  fleece 
comparatively  better  in  cool  weather  than  they  can  after  becom- 
ing enfeebled  by  it  in  the  summer  heat.  If  well-bred  flocks  are 
sheltered  from  all  storms,  from  November  1st  through  the  winter 
and  spring,  shorn  before  they  are  turned  to  grass — say  from 
April  10th  to  20th — then  protected  a  week  or  two,  their  wool 
will  not  only  be  as  white  generally  as  it  is  after  washing  at  the 
usual  season,  but  it  will  generally  weigh  enough  to  enable  the 
farmer  to  submit  without  loss  to  the  one-third  deduction.  If  it 
should  perchance  bring  him  a  few  cents  less  per  head,  the  sheep 
will  do  enough  better  to  counterbalance  the  loss,  if  not  more. 
Thrifty  tegs  shorn  as  early  as  April  15th  will  frequently  gain 
ten  or  fifteen  pounds  before  June  1st — worth  more  than  a 
pound  of  wool.  Cotswolds  will  frequently  gain  twenty  or 
twenty-five  pounds. 

The  flocks  ought  to  be  carefully  drafted  and  marked  or  la- 
beled at  shearing-time.  Marking  should  be  done  with  red  lead, 
Venetian  red,  or  some  paint  which  can  be  scoured  off;  tar  is 
very  objectionable.  Drafting  ought  to  be  instituted  as  soon  as 
the  sheep  reaches  the  age  of  one  year,  for  it  has  then  demon- 


1030  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

strated  its  relative  capacity  for  the  production  of  wool  and  mut- 
ton. It  is  important  to  conduct  the  draft  on  correct  principles. 
Many  farmers  argue  that  they  will  bring  the  weight  of  the  fleece 
up  to  a  desired  standard,  and  afterward  breed  for  a  long  fiber; 
but  this  puts  the  cart  before  the  horse.  The  production  of  a 
good  stapled,  deep  grown  fleece  (in  the  Merinos),  is  of  the  first 
importance.  Let  the -matter  of  weight  absolutely  take  care  of 
itself.  The  more  wool,  the  more  weight.  Yolk  is  utterly  val- 
ueless in  the  fleece  except  as  a  softener  and  preserver  of  the 
fiber,  and  a  sheep  that  is  thoroughly  healthy,  vigorous,  and 
properly  cared  for,  will  produce  all  of  it  which  is  requisite.  To 
cultivate  it  beyond  that  is  a  clear  fraud,  which,  in  the  long  run, 
will  not  prosper.  That  "density"  which  is  so  admired  by  mnny 
is  in  a  majority  of  cases  a  delusion,  because  it  is  only  yolk.  It 
is  customary  to  say  that  a  long  staple  can  be  secured  only  at  the 
expense  of  density,  but  this  is  erroneous.  Sheep  of  equally 
pure  blood  have  differing  aptitudes.  One  will  have  an  abnor- 
mal tendency  toward  the  secretion  of  yolk,  which  takes  place  at 
the  expense  of  the  fiber,  rendering  it  short  and  comparatively 
weak.  The  other — almost  invariably  the  hardier  of  the  two — 
secretes  less  yolk  and  more,  that  is,  longer,  fiber.  An  eminent 
expert  once  said  to  the  writer,  he  did  not  care  how  much  yolk 
there  was  in  wool,  if  the  latter  was  white ;  meaning  thereby 
that  if  the  minute  cylinder  of  yolk  which  invests  each  fiber  like 
a  sheath  remained  so  thin  as  not  to  conceal  the  color  of  the 
staple  it  was  not  possible  for  it  to  be  in  excess. 

Hence,  in  the  draft  those  animals  ought  to  be  marked  for 
withdrawal  and  sale  which  are,  first,  deficient  in  constitution ; 
second,  gummy  and  short  fibered.  It  is  generally  the  heavy, 
yolky  wooled  ones  which  die,  while  those  of  voluminous,  white, 
elastic  fleeces,  which  make  a  great  armful,  posess  an  abounding 
vitality.  The  rejection  of  a  sheep  merely  upon  its  failure  to 
produce  a  fleece  of  a  given  weight,  is  highly  inartistic ;  it  is  to 
work  by  a  coarse  "rule  of  thumb."  A  good  sheep  to  keep 
should  have  a  long  fiber  and  a  short  leg;  be  low  and  stout, 
with  legs  wide  apart,  etc.  (See  foregoing  description  of  good 
breeders.) 


SHEEP.  1031 

Ticks. — The  presence  of  ticks  in  a  flock  of  Merinos  is  a 
serious  imputation  upon  the  keeper's  thrift ;  but  less  so  with 
the  open-wooled  English  breeds.  Now  is  the  time  above  all 
others  in  the  year  to  give  them  the  slip.  After  shearing  they 
will  disappear  from  the  shorn  sheep,  some  taking  refuge  on  the 
lambs,  and  the  latter  must  be  dipped  in  a  vat  of  strong  tobacco 
water  (made  by  boiling  ten  to  fifteen  pounds  of  stems  in  water, 
to  which  enough  cold  water  is  added  to  dip  one  hundred  lambs), 
with  an  inclined  leaf  to  carry  back  the  drippings  into  the  vat. 
Or  arsenic  water  may  be  used,  if  cheaper — three  pounds  of 
white  arsenic,  dissolved  in  boiling  water,  and  then  diluted  with 
forty  gallons  of  cold.  The  lamb  is  immersed  back  downward, 
care  being  taken  not  to  let  the  liquid  enter  the  eyes  and  nose. 
If  yearlings  are  infested  with  ticks,  they  may  be  held  in  check 
so  as  not  to  injure  the  sheep  until  shearing-time  comes  by  giv- 
ing them  free  access  to  salt  mixed  with  one-third  part  of  sul- 
phur, and  housing  them  from  the  storms.  A  flock  well  dipped 
and  cared  for  afterward  ought  never  to  have  ticks  on  them  again. 

Maggots  are  one  of  the  greatest  pests  of  summer,  especially 
on  the  evil-smelling  Merino.  Rams  at  shearing  should  receive 
a  light  smear  of  tar  around  the  base  of  the  horns,  and  on  any 
contusions  which  they  may  make  by  fighting.  Ewes,  if  wrinkly, 
and  with  a  tendency  to  foul,  should  be  carefully  watched,  kept 
dressed  with  the  shears  and  fresh,  soft  tar  applied.  Early  lambs 
have  wool  of  considerable  length  at  weaning  time ;  ewe  lambs 
should  then  be  tagged  a  little  about  the  posteriors,  and  the 
wether  lambs  at  the  pizzle,  and  those  parts  touched  with  tar. 
Nothing  else  will  supply  fully  the  place  of  tar,  but  it  must  not 
be  daubed  on  thick,  else  it  will  smutch  the  fleece.  When  nwg- 
•rots  once  get  a  foothold,  only  the  greatest  thoroughness  will  dis- 
lodge them.  Shear  close  to  the  hide,  rigorously  hunt  them  out 
with  a  sharp  stick,  then  smear  tar  solid  over  the  whole  space 
covered  by  them.  Turpentine  or  kerosene  will  expel  them  more 
quickly,  but  these  are  hard  on  the  sheep,  and  it  is  better  to 
spend  more  time  in  digging  them  out.  It  may  be  necessary  to 
sprinkle  the  adjacent  wool  with  them  to  prevent  the  flies  from 
laying  more  eggs,  and  to  keep  the  sheep  in  the  dark. 


1032          THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

"Water  is  absolutely  essential  to  sheep  in  winter,  but  dry 
flocks  will  do  very  well  without  it  in  summer  if  the  nights  are 
cool  and  dewy  and  the  grass  succulent.  Otherwise  it  is  cruel 
to  withhold  it  from  them,  and  I  have  known  healthy  sheep  to 
die  from  pure  thirst  during  a  long  dry  spell  in  summer,  though 
pasture  was  abundant.  Nursing  ewes  ought  to  have  daily  ac- 
cess to  water  at  all  times  of  the  year. 

Frequent  change  of  pasture  is  conducive  to  thrift,  even  if 
one  flock  follows  directly  after  another.  A  large  flock  kept  in 
a  small  field  a  few  days  is  better  than  a  small  flock  kept  in  it 
continuously. 

It  is  difficult  to  feed  sheep  too  well  in  winter,  but  the  prac- 
tice of  feeding  in  summer,  except  in  the  case  of  lambs  after 
weaning,  can  scarcely  escape  the  opprobrious  designation  of 
"pampering."  This  is  legitimate  with  sheep  intended  merely 
for  display;  but  a  sheep  which  is  expected  to  be  of  any  use  to 
the  practical  farmer  as  a  breeder  ought  to  be  capable  of  gaining 
a  good  living  in  summer  on  pasture  alone.  The  same  objection 
does  not  lie  fully  against  summer  housing,  for  a  sheep  long  ac- 
customed to  it — if  not  pampered  and  ruined  by  excessive  feed- 
ing at  the  same  time — may  easily  be  weaned  from  it  without 
injury.  Still,  summer  housing  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  a  subject 
having  any  practical  interest  for  the  average  farmer. 

Salt,  of  course,  should  be  given  in  abundance ;  it  is  best  to 
allow  constant  access  to  it  in  covered  troughs.  There  are  vari- 
ous ingenious  devices  for  causing  the  sheep  to  smear  their  noses 
with  tar  in  the  act  of  licking  salt,  as  a  means  of  preventing  the 
attacks  of  the  gad-fly.  I  do  not  attach  much  importance  to 
them,  mainly  because  the  vast  majority  of  farmers  would  be  apt 
to  neglect  them.  Free  access  to  inclosed  buildings,  and  plenty 
of  dust  to  stamp  and  snuff  in,  are  of  more  practical  value  in 
warding  off  the  fly. 

Fly. — When  the  fly  has  succeeded  in  its  attack,  and  the 
consequent  grub  is  developed  in  the  head,  it  is  difficult  to  dis- 
lodge it.  The  most  practicable  method  is  to  syringe  out  the  nos- 
trils with  a  bulb  syringe  having  a  nozzle  six  inches  long.  Let 
this  be  worked  up  carefully — it  will  go  up  nearly  if  not  quite 


SHEEP.  1033 

its  length;  then  by  a  quick  pressure  let  a  half-teaspoonful  of 
turpentine  be  spurted  into  the  nasal  sinuses,  and  the  nozzle  at 
once  withdrawn.  After  a  hot,  dry  season,  when  the  fly  has 
been  troublesome,  it  is  well  to  treat  the  whole  flock  of  lambs 
this  way  in  the  fall,  as  a  preventive. 

Paper-skin. — Probably  the  most  destructive  pest  of  the 
sheep  family  east  of  the  Mississippi  is  the  paper-skin,  a  popular 
term  for  the  anaemic  condition  produced  by  various  visceral 
parasites.  It  is  our  province  to  discuss  here  only  preventives 
and  remedies.  It  attacks  principally  young  sheep,  generally 
during  the  first  year  of  their  lives.  Its  indications  are :  a 
waxen-white  pallor  of  the  skin,  lassitude,  thirst,  frequently  a 
deep  but  noiseless  cough  following  exertion,  great  loss  of  weight 
not  attended  with  a  corresponding  emaciation,  loss  of  power, 
"  dumpishness." 

A  wide  range  of  experience  by  practical  shepherds  has  shown 
that  the  best  preventive  is  finely  powdered  copperas,  kept  con- 
stantly in  the  salt  until  the  sheep  has  passed  the  month  of  May 
or  June  the  second  time,  and  high  feeding.  Some  excellent  flock- 
masters  use  only  one-twentieth  or  one-twenty-fifth  part  in  the 
salt,  but  they  supplement  it  by  very  generous  feeding,  which  is 
of  the  highest  importance.  In  a  very  wet  season,  when  the  par- 
asites are  worst,  it  may  with  advantage  be  mixed  in  the  salt  at 
the  rate  of  one-tenth  or  even  one-fifth.  Let  it  be  distinctly 
understood  that  copperas  is  here  recommended,  not  as  a  remedy 
after  the  parasites  have  obtained  a  foothold,  but  as  a  means  of 
forestalling  them ;  and  that,  in  order  to  secure  good  results  from 
it,  it  must  be  kept  in  the  salt  unremittingly  for  the  length  of 
time  above  indicated. 

It  is  a  very  discouraging  task  to  attempt  to  medicate  a  lot 
of  lambs  in  which  the  parasites  have  become  firmly  seated. 
Probably  there  is  nothing  better  than  turpentine  in  this  case, 
though  in  the  hands  of  a  careless  operator  this  is  apt  to  work 
fatal  results.  Let  it  be  mixed,  half  and  half,  with  whisky  or 
linseed-oil,  and  kept  well  shaken  up  while  in  use.  Let  the 
operator  put  a  dose — generally  about  a  tea-spoonful — into  a 
small  vial  with  a  long,  slender  neck,  stand  astride  the  lamb 


1034  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

(which  maintains  a  natural  position  on  its  legs),  open  the  jaws, 
pass  the  mouth  of  the  vial  down  below  the  root  of  the  tongue, 
empty  the  dose,  and  hold  the  jaws  open,  working  the  throat 
with  the  thumb  and  finger  outside  until  it  swallows.  Free  ac- 
cess to  water  is  required. 

Scald-foot,  or  Fouls,  is  a  slight  galling  or  maceration  in 
the  cleft  of  the  hoof,  generally  produced  by  wet  grass  or  dung, 
and  unless  long-continued — it  usually  cures  itself — it  works  the 
animal  very  little  if  any  injury.  But  on  account  of  the  popular 
ignorance  and  prejudice,  which  associate  all  lameness  with  the 
dreaded  foot-rot,  and  also  on  account  of  the  maceration  and  fetor 
which  result  from  the  scald  affording  an  attractive  asylum  for 
the  parasite  which  is  supposed  to  generate  the  true  foot-rot,  it 
is  best  to  medicate  the  scald.  On  some  soils  it  will  never  termi- 
nate in  the  rot;  on  others,  there  seems  to  be  conclusive  evidence 
that  it  will.  The  simple  scald  is  not  infectious;  it  will  remain 
for  weeks  confined  to  a  single  member  of  the  flock;  it  never 
passes  beyond  the  cleft,  though,  if  neglected,  maggots  sometimes 
get  in  and  work  grievous  damage,  if  not  total  ruin,  to  the  feet. 
But  the  foot-rot  spreads  through  the  flock,  speedily  seizes  upon 
the  heel  as  being  the  softest  and  most  accessible  portion,  from 
this  invests  the  whole  foot  within  the  horny  covering  of  the 
hoof,  and  reduces  all  the  fleshy  part  and  the  gristle  to  a  mass 
of  putridity  and  rottenness. 

The  thick,  soft,  club-like  feet  of  the  American  Merino  are 
more  subject  to  the  greater  as  well  as  the  minor  malady  than 
those  of  any  other  breed.  What  will  prevent  the  scald  will 

assist  largely  in  preventing  the 
foot-rot.  The  toe-shears  ought  to 
be  used  at  least  twice  a  year. 
The  thick,  semi-unqulate  masses 
TOE-SHEARS.  on  the  inside  of  the  hoofs  ought 

to  be  kept  pared  away  with  a  stout  knife — a  hooked  pruning- 
knife  is  a  good  implement.  If  a  little  blood  is  drawn  it  will  do 
no  harm;  it  is  best  to  err  on  the  side  of  thoroughness.  Some 
club-footed  sheep  demand  the  knife  every  month.  Unless  espe- 
cially valuable  otherwise,  they  ought  to  go  to  the  shambles. 


SHEEP.  1035 

If  the  scald  is  present,  a  little  finely  powdered  blue-vitriol 
sprinkled  in  the  cleft  is  sufficient.  If  the  foot-rot  appears  the 
affected  animals  ought  to  be  isolated  at  once,  their  feet  cleansed 
and  thoroughly  pared  with  the  knife  until  the  disease  is  laid 
bare  in  all  its  lurking-places ;  then  the  animals  ought  to  be  made 
stand  in  a  foot-bath  of  blue-vitriol  (water  with  all  the  vitriol  it 
will  dissolve)  ten  or  fifteen  minutes.  They  should  be  kept 
twenty-four  hours  where  neither  moisture  nor  dung  will  get  into 
the  cleft  to  impede  the  action  of  the  vitriol.  A  repetition  in  a 
week  or  two  may  be  necessary  to  cure  up  every  case. 

Scab  and  its  treatment  were  mentioned  in  connection  with 
the  Territories.  It  is  supremely  true  of  the  sheep  that  an  ounce 
of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of  cure.  After  years  of  expe- 
rience I  have  practically  discarded  all  remedies  except  copperas 
as  a  preventive  of  paper-skin,  and  vitriol  for  foot-rot.  Good  feed- 
ing, good  care,  exercise,  water,  salt — these  are  worth  to  the  shep- 
herd more  than  all  the  medicine-chests  in  Christendom. 

Sheep  Barns. — A  flock  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  Merino 
ewes  or  one  hundred  Cotswold  ought  to  have  a  sheep-house 
forty -five  by  forty  feet,  or  its  equivalent.  For  a  dry  flock  of 
Merinos  a  shed  seventy-five  by  sixteen  feet  will  suffice  for  two 
hundred  and  fifty  head,  if  no  hay-racks  are  set  in  it.  If  they 
are,  additional  space  will  be  required  equal  to  that  occupied  by 
the  racks.  For  this  shed  no  sills  need  be  used.  The  timbers 
required  will  be  two  plates,  say  five  by  six  inches ;  two  posts 
five  by  five  inches  every  ten  feet ;  a  rafter  two  by  three  inches 
every  twenty  inches ;  a  girt  four  by  four  inches  every  ten  feet. 
If  oak  is  convenient  the  roof  may  be  made  of  this  material — 
home-made  shingles,  twenty  inches  long,  six  inches  laid  to  the 
weather.  For  each  post  dig  a  hole  two  feet  deep,  and  fill  up 
with  broken  stone  well  hammered  down;  on  this  lay  a  flat  stone. 
Have  the  siding  come  down  within  six  inches  of  the  ground. 
Dig  a  little  trench,  and  set  up  thin  flat  stones  on  edge,  the  tops 
resting  against  the  lower  end  of  the  siding  on  the  inside.  Fill  up 
the  shed  so  deep  with  earth  that  it  will  never  be  flooded.  The 
earth  will  touch  the  stones,  and  will  not  rot  the  siding.  The 
shed  need  be  only  high  enough  to  allow  a  team  to  pass  under 


1036 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


the  girts  to  haul  out  the  manure.  The  building  should  be  long 
north  and  south,  as  affording  more  protection  to  the  yard  from 
storms.  The  east  side  can  be  left  open,  if  desired.  The  manure 
may  be  thrown  out  through  large  doors  on  the  back  side ;  but  it 
is  better  to  arrange  to  drive  through  lengthways  with  a  team. 

A  good  form  for  a  sheep-house,  designed  also  for  the  storing 
of  hay,  is,  a  main  building  sixteen  or  twenty  feet  wide,  as  long 


d\ 


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GROUND  PLAN  OF  SHEEP  HOUSES  AND  YARDS. 

8  8.  stables;  H  H.  Haymows;  Y  Y.  Open  yards,  protected  on  outside  by  a  picket  fence,  P  P  P, 
made  dog  proof;  W  T.  Water  trough;  d  d  d.  Doors;  g  g.  Gates;  F.  Feeding  yard;  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  Feed- 
troughs. 

and  high  as  desired,  with  a  wing  or  shed  on  each  side  twelve 
feet  wide.  After  the  hay  is  settled  a  hole  can  be  cut  with  a 
cutter  through  which  the  hay  can  be  dumped  down  into  a  cen- 
tral rack  into  a  dumping-pen,  from  which  to  be  distributed ;  or 
it  may  be  thrown  down  at  the  sides  into  the  wings,  falling  into 
racks  placed  along  underneath.  Swing-doors  are  objectionable 
in  a  sheep-house;  hoisting-doors  or  sliding-doors  are  better,  es- 
pecially when  it  is  necessary  to  give  speedy  exit  to  a  large  flock. 
All  grain-troughs  or  water-troughs  inside  the  house  are  faulty, 
unless  constructed  to  swing  down  on  hinges ;  otherwise  they  col- 


SHEEP.  1037 

lect  dung.  It  is  better  every  way  to  have  both  out-doors.  The 
grain-yard  ought  to  be  a  separate  inclosure  from  the  fodder-yard, 
with  a  separate  door  leading  into  it.  One  grain-yard  will  answer 
for  two  or  more  flocks  if  the  sheep-houses  are  grouped  near  to- 
gether, or  the  one  building  is  partitioned  off  inside  with  hay- 
racks. In  the  grain-yard  place  the  troughs  around  the  sides,  or 
set  them  in  rows  (with  a  light  slat-fence  just  above  each  to  pre- 
vent the  sheep  from  jumping  over  them).  Then  the  grain  can 
be  distributed  evenly  in  the  troughs  at  leisure,  the  sheep  let 
out,  the  door  closed,  and  while  they  are  eating,  the  hay  or  fod- 
der can  be  scattered  in  the  racks  in  the  stable,  or  the  yard  also 
at  leisure. 

There  are  many  ingenious  contrivances  for  allowing  the  sheep 
to  eat  the  chaff  and  fine  hay  from  the  bottom  of  the  mangers, 
and  for  preventing  them  from  thrusting  their  necks  full  length 
into  the  hay  and  getting  chaff  into  the  wool.  I  attach  little  im- 
portance to  any  of  them.  In  the  first  place,  the  orts  ought  to 
be  removed  every  few  days  and  given  to  horses  or  cattle,  or 
placed  in  a  separate  manger  for  the  sheep,  and  brined.  In  the 
second  place,  unless  sheep  are  shorn  while  still  on  dry  feed, 
what  little  chaff  lodges  in  the  neck-wool  from  the  old-fashioned 
manger  will  be  worked  out  before  shearing-time  by  the  action 
of  that  felting  property  of  the  fibers  which  is  designed  by  na- 
ture to  expel  dirt  from  the  fleece.  In  the  third  place,  if  the 
feed  is  goo&,  sheep  will  not  waste  any  to  speak  of  in  an  ordi- 
nary slaftej  manger.  To  make  a  good  manger,  cut  hay  green. 

A  manger  for  lambs  ought  to  be  two  feet  wide  (for  grown 
sheep,  thirty  inches) ;  any  length  that  is  convenient,  say  twelve 
feet ;  at  least  three  feet  high  (if  used  out-doors),  to  keep  leggy 
sheep  from  jumping  into  it,  and  to  serve  as  partitions  if  needed. 
Let  the  bottom  boards  (end  and  side)  be  a  foot  wide ;  the  top, 
six  or  eight  inches ;  the  four  posts,  three  feet  long,  three  by 
three  inches.  Let  the  slats  be  of  light  stuff,  three  inches  wide, 
nailed  on  so  as  to  allow  fourteen  inches  for  a  large  sheep  or  a 
ewe  for  standing-room,  nine  inches  for  a  lamb — one  slat  between 
each  two  sheep.  Round  off  all  edges  to  prevent  fretting  of 
the  wool. 


1038  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Sheep-hooks. — The  shepherd's  crook  or  sheep-hook  is  a 
tool  not  used  by  one  flock-master  in  five  hundred,  yet  it  is  a 
wonderful  labor-saver,  especially  in  Iambi ng-time,  when  every 
ewe  has  to  be  caught  once  and  often  several  times.  The  shep- 
herd can  save  himself  many  a  hard  chase  and  lame  back  by  the 
use  of  one,  and  any  blacksmith  with  a  modicum  of  ingenuity  can 
make  it.  Take  a  three-eighths  or  one-half  inch  bar  of  spring 
steel,  weld  it  on  to  the  socket  of  an  old  hoe-handle,  nnd  give  it 
the  shape  herewith  figured,  with  dimensions  as  follows  :  Socket 
and  crook  together,  thirteen  inches  long;  the  recurved  lines  four 
inches  in  a  straight  line,  or  about  five  and  one-half  inches  in  its 
windings ;  the  bulge  one  inch  across  on  the  inside ;  the  neck, 

seven-eights   inch.     The  shank 
is  left  round,  the  crook  is  flat- 
tened a  little.     The  handle  of 
wood   is   about   six    feet    long. 
In  using  it  catch  the  sheep  by 
the  hind-leg  just  above  the  hock- 
joint,  and  pull  back  and  up  with  a  quick  jerk,  so  as  to  lift  the 
animal  partly  or  nearly  off  its  hind-feet.     Otherwise  it  is  apt  to 
kick  loose  and  escape. 

The  utility  of  sheep  as  scavengers  of  foul  land  can  not  be 
too  fully  recognized.  With  the  exception  of  thistles,  mullens, 
pawpaws,  and  the  sprouts  of  the  oak,  walnut,  arid  butternut, 
there  is  hardly  any  thing  they  will  not  browse,  especially  on 
thin  uplands.  They  eat  most  sprouts  and  weeds  best  when  they 
are  tender  in  the  spring  (the  poke  is  one  notable  exception)  ; 
and  if  a  field  is  very  foul  this  is  the  time  to  turn  flock  after 
flock  on  it  in  rapid  succession,  stinting  each  a  little  temporarily, 
to  make  them  consume  the  trash.  When  foul  land  has  been 
burned  over  the  sprouts  which  come  up  are  much  more  relished 
by  them  than  those  on  unburned  land,  the  ashes  seem  to  give 
them  sweetness.  This  is  the  best  method  I  ever  found  for 
clearing  up  old  pastures  which  it  was  not  convenient  to  plow. 
The  evenness  with  which  sheep-manure  is  distributed,  and 
their  tendency  to  accumulate  it  on  the  highest  knolls  (which  are 
generally  the  poorest)  are  noteworthy  points  in  their  favor. 


SHEEP.  1039 

Indeed,  these  knolls  will  eventually  become  so  enriched  as  to 
produce  grass  too  rank  for  profit,  when  they  will  have  to  be 
inclosed  and  cropped. 

Dogs. — As  to  sheep  and  dogs  and  the  ravages  of  the  latter, 
I  have  no  statistics  at  hand  but  those  of  Ohio,  as  the  Compen- 
dium of  the  Tenth  Census  gives  no  information  on  this  subject. 
In  1882  the  number  of  dogs  in  Ohio  was  returned  at  170,911  ; 
the  value  of  the  sheep  killed  and  injured  by  them  was  $173,976. 
Therefore,  a  tax  of  one  dollar  on  each  dog,  if  fully  collected, 
would  not  have  reimbursed  this  loss,  though  it  would  probably 
have  sufficed  to  pay  all  the  actual  claims  for  damages  under  the 
existing  law. 

Dogs  always  have  been  and  always  will  be  kept  by  mankind. 
The  only  practical  question  for  legislators  is,  How  to  assess  upon 
and  effectively  collect  from  their  owners  the  damage  caused  by 
them.  A  law  requiring  the  personal  presence  of  the  sheep-owner 
and  one  or  more  of  his  neighbors  as  witnesses,  at  the  meeting  of 
the  commissioners  at  the  county-seat,  is  burdensome  and  unjust. 
These  claims  ought  to  be  relegated  to  the  local  officers,  and  the 
latter  ought  to  be  authorized  to  make  allowance,  not  only  for 
the  sheep  lost,  but  also  sufficient  to  compensate  the  sheep-owner 
and  his  witnesses  for  the  time  spent  by  them  in  holding  the 
inquest  and  going  to  make  their  affidavits. 

An  examination  of  the  Ohio  statistics  reveals  the  fact  that 
the  number  of  sheep  killed  and  injured  by  dogs,  in  a  given 
county,  bears  no  sort  of  relation  to  the  number  of  sheep  owned 
in  the  county.  For  instance,  Licking — 251,989  sheep;  killed 
by  dogs,  679.  Lawrence — 4,782  ;  killed  by  dogs,  109.  It  is 
observable,  as  a  general  rule,  that  two  classes  of  counties  suffer 
the  heaviest  losses,  viz.,  those  which  are  most  backward  and 
non-progressive,  and  those  which  contain  the  largest  cities, 
though  this  rule  has  some  exceptions. 


AN     UNWELCOME    VISITOR. 


POULTRY.  1041 


XVIII. 


IS  Poultry-keeping  Profitable  ?  —  When  a  sensible  person 
is  urged  to  engage  in  a  new  business,  to  extend  a  business 
already  established,  or  to  do  any  thing  that  will  involve  an  out- 
lay of  time  and  money,  the  first  question  he  naturally  asks  is  : 
"  Will  it  pay  ?"     This  is  just  as  it  should  be,  for  either  in  pleasure, 
in  cash,  in  health  or  knowledge  gained,  in  the  satisfaction  derived 
from  the  knowledge  that  we  have  benefited  others,  or  in  some  way, 
whatever  we  do  must  pay,  or  the  pursuit  will  soon  lose  its  charm, 
and  the  whole  thing  be  a  failure  so  far  as  we  are  concerned. 

When  the  inquiry,  "Will  it  pay?"  is  made  in  regard  to  the 
poultry  business  I  am  glad  to  be  able  to  answer  in  the  affirma- 
tive. I  speak  from  several  years  of  practical  experience  in 


*  "  BY  FANNY  FIELD." — The  writer  of  our  poultry  chapter  has  proved,  by  her  long 
continued  success,  her  right  to  speak  as  authority  on  matters  pertaining  to  the  man- 
agement of  poultry.  Her  poultry  farm  contains  sixty  acres,  on  which  is  grown  all 
the  corn,  oats,  barley,  sunflower  seed,  potatoes,  cabbage,  etc.,  required  for  the  stock. 
The  average  amount  of  breeding  stock  kept  is  two  hundred  and  sixty,  mostly  pure 
Plymouth  Rock,  but  a  few  Light  Brahmas  and  Partridge  Cochins  are  also  kept,  as 
a  cross  of  these  breeds  produces  extra  large  cockerills  for  capons.  About  three 
thousand  chickens  are  raised  each  year,  two-thirds  of  which  are  sold  as  broilers. 
One  hundred  of  the  choicest  pullets  are  selected  each  year  to  take  the  place  of  the 
same  number  of  old  hens  that  are  disposed  of.  The  best  cockerells  are  caponized, 
and  the  remainder  marketed  early  in  the  fall. 

Ten  hens  and  one  cock  of  the  pure  Bronze  Turkeys  are  kept  for  breeding- 
stock,  and  an  average  of  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  per  year  are  raised,  and 
all  sold  to  private  customers  for  Thanksgiving.  About  three  hundred  ducks — pure 
Pekin — are  raised  each  year  and  marketed  as  soon  as  they  are  large  enough,  and 
are  usually  out  of  the  way  by  the  middle  of  September.  The  policy  is  to  market, 
every  thing  as  soon  as  it  can  be  sold  to  advantage.  About  twenty-five  hundred 
dozen  eggs  are  sold  yearly.  The  average  annual  sales  from  the  farm  for  five  years 
past  are  $3,300,  and  the  average  expenses,  including  taxes,  interest  on  capital, 
hired  help,  etc.,  $1,800,  leaving  a  net  profit  of  $1,500  per  annum.  The  farm  is 
valued  at  $7,000. 

DO 


1042          THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

poultry  raising,  when  I  say  that  poultry  properly  managed  pays 
a  larger  profit  in  proportion  to  the  capital  invested  than  any 
other  live  stock  on  the  farm.  When  every  thing  is  sold  at 
market  prices  poultry  can  be  made  to  pay  a  profit  of  from  one 
dollar  to  three  dollars  per  head,  according  to  locality,  price  of 
feed,  etc.;  and  when,  in  addition  to  the  market  poultry  busi- 
ness, one  keeps  thorough-bred  poultry,  and  sells  many  of  the 
eggs  and  fowls  at  fancy  prices,  a  much  larger  profit  can  be 
realized. 

Poultry  on  the  Farm. — Poultry  raising  is  a  legitimate 
branch  of  the  farm  business — as  much  so  as  dairying  or  raising 
pork  and  mutton.  With  the  farmer  the  question  should  not  be, 
"  Can  I  afford  to  keep  poultry  ?"  but,  "  Can  I  afford  not  to  keep 
poultry?"  The  farmer  can  raise  poultry  cheaper  than  any  body 
else,  for  the  reason  that  he  can  give  his  fowls  unlimited  range, 
and  there  is  no  disputing  the  fact  that  the  best  and  cheapest 
places  to  keep  fowls  are  where  they  can  have  free  range  over 
as  much  of  creation  as  they  choose.  In  some  localities  fowls 
will,  when  allowed  unrestricted  liberty,  pick  up  the  greatest 
part  of  their  living  from  the  first  of  April  until  quite  late  in 
the  fall.  This  foraging  greatly  lessens  the  cost  of  keeping,  and 
also  benefits  the  farmer,  by  greatly  reducing  the  number  of  injuri- 
ous insects. 

Besides  the  good  that  fowls  do  by  destroying  insects,  the  far- 
mer should  consider  that  poultry  manure  is  a  valuable  fertilizer, 
and  if  carefully  saved  in  good  condition,  will  go  a  long  way  to- 
wards paying  the  cost  of  keeping  the  fowls  through  the  winter. 
Poultry  manure  is  worth  at  any  tannery  fifty  cents  per  bushel, 
and  is  worth  much  more  than  that  for  any  crop  to  which  it  may 
be  applied.  Pound  for  pound,  poultry  manure  is  worth  as  much 
as  the  best  commercial  fertilizers  in  the  market.  Upon  this  sub- 
ject Dr.  Dickie  says  :  "  The  most  fertile  part  of  many  farms  is 
that  largely  occupied  by  poultry.  It  is  true  that  these  portions 
are  usually  near  buildings,  and  seldom  utilized  for  growing 
crops ;  but  when  they  are  so  utilized,  the  effects  of  the  poultry 
droppings  are  plainly  observable." 

In  regard  to  poultry  manure  as  a  fertilizer  for  the  corn  crop, 


POULTRY.  1043 

the  same  writer  says  that  he  has  grown  six  good  crops  of  corn  in 
six  years  in  his  poultry  yard,  the  only  fertilizer  used  being  that 
deposited  by  the  fowls  themselves.  From  an  experiment  con- 
ducted on  my  farm  I  found  that  the  manure  from  one  hundred 
and  fifty  fowls  in  one  year,  mixed  with  nearly  a  ton  each  of 
plaster  and  road  dust,  made  a  quantity  of  fertilizers  that  from 
its  effect  on  the  corn  and  potato  crops  was  pronounced  equal  in 
value  to  two  tons  of  the  phosphate,  which  cost,  delivered  at  our 
depot,  forty  dollars  per  ton.  The  cost  of  this  home-made  ferti- 
lizer, including  price  of  plaster,  labor  of  collecting  dust,  etc., 
was  about  ten  dollars  per  ton.  I  believe  that  in  many  localities 
the  value  of  the  poultry  manure,  in  addition  to  the  good  that 
a  flock  of  fowls  will  do  by  devouring  grasshoppers,  eggs  of  in- 
sects, the  grubs  of  the  curculio,  etc.,  will  balance  the  cost  of 
keeping  through  cold  weather. 

Poultry  should  be  kept  on  the  farm  if  only  to  supply  the 
farmer's  table  with  an  abundance  of  cheap,  fresh  meat  at  times 
when  other  meat  can  not  be  easily  obtained.  Poultry  and  eggs 
are  the  cheapest  meats  that  farmers  can  get,  and  should  appear 
on  their  tables  oftener  than  they  do. 

As  a  final  reason  for  keeping  fowls  on  the  farm,  I  would 
call  the  attention  of  farmers  to  the  fact  that  the  surplus  poultry 
and  eggs  not  needed  for  home  consumption  can  always  be  ex- 
changed for  cash,  or  its  equivalent.  Farmers'  wives  will  appre- 
ciate this  if  the  men  do  not,  for  on  many  farms  ready  money  is, 
during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  the  scarcest  imaginable  ar- 
ticle, and  the  farmer's  wife,  who  does  not  have  an  income  from 
the  sale  of  poultry  and  eggs  or  butter,  rarely  has  a  dollar  to 
call  her  own. 

Poultry-keeping  for  Women.  —  Generally  speaking, 
poultry-keeping  pays  better  than  any  other  money-making  occu- 
pation that  comes  within  the  reach  of  women  who  live  on  farms 
or  on  small  country  places,  and  already  there  are  many  women 
in  different  parts  of  the  country  who  are  supporting  them- 
selves and  their  families,  wholly  or  in  part,  upon  the  profits  de- 
rived from  poultry-keeping.  What  these  women  have  done, 
other  women  can  do,  if  they  will;  there  is  no  reason  why  any 


1044          THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

woman  who  desires  to  engage  in  poultry-keeping,  either  as  a 
means  of  livelihood  or  to  piece  out  a  slender  income,  can  not 
make  it  a  pleasant  and  profitable  pursuit — pleasant  because 
profitable. 

Poultry-keeping  for  Boys  and  Girls. — If  for  any  rea- 
son the  farmer  does  not  desire  to  trouble  himself  with  the  care  of 
poultry,  I  would  advise  him  to  turn  the  business  over  to  the  boys 
and  girls.  Loan  them  money  enough  to  build  a  house,  buy  the 
fowls,  and  food  enough  to  begin  with;  provide  them  with  poul- 
try books  and  papers,  and  give  them  the  benefit  of  your  advice 
and  experience ;  require  them  to  do  all  the  work  connected  with 
the  care  of  the  poultry,  to  provide  the  food  as  soon  as  the  fowls 
begin  to  pay  their  way,  to  keep  correct  accounts,  and  pay  the 
money  loaned  as  soon  as  possible,  And  you  should  pay  them 
the  market  price  for  the  poultry  manure  and  for  poultry  and  eggs 
used  by  the  family.  It  is  not  at  all  likely  that  these  young 
poultry-keepers  will  get  rich  in  a  hurry — they  will  probably 
blunder  a  good  deal,  and  spend  some  of  their  money  foolishly, 
but  they  will  learn  to  help  themselves,  learn  to  like  the  farm 
and  farm  work,  because  they  have  an  interest  in  it,  and  acquire 
business  habits  that  will  benefit  them  all  their  lives. 

Number  of  Fowls  that  may  be  profitably  kept  on 
the  Farm. — Just  as  many  fowls  may  be  profitably  kept  on 
the  farm  as  the  owner  or  some  member  of  the  family  can  find 
time  to  care  for  well.  The  best  way  for  those  who  have  had 
but  little  experience  in  poultry  keeping  is  to  begin  with  about 
twenty-five  fowls,  and  increase  the  number  each  year  until  the 
flock  numbers  as  many  as  can  be  cared  for  profitably. 

Capital  needed  to  start  with. — But  very  little  capital  is 
needed  to  enable  the  farmer  to  start  in  the  poultry  business  in 
a  small  way.  In  almost  any  part  of  the  country  good  common 
hens  can  be  bought  for  fifty  cents  a-piece,  thorough-bred  cocks 
for  two  dollars  each,  and  the  farmer  who  has  lumber  on  the 
place,  and  can  do  the  work  himself,  can  by  working  at  odd  times 
put  up  a  comfortable  poultry-house  without  any  cash  outlay, 
except  for  nails  and  windows.  In  some  places  fowls  are  win- 
tered, and  profitably  too,  in  sod  houses  and  straw  sheds,  and  the 


POULTRY.  1045 

writer  thinks  that  any  bright  boy,  who  desires  to  try  poultry- 
keeping,  and  can  not  afford  to  build  a  house,  will  manage  to  put 
up  something  of  the  kind,  where  the  fowls  can  be  kept  until  they 
earn  money  enough  to  pay  for  a  more  stylish  residence.  When 
one  commences  the  poultry  business  in  the  spring  with  a  stock 
of  laying  hens,  it  is  not  absolutely  necessary  to  build  a  fowl- 
house  till  fall.  Let  the  hens  and  chickens  roost  in  the  trees 
till  cold  weather. 

Under  the  proper  heading,  I  shall  have  more  to  say  about 
cheap  shelter  for  poultry. 

Location. — When  poultry  raising  is  to  be  made  the  chief 
business  of  the  farmer,  the  location  is  of  no  little  importance. 
In  selecting  a  farm  for  this  purpose,  convenience  to  market,  the 
healthfulness  of  the  locality,  and  the  suitability  of  the  soil  for 
the  cultivation  of  the  grains  and  vegetables  most  needed  by 
the  poultry  raiser  should  all  be  taken  into  consideration. 

In  selecting  a  site  for  the  poultry-house,  the  one  thing  to  be 
avoided  is  dampness.  Damp  houses  and  swampy  yards  are 
responsible  for  a  goodly  share  of  the  ills  that  afflict  chicken 
flesh.  If  the  proposed  site  be  not  well  drained  naturally,  drain 
it  by  artificial  means ;  it  will  pay  in  the  long  run.  In  the  colder 
parts  of  our  country  a  southern  exposure  is  best,  and  if  the 
house  can  be  so  situated  that  it  will  be  somewhat  sheltered  from 
the  chilling  winds  and  storms  that  come  from  the  north  and  west, 
so  much  the  better.  South  hillsides  are  capital  places  for  poul- 
try-houses, and  when  there  is  one  on  the  farm  it  should  be 
utilized  for  that  purpose — provided  it  be  within  a  reasonable  dis- 
tance of  the  other  farm  buildings. 

Poultry-houses. — The  chief  points  to  be  aimed  at  in  the 
construction  of  a  fowl-house  are,  plenty  of  room,  warmth,  light, 
and  ventilation,  without  exposing  the  fowls  to  currents  of  air. 

The  size  of  the  building  must  be  determined  by  the  climate 
and  by  the  number  of  fowls  to  be  wintered.  In  those  parts  of 
the  country  where  the  winters  are  so  severe  that  the  fowls  must 
necessarily  be  confined  indoors  for  three  or  four  months,  the 
poultry-house  should  contain  three  and  a  half  square  feet  of  floor 
room  for  every  fowl ;  and  connected  with  the  house  there  should 


1046  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

be  a  shed,  where  the  fowls  can  scratch  and  exercise  during  the 
day.  The  shed  should  cover  nearly  or  quite  as  much  ground  as 
the  main  building,  and  should  be  constructed  so  as  to  keep  out 
snow,  rain,  and  wind,  and  admit  plenty  of  light.  But  where  the 
winters  are  so  mild  that  fowls  can  run  out  of  doors  the  greater 
part  of  the  time,  one-third  less  house-room  will  be  sufficient, 
and  the  shed  may  be  open  on  the  least  exposed  side. 

Concerning  the  height  of  poultry -houses,  an  experienced 
poultry  raiser  says :  "  I  am  dead  set  against  low  hen-houses. 
My  belief  is  that  all  parts  of  it  should  allow  a  person  of  average 
height  to  walk  erect;  and  I  further  believe  that  plenty  of  air 
space  above  the  fowls  is  a  vital  necessity  where  a  number  are 
housed  together." 

Warmth  is  best  secured  by  double  boarding,  with  building- 
paper  between;  by  double  walls,  with  the  space  filled  with  tan- 
bark,  chaff,  or  sawdust;  by  thick  walls  of  stone  or  earth;  and 
by  building,  whenever  practicable,  in  sheltered  situations.  From 
my  own  experience,  I  can  not  recommend  artificial  heat  in 
poultry-houses,  except  for  raising  early  chickens.  Fowls  kept 
in  houses  artificially  warmed  during  cold  weather  are  very  sen- 
sitive to  cold,  and  consequently  more  liable  to  attacks  of  roup 
and  kindred  diseases  than  fowls  wintered  in  houses  where 
warmth  is  secured  by  natural  means. 

For  light  there  must  be  plenty  of  glass  in  the  south  side  of 
the  house,  and  if  there  be  a  window  in  the  east  end  to  admit 
the  morning  sunlight  so  much  the  better.  The  windows  should 
have  shutters  to  close  over  them  at  night  in  cold  weather,  and 
should  be  protected  inside  by  wire  netting.  By  the  use  of  the 
netting  for  the  windows,  and  a  screen  door,  the  poultry-house 
can  be  converted  into  an  open  shed  in  summer,  and  will  be 
much  better  for  the  fowls. 

For  ventilation  there  should  be  an  opening  at  the  highest 
point,  near  or  in  the  roof,  sheathed  to  exclude  the  storms,  and 
an  opening  near  the  floor,  so  arranged  that  there  will  be  no 
current  of  air  to  strike  the  fowls  when  on  the  roost. 

Convenience  should  also  be  studied,  and  one  of  the  most  con- 
venient things  about  a  fowl -house  is  a  passage-way,  either 


POULTRY.  1047 

through  the  center  or  along  the  rear  of  the  building,  so  arranged 
that  the  fowls  can  be  fed  and  watered  and  the  eggs  gathered 
without  entering  the  pens.  By  a  simple  arrangement  of  cords 
and  pulleys  the  windows  can  be  raised  or  lowered  by  pulling  a 
cord  in  the  alley,  and  the  ventilators  controlled  the  same  way. 
On  one  side  feed,  oyster-shells,  road-dust,  plaster,  etc.,  can  be 
stored  in  narrow  bins  made  for  the  purpose;  and  on  shelves 
above  the  bins  the  disinfectants,  medicines,  and  other  things 
used  in  and  about  the  poultry-house  should  be  kept.  Where  a 
large  number  of  fowls  are  kept,  a  stove  for  cooking  food  could 
be  put  up  in  the  passage;  and  last,  but  by  no  means  least, 
when  the  hens  want  to  sit  the  nest-boxes  can  be  turned  so  as 
to  open  into  the  passage-way,  and  the  sitting  hens  can  be  fed 
free  from  annoyance  by  the  other  fowls. 

The  essentials  of  warmth,  light,  etc.,  secured,  it  does  not 
matter  much  about  the  form  of  the  poultry-house.  One  plan  is 
as  good  as  another,  provided  it  comes  within  reach  of  the  farm- 
er's pocket-book,  and  in  appearance  harmonizes  with  the  other 
farm  buildings.  In  localities  where  lumber  is  scarce  and  high, 
and  the  new  settlers  are  not  overburdened  with  loose  change, 
poultry-houses  can  be  erected  from  the  materials  at  hand — sods, 
straw,  or  prairie  hay — without  any  cash  outlay  except  for  nails, 
glass,  and  window-sash.  Such  houses  may  not  be  very  orna- 
mental, but  they  can  be  made  comfortable,  and  fowls  will  thrive 
and  pay  well  in  such  structures. 

The  cheapest  poultry -house  that  I  ever  saw  was  an  immense 
straw  shed  that,  as  the  owner  remarked,  "  cost  next  to  nothing." 
A  skeleton  frame  was  made  of  posts  and  poles,  and  then  the 
straw  was  stacked  over  and  around  it  to  the  depth  of  several 
feet,  leaving  the  south  side  open.  Rough  boards  were  used  to 
partition  off  a  roosting-place  at  the  back  side,  where  the  fowls 
were  shut  in  at  night,  while  during  the  day  they  scratched, 
cackled,  and  laid  where  they  pleased  in  the  immense  shed. 

A  Nebraska  farmer  gives  the  following  directions  for  con- 
structing a  cheap  poultry-house :  "  Set  three  rows  of  posts  in 
the  ground,  the  center  ones  the  highest.  Nail  pieces  on  top  of 
each  row  of  posts ;  spike  on  rafters  made  of  saplings  hewed  at 


1048         THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

the  ends  to  fit;  then  board  up  inside  and  outside  of  the  posts 
with  rough  boards,  leaving  places  for  the  door  and  the  windows. 
Fill  the  space  between  the  boarding  with  prairie  hay,  straw,  or 
chaff.  The  roof  should  be  well  thatched  with  prairie  hay  or 
straw,  held  down  by  poles  or  heavy  brush." 

On  a  Connecticut  farm  I  once  saw  a  cheap  poultry-house 
that  struck  me  as  a  very  desirable  building.  It  was  twenty 
feet  long,  twelve  feet  wide,  and  ten  feet  high  at  the  peak  of  the 
roof.  The  sides  and  ends,  which  were  three  feet  above  ground, 
were  built  of  the  rough  stone  that  any  body  can  get  anywhere 
in  New  England  for  the  hauling,  and  covered  over  with  turf. 
Above  this  turfed  wall  was  the  steep  roof,  with  two  windows  on 
each  side.  The  roof  was  boarded  and  covered  with  tarred  roof- 
ing felt  fastened  by  narrow  cleats.  The  windows  were  provided 
with  straw  mats  and  board  shutters — ventilator  in  the  center 
of  roof.  A  passage-way  through  the  center  of  the  house,  opened 
into  four  pens,  two  on  each  side.  Cheap  poultry-houses  like 
those  that  I  have  described  can  be  put  up  by  any  farmer  who 
has  or  can  hire  a  team,  and  can  use  an  ax,  hammer,  and  saw, 
and  they  will  meet  all  the  requirements  of  any  well  regulated 
family  of  fowls. 

For  the  benefit  of  those  who  desire  and  can  afford  something 
better  than  the  cheap  buildings  already  described,  I  have  selected 
a  few  plans  that  seem  desirable. 

Fig.  1  shows  the  elevation  of  a  poultry-house  that  looks 
well  enough  and  is  good  enough  for  the  place  of  the  wealthy 
farmer,  while  the  cost  of  such  a  building  does  not  put  it  out  of 
reach  of  the  farmer  of  moderate  means.  Most  poultry-houses 
with  a  shed  roof  have  the  windows  in  the  higher  side,  but  this 
one  is  turned  around — "hind  side  before"  and  represented  with 
the  windows  in  the  lower  side,  which  faces  the  south — a  very 
sensible  arrangement,  and  one  that  meets  my  hearty  approval. 
A  house  like  this  may  be  extended  to  any  length  desired,  and 
divided  into  pens  to  suit  the  convenience  of  the  owner.  It 
should  be  six  feet  high  in  the  front,  twelve  feet  or  more — accord- 
ing to  the  width — in  the  rear,  and  wide  enough  to  allow  a  pass- 
age way  to  the  whole  length  of  the  building.  The  extra  space 


1050 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


over  the  passage-way  could  be  utilized  by  making  a  loft  where 
chicken-coops,  etc.,  could  be  stored  when  not  in  use ;  or  it  might 

be  finished  with 
a  tight  floor,  and 
used  for  a  roost- 
ing-place,  the 
fowls  reaching 
the  roosts  by 
means  of  steps 

o  r      1  a  dde  rs 

^«^  which  will  be 
described  under 
the  proper  head- 
ing. With  win- 
dows in  the  roof  a  house  like  this  would  be  capital  for  early 
chicks;  in  fact,  for  a  general  utility  house  it  would  be  hard  to 
beat;  the  only  improvement  that  I  would  suggest  would  be  a 
good  shingle  roof. 

Fig.  2  shows  the  elevation  of  a  hill-side  poultry-house,  and 
to  the  farmer  who  has  the  necessary  hill-side  I  would  strongly 
recommend  a  house  of  this  kind. 


FIG.  2.— HILL-SIDE  POULTRV-UOUSK. 


FIG.  3.— LEAN-TO  POULTKY-UOUSK. 


Fig.  3  shows  a  lean-to  poultry-house  situated  in  the  angle 
of  a  barn,  a  very  desirable  situation  for  a  small  poultry-house, 


POULTRY. 


1051 


as  it  is  sheltered  on  the  north  and  west  sides,  and  as  fowls  kept 
in  a  building  connected  with  the  barn  can  have  the  run  of  the 
barn-yard  and  manure  cellar  in  winter,  which  gives  them  the 
exercise  needed  to  keep  them  in  good  health. 


FIG.  4.— FAMILY  POULTRY-HOUSE. 


Fig.  4  gives  the  elevation  and  Fig.  5  the  ground-plan  of  a 
family  poultry-house,  fifteen  by  eighteen,  that  will  accommodate 
from  fifty  to  seventy-five  fowls.  A  represents  the  laying-room; 
B,  the  roosting-room ;  C,  the  sitting-room,  and  Z>,  a  bin  for  pram. 
The  nest -boxes  are  shown  in  the  par- 
tition between  the  laying  and  sitting 
rooms,  and  are  intended  to  slide  back 
and  forth.  A  house  like  this  may  be  ex- 
tended to  any  length,  and  a  continuous 
passage  way  provided  by  changing  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  roosts. 

Fig.  6  shows  the  front  elevation, 
and  Fig.  7  the  ground -plan  of  a  neat, 
substantial  poultry-house  that  will  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  farmer  who  de- 
sires to  keep  a  large  flock  of  fowls,  and 

have  rooms  for  raising  early  chicks,  d  represents  the  doors ; 
/?,  the  passage  way ;  w,  windows  ;  n,  nests  ;  r,  roosts,  and  b, 
dusting-boxes.  The  openings  for  the  ingress  and  egress  of  the 


1052 


THE  PEOPLE'S  I  ARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


fowls  may  be  beneath  the  windows  in  front,  or  somewhere  in 
the  rear.  No  ventilator  is  shown  in  the  illustration,  but  there 
should  be  one  in  the  roof  of  the  main  building,  and  one  near  the 
roof  in  the  wing.  This  building  may  be  of  any  length  desired 


FIG.  6.— SUBSTANTIAL  POULTRY-HOUSE. 

and  of  course  the  inside  arrangements  may  be  varied  to  suit  the 
fancy  of  the  owner. 

In  addition  to  the  plans  given,  I  would  suggest  that  the 
farmer  who  has  a  big  barn  cellar  facing  the  south,  and  free  from 
dampness,  fit  up  a  part  of  it  for  a  fowl-houcc ;  a  partition,  door, 
and  windows,  roosts  and  other  inside  fixtures,  and  the  thing 
is  done. 


FIG.  7.— GROUND  PLAN. 


Inside  Fixtures. — Nearly  every  poultry-keeper  has  his 
own  views  about  the  interior  arrangement  of  a  poultry-house,  so 
that  it  will  be  necessary  to  give  but  few  hints  in  that  direction. 


POULTRY. 


FIG.  8.— POULTRY  STEPS. 


The  main  idea  is  to  construct  perches,  nest-boxes,  etc.,  so  that 
they  can  be  easily  moved  and  cleaned.  The  perches,  which 
should  be  sufficient  in  number  to  accommodate  all  the  fowls 
without  crowding,  should  all  be  on  a 
level,  for  if  one  should  be  higher  than 
the  rest,  every  fowl  will  try  to  crowd 
on  to  that  one.  The  perches  should 
be  flat  rather  than  round,  and  of  suf- 
ficient width  to  enable  the  fowls  to 
rest  comfortably.  Until  recently  I 
followed  the  usual  plan  of  placing  the 
perches  for  the  heavier  breeds  about 
eighteen  inches  from  the  floor,  but  I 
am  now  convinced  that  it  is  healthier  for  the  fowls  to  roost  in 
the  higher  part  of  the  building,  and  the  perches  are  placed  ac- 
cordingly. Heavy  fowls  are  frequently  injured,  and  sometimes 

killed  outright  by  jumping  from 
high  perches  to  the  hard  floor, 
and  for  this  reason  a  ladder  or 
steps  of  some  kind  should  lead 
from  the  floor  to  the  roosts.  Figs. 
8  and  9  show  the  construction  of 
cheap,  movable,  "  hen  elevators. " 
Underneath  the  roosts  there 
should  be  a  wide  platform  to 
via.  9,-pouLTRY  STAIRS.  catch  the  droppings,  and  under  the 

platform  the  nest-boxes  may  be  arranged  so  that   the  eggs  can 
be  gathered  from  the  passage  way. 

For    nests,    boxes    eighteen    inches    square, 
made  like    the    one   illustrated   by  Fig.  10,   are 
the  best  that  can  be  devised.     They  are  easy  to 
move  and  easily  kept  clean.     When  a  hen  offers 
to   sit,    face   her  box  around,  shove  it  into  the 
passage  way,  and  put   another  .box  in   its  place 
in  the  laying-room.      For  a  dusting-bin,  make  a    F|«- 10. -NEST-BOX. 
bottomless    box,  three   by  four   feet,   or   of    any  desired   length 
and  width,  and   one  foot   in   depth ;  fill    two-thirds  full  with   a 


1054 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


FIG.  11.— CHARCOAL  AND  SHELL  Box. 


mixture  of  two-thirds  road  dust,  one-third  perfectly  dry  wood 
or  coal  ashes,  and  a  twenty-five  cent  package  of  carbolic  pow- 
der. With  the  aid  of  this  dusting-box  and  an  occasional  dosing 

of  the  roosts  with  kerosene,  the 
fowls  will  keep  themselves  free 
from  lice. 

Another  useful  fixture  in  the 
poultry -house  is  a  box  like  the  one 
illustrated  by  Fig.  11.  It  should 
be  hung  on  stout  nails  driven 
into  the  side  of  the  house,  and 
high  enough  from  the  floor  to 
keep  the  fowls  from  scratching  dirt  into  the  contents.  One 
compartment  should  be  kept  filled  with  bits  of  charcoal,  and 
the  other  with  crushed  oyster  shells. 

Feed-boxes  or  troughs  are  a  necessity.  When  food  is 
thrown  on  the  floor,  or  on  any  piece  of  board  that  comes  handy, 
much  of  it  is  wasted,  and  besides, 
it  is  not  what  one  might  call  a 
cleanly  method  of  feeding.  The 

feed-trOUgh      shown      by     Fig.     12  FIG.  IZ-FEF.D-TROUGH. 

is  as  good  as  any  that  I  ever  tried,  and  has  the  merit  of  being 
quickly  and  easily  made.  Fig.  13  illustrates  a  feed-box  that  is 

proof  against  rats.  The  direc- 
tions for  making  are  as  follows  : 
"  Make  a  platform  two  or  three 
feet  square ;  then  make  a  box 
three  inches  high  and  sixteen 
inches  square,  and  nail  it  firmly 
to  the  center  of  the  platform. 
Saw  strips  one  and  one-fourth 
inches  square  and'eigh  teen  inches 
high  for  the  posts  at  the  cor- 
ners ;  nail  strips  two  inches 
wide  to  the  posts  at  the  top ;  then  nail  common  lath  to  the  top 
and  bottom,  leaving  space  of  two  inches  between  the  slats. 
Make  the  roof  as  shown  in  the  engraving,  and  separate  so  that 


FIG.  13.— RAT-TROOF  FKED-BOX. 


POULTRY.  1055 

it  can  be  raised  to  fill  the  box.  Elevate  this  feed-box  on  a 
post  about  three  feet  from  the  floor  or  ground.  The  fowls  will 
soon  learn  to  leap  upon  the  platform  and  feed  from  the  box 
between  the  slats." 

Drinking  vessels  of  some  kind  are  also  a  necessity  in  every 
well  regulated  poultry-house.  Many  and  various  are  the  "  foun- 
tains" that  have  been  invented  by  ingenious  poultry  raisers, 
but  I  have  yet  to  see  any  thing  that  suits  me  any  better  than 
common  glazed  milk  crocks  of  medium  size.  They  are  cheap, 
easily  cleaned,  high  enough  so  that  the  fowls  do  not  often 
scratch  dirt  into  them,  and  yet  low  enough  to  enable  them  to 
drink  easily.  The  fixtures  illustrated  by  Figs.  8,  9,  10,  11, 
and  12  are  in  constant  use  in  my  poultry-house,  and  the  draw- 
ings were  made  from  them;  but  it  is  only  fair  to  state  that  I 
obtained  the  idea  from  illustrations  which  appeared  in  the 
Poultry  World. 

Yards  and  Fences. — I  believe  that  the  farmer  should,  in 
order  to  make  the  most  from  his  fowls,  give  them  free  range 
over  the  whole  farm,  except  the  door-yard  and  the  garden ;  but 
at  the  same  time  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  yard  connected  with 
the  poultry-house,  where  the  fowls  can  be  confined  when  occa- 
sion requires ;  and  where  the  premises  are  small,  neighbors  close 
by,  and  the  farmer  desires  to  keep  his  fowl  stock  pure,  it  is  bet- 
ter to  keep  the  fowls  in  yards — otherwise  the  fowls,  the  neigh- 
bors' feelings,  and  gardens  are  apt  to  get  in  a  hopelessly  mixed 
condition. 

When  fowls  are  confined  to  yards,  they  should  be  divided 
into  flocks  of  not  more  than  fifty  each,  and  each  flock  of  that 
size  should  have  half  an  acre  of  ground  allotted  to  its  use.  This 
half-acre  should  be  divided  into  two  separate  yards,  to  be  used 
alternately.  Keep  the  fowls  in  yard  No.  1  one  year,  and  grow 
a  crop  of  some  kind  in  No.  2.  The  next  year  put  the  fowls  in 
No.  2,  and  cultivate  No.  1.  By  following  this  plan  the  ground 
will  be  kept  fresh,  and  can  be  used  for  fowls  any  number  of 
years. 

A  portion  of  the  yard  occupied  by  the  fowls  should  be 
plowed  or  spaded  up  every  week  during  warm  weather,  so  as  to 


1056  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

give  the  fowls  an  opportunity  to  scratch  in  the  fresh  earth,  and 
a  chance  at  the  earth-worms  and  bugs.  To  provide  green  food, 
partition  off  a  portion  of  the  yard  by  means  of  a  movable  lath 
fence,  and  within  the  inclosure  sow  oats  and  grass  seeds.  When 
the  young  plants  are  three  or  four  inches  high,  remove  the  fence, 
and  let  the  fowls  help  themselves  while  another  crop  is  growing. 
In  this  way  the  supply  of  green  food  can  be  kept  up  till  frost 
comes. 

The  young  chicks  each  year  can  be  raised  in  the  yard  with 
the  growing  crop.    Confine  the  mother  hens  in  coops  placed  near 


FlO.  14  —OPEN  ROOSTING-SHED  FOR  YOUNG  CHICKENS. 

the  fence,  and  let  the  chicks  run ;  before  they  get  big  enough 
to  do  harm  by  scratching  the  crop  will  be  out  of  their  reach. 
After  the  chicks  are  weaned  the  coops  may  be  removed,  and 
open  roosting-sheds,  like  the  one  shown  by  Fig.  14,  put  up.  In 
these  sheds  the  chickens  can  roost  and  find  shelter  in  inclement 
weather  until  late  in  the  fall. 

Shade  of  some  kind  is  an  absolute  necessity  in  the  poultry- 
yard  during  the  long,  hot  days  of  summer,  and  why  not  furnish 
it  in  the  best  way  ?  Set  out  currant  and  gooseberry  bushes, 
raspberry  and  blackberry  vines  near  the  fence  all  around  the 
yard.  These  will  furnish  the  shade  that  fowls  like  best,  and  at 
the  same  time  give  them  a  taste  of  fruit  that  they  have  a  liking 
for.  If  there  are  no  trees  near  the  poultry-yard  or  house,  set 
out  a  few  plum-trees.  While  the  bushes,  vines,  and  trees  are 
yet  young,  and  until  they  are  firmly  rooted,  the  fowls  should 
be  kept  from  them  by  sharp  stakes  driven  close  around  them. 


POULTRY.  1057 

Wood  or  coal  ashes  should  be  thrown  around  the  bushes  occa- 
sionally during  the  summer,  for,  besides  making  an  excellent 
wallowing-place  for  the  fowls,  they  greatly  benefit  the  plants. 
When  the  same  ground  is  to  be  used  for  a  poultry-yard  for 
a  number  of  years,  I  think  it  would  pay  to  inclose  the  whole 
with  a  substantial  picket- 
fence,  which  should  be 
painted.  There  should  be 
gates  large  enough  to  admit 
a  one  -  horse  wagon.  But 
where  the  poultry  -  yard  is 
changed  to  a  new  piece  of 
ground  every  year  or  so, 

Something    in    the    shape    Of   a  Fio.  LV-MOVAHLK  roiTi.TnY-rKN«.E. 

cheap,  movable  fence  must  be  used.  For  this  purpose  I  can 
recommend  the  movable  fence  without  posts  (Fig.  15),  which 
was  invented  by  Waldo  F.  Brown.  I  append  Mr.  Brown's  direc- 
tions for  making  this  fence  : 

"  The  cut  represents  a  panel  eight  feet  long ;  the  trusses  are 
three  and  a  half  feet  high ;  the  six-inch  board  at  the  bottom  we 
put  six  inches  above  the  ground,  and  bank  up  to  it  with  earth ; 
the  strips  to  which  the  lath  are  nailed  are  three  inches  wide. 
We  use  good  plasterers'  lath  for  the  paling,  and  any  waste 
pieces  of  board  for  the  brace,  which  is  nailed  across  from  one 
upright  to  the  other.  The  cut  shows  this  brace  to  be  but  three 
inches  wide,  but  it  is  better  six  or  eight.  The  fence  must  be 
set  up  so  that  the  lath  all  lean  in,  and  this  makes  it  very  diffi- 
cult for  fowls  to  fly  over  it,  as  they  must  start  some  feet  back 
to  do  so.  The  fence,  as  I  make  it,  is  five  and  a  half  feet  high. 
I  use  oak,  two  inches  square,  for  the  uprights.  In  putting  up 
this  fence  we  set  these  panels  down  seven  feet  eight  inches 
apart,  and  nail  boards  from  one  to  the  other  on  which  to  nail  the 
lath,  thus  making  each  pair  of  trusses,  as  shown  in  the  cut,  make 
nearly  sixteen  feet  of  fence.  As  a  two-inch  upright  is  too  nar- 
row to  splice  on,  we  nail  the  boards  on  the  top  of  the  other 
boards,  using  nails  long  enough  to  go  through  both  and  hold  in 
the  uprights.  After  our  fence  is  built  we  drive  a  good  oak  or 

67 


1058 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


locust  stake  at  each  pair  of  trusses,  and  drive  a  nail  through  the 

brace-board  into  it.    Most  of  these  stakes  need  not  be  more  than 

a  foot  above  ground  when  driven,  but  it  is  well  that  occasion- 

ally a  stake  should  come  up  to  the  top  of  the  truss.     This  is  to 

guard  against  the  danger  of  the  fence 

blowing    over   in    a   gale.     The  advan- 

tages of  this  fence  are  —  1st.  Its  cheap- 

ness.    The  material  for  my  fence  cost 

fifty-five  cents  a  rod.      2d.    Nearly  all 

the  work  of  making  it  can  be  done  un- 

der cover  in  stormy  weather,  and  it  can 

be  set  up  when  the  ground  is  frozen  or 

full  of  water,  when  it  would  be  impossi- 

ble to  dig  post-holes.     3d.  It  can  easily 

be  taken  apart  and  moved   if  desired, 

and   this   is  an  advantage,  for  I  think 

that  if  fowls  are  confined  for  years  in 

one    place    the   land    becomes    contami- 

nated, and  disease  is  the  result.     4th.  All  round  your  poultry- 

yard  you  can,  with  a  little  trouble  and  expense,  make  coops  for 

your  broods,  or  protection  for  nests.     A  nest-box   may  be  set 

under  the  leaning  fence   at   any  place,  and   a  couple  of  short 

boards  leaned  up  outside,  and  it  affords  shelter  and  seclusion 

for  the  nest.  Each  eight  foot  space,  when 
inclosed,  makes  a  safe  and  roomy  coop 
for  a  brood.  I  feel  sure  that  all  who 
confine  their  poultry  will  be  pleased  with 
this  fence  if  they  will  give  it  a  trial." 

The  only  alteration  that  I  would  sug- 
gest is  to  have  the  bottom  board  a  foot 
wide,  and  let  it  come  to  the  ground, 
instead  of  using  a  six-inch  board  .six 

Fio.  17,-DiviaioN  LATH  FENCE.   incheg     abQye     ^^     afld     banking'up> 


FIG.  16.— LATH  FENCE. 


as  recommended  by  Mr.  Brown. 

When  a  fence  is  desired  to  confine  the  smaller  breeds  of 
fowls,  try  the  lath  fence  illustrated  by  Fig.  16.  It  makes  a 
fence  eight  feet  high,  and  if  the  fowls  fly  out  over  that,  clip 


POULTRY.  1059 

their  wings.  Fig.  17  illustrates  a  lath  fence  that  will  come 
handy  for  division  fence  for  the  inside  of  poultry-yards  and 
houses.  It  can  be  made  in  continuous  panels  of  any  desired 
length,  and  may  be  fastened  to  posts  by  means  of  wire  or 
stout  cord. 

Best  Breeds  for  Special  Purposes. — Farmers  who  have 
had  no  experience  with  the  different  varieties  of  pure-bred  fowls 
are  very  apt  to  choose  a  breed  because  they  "like  the  looks" 
of  the  fowls,  or  because  somebody  says  that  particular  breed  is 
"the  best;"  but  it  frequently  happens  that  their  poultry  fails 
to  pay,  because  the  breed  selected  is  not  the  one  best  adapted 
to  the  special  purpose  for  which  they  keep  fowls,  and  disap- 
pointment results. 

Our  illustrations  of  the  different  breeds  are  true  to  life,  and 
will  give  a  good  idea  of  the  appearance  of  the  fowls.  If  the 
profit  is  to  be  derived  from  eggs  alone,  some  of  the  non-sitters 
will  be  most  satisfactory.  If  broilers  for  the  early  market,  a 
breed  that  feathers  young,  like  the  Plymouth  Rock,  will  be 
found  profitable;  while  for  capons  crosses  are  often  found  to 
give  the  best  results.  As  a  rule,  it  will  be  more  profitable  to 
keep  some  one  pure  breed  rather  than  a  mixture  of  all  sorts,  as 
is  often  found  on  the  farm. 

Before  making  a  choice  from  among  the  many  different 
breeds,  each  of  which  somebody  will  declare  is  "  the  very  best," 
the  fanner  should  decide  what  particular  branch  of  poultry 
raising  will  probably  pay  best  in  his  locality;  whether  he  will 
make  a  specialty  of  eggs,  spring  chickens,  capons,  dressed  poul- 
try for  the  fall  and  winter  market,  or  whether  he  will  go  into 
the  "general  utility"  branch  of  the  poultry  business,  and  make 
all  the  profit  possible  from  eggs,  chickens,  and  fowls.  In  mak- 
ing this  decision  he  will,  of  course,  be  governed  by  the  market 
facilities  in  his  locality,  and  by  the  time  and  help  at  his  com- 
mand. These  points  settled,  and  a  little  knowledge  of  the  dif- 
ferent breeds  acquired,  the  selection  of  a  profitable  breed  will 
be  an  easy  matter.  From  her  own  experience  with  the  different 
breeds,  and  from  the  best  practical  authorities  on  the  subject, 
the  writer  submits  the  following : 


1060 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


SlIA'EK-l'KNCILED   HAMBURG  CoCK. 


Hamburgs  and  Leghorns  will 
lay  a  greater  number  of  eggs  in 
a  year  than  fowls  of  any  other 
breed,  and,  generally  speaking, 
are  just  the  fowls  for  the  farm- 
ers who  care  nothing  for  the 
size  of  fowls  or  eggs,  but  only 
desire  fowls  that  will  produce 
the  greatest  number  of  eggs  for 
market. 

There  are  six  varieties  of 
Hamburgs — White,  Black,  Gold- 
en -  penciled,  Silver  -  penciled, 
Golden  -  spangled,  and  Silver- 
— an(i  eacn  variety  has 
champions ;  but  the  truth 


POULTRY. 


1061 


of  the  matter  is  that 
one  variety  does  not 
differ  much  from  an- 
other except  in  color 
of  plumage.  The  il- 
lustration of  Silver- 
penciled  Hamburgs 
on  the  preceding  page 
gives  a  good  idea  of 
the  shape  and  gen- 
eral appearance  of 
the  whole  Hamburg 
family.  The  Silver- 
penciled  Hamburgs 
were  formerly  known 
as  Bolton  Grays  and 
Creoles,  and  both  the 
penciled  varieties 
were  often  called 


WHTTF  LEOHOKN  COCK. 


"Dutch  Everlasting  Layers." 
The  Spangled  Hnmburgs  are 
the  old-fashioned  pheasants, 
improved  and  named  over. 

The  Leghorn  family  is  also 
divided  into  six  varieties — 
White,  Brown,  Black,  Domi- 
nique, Rose-comb  White,  and 
Rose-comb  Brown  —  di  fieri  ng 
froni  each  other  only  in  mat- 
ter of  comb  and  color  of  plum- 
age. On  this  pa.sre  we  give  a 
fair  illustration  of  the  Single- 
comb  White  Leghorn  cock, 
and  also  a  hen  of  the  same 
breed. 


1062 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOP  Kin  A. 


The  illustration  on  this  page  well  represents  the  Brown 
variety.  The  only  superiority  claimed  for  the  Rose-comb  over 
the  Single-comb  varieties  is  that  the  Rose-combs  are  handsomer 
and  not  so  liable  to  freeze  in  extreme  cold  weather. 

All  the  different  varieties  of  Leghorns  and  Hamburgs  are 
small,  active,  non-sitters,  and  are  great  layers.  Their  eggs 


BROWN  LEGHORNS. 

are  smaller  than  those  of  other  breeds ;  but  that  is  not  a  se- 
rious drawback,  for  in  most  markets  "  an  egg  is  an  egg,"  regard- 
less of  size. 

The  Houdans,  La  Fleche,  and  Black  Spanish  are  the  best 
breeds  for  those  who  want  non-sitting  hens  that  will  lay  good- 
sized  eggs.  The  Houdans  (see  illustration)  are  of  medium  size, 
great  layers,  and,  on  account  of  the  large  quantity  of  breast- 
meat  and  small  bones,  excellent  table-fowls.  Chicks  of  the 
breed  are  very  hardy,  feather  early,  and  mature  rapidly. 


POULTRY. 


1063 


HOUDAN  COCK. 


HOITDAN  HEN. 


The  La  Fleche  are  medium- 
sized,  black  -  plumaged  fowls, 
and  worthy  of  more  atten- 
tion than  they  have  hitherto 
received  from  farmers. 

The  White -faced  Black 
Spanish  (see  illustration,  page 
1064)  are  of  medium  size, 
and  are  great  layers  of  large 
eggs. 

All  three  breeds  are  alike 
in  that  they  require  unlimited 
range,  and,  generally  speak- 
ing, lay  better  in  spring  and 
summer  than  in  winter. 


1064 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


Another  non-sitting  breed  that  is  worthy 
of  special  mention  is  the  Polish,  of  which 
there  are  several  different  varieties,  but  the 
White  Crested  Black  Polish  are  the  oldest  and 

best  known.  (See  il- 
lustration, page  1065.) 
For  capons  choose 
some  of  the  large 
breeds,  or  a  cross  pro- 
duced by  mating  pure 
Light  Brahma  hens 
with  Partridge  Co- 
chin cocks.  Chicks 
from  this  cross  make 
extra  large  fowls,  but 
it  is  only  the  first 
cross  that  is  desira- 
ble ;  if  the  half-breed 
fowls  are  bred  to- 


WHITE  FACE  BLACK  SPANISH  COCK. 


gether  the  stock  will  rapidly 
degenerate.  Caponize  the  cock- 
erels and  fatten  the  pullets 
for  the  fall  and  winter  mar- 
ket, when  they  will  bring  a 
good  price. 

For  winter  layers  and  fowls 
to  sell  dressed,  for  the  fall  and 
winter  market  choose  Brah- 
mas,  Cochins,  Langshans,  or 
Plymouth  Rocks. 

The  Light  Brahmas  are 
larger  than  fowls  of  any  other 
pure  breed,  and  on  account 
of  their  size,  great  beauty  and 


WHITE  FACE  BLACK  HPANISH  HEN. 


POULTRY. 


1065 


•WHITE  CRESTED  BLACK  POLISH  COCK. 


many  useful  qualities, 
rank  high  in  public  favor. 
The  cut  on  page  1066  rep- 
resents a  pair  of  Light 
Brahma  fowls. 

The  Dark  Brahmas 
equal  the  Light  in  beauty 
of  form  and  feather,  pos- 
sess the  same  useful  qual- 
ities, and  rank  next  in 
size.  The  cut  on  page 
1068  is  a  perfect  repre- 
sentation of  a  pair  of 
Standard  Dark  Brahmas. 

The  Partridge  Cochins  i 
stand  at  the  head  of  the 


WHITK  CRESTED  BLACK  POLISH  HKN 


1066 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


Cochin  family.  They  are  extremely  hardy,  mature  rapidly, 
and  are  unsurpassed  as  winter  layers.  (See  illustration, 
page  1067.) 

The  Black  and   the   White   Cochins  are   somewhat  smaller 
than  the  Partridge  variety,  and  rank   next  in  usefulness.     The 


LIGHT  BKAHMAS. 


cut  on  page  1067  is  a  good  representation  of  a  pair  of  White 
Cochins. 

The  Buff  Cochins  are  favorites  with  fanciers,  but  as  they 
have  the  reputation  of  being  poor  layers  they  are  not  so  popu- 
lar among  farmers  as  the  other  varieties  of  the  Cochin  family. 
They  are  very  quiet  and  docile,  and  as  sitters  and  mothers  can 
not  be  excelled  by  any  thing  that  wears  chicken  feathers. 

The  Langshans  (see  illustration,  page  1069)  are  not  so  well 


1067 


WIIITF.  COCHINS. 


IOCS 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


known  in  this  country  a»  the  other  Asiatic  breeds,  but  are  gen- 
erally liked  by  nil  who  have  given  them  a  fair  trial. 

The  Brahmas,  Cochins,  and  Langshans  are  all  good  market 


DAKK  BRA H MAS. 

fowls,  bear  confinement  well,  quiet  and  gentle  in  disposition, 
easily  fenced  in  or  out,  good  sitters,  careful  mothers,  and  with 
the  exception  of  the  Butf  Cochin,  good  winter  layers. 


POULTRY. 


1069s 


Plymouth  Rocks,  Dominiques,  and  Wyandottes  are  the 
breeds  for  the  poultry  raisers  who  desire  to  raise  chickens  for 
the  early  spring  market.  Chicks  of  such  breeds  are  hardy,  and 
feather  up  quickly,  making  nice  broilers  at  from  eight  to  twelve 
weeks  of  age.  The  Plymouth  Rock  (see  frontispiece  page  1040) 


LANOSHANS. 


is  the  best  "general-utility"  breed  for  the  farmer.  Fowls  of  this 
breed  are  hardy,  active,  good  for  eggs  all  the  year  round,  good 
sitters  and  mothers,  and  good  for  fall  and  winter  market. 

The  Dominiques  rank  next  to  the  Plymouth  Rocks  as  farm 
fowls,  and  in  color  of  plumage  closely  resemble  that  breed. 
Dominiques  are  somewhat  smaller  than  the  Rocks,  and  have  rose 
instead  of  single  combs. 

The  Wyandottes  (see  illustration,  page  1070)  have  been  but 
recently  admitted  to  the  standard,  but  they  stand  high  in  popu- 
lar favor,  and  are  destined  to  take  their  place  among  farm  and 
market  fowls. 

For  table  fowls  the  Houdan  and  the  Dorkings,  the  English 
and  French  market  fowls,  are  by  many  considered  superior  to 


1070  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

all  other  breeds.  It  is  claimed  that  the  flesh  of  fowls  of  this 
breed  is  superior  to  that  of  other  fowls,  but  in  the  humble  opin- 
ion of  the  writer  the  "sweetness,  richness,  delicacy,  and  peculiar 
flavor"  claimed  for  the  flesh  of  fowls  of  any  breed  is  more  the 
result  of  the  keeping,  and  the  way  they  are  cooked  than  any 
thing  in  the  breed  itself.  But  the  Houdans  certainly  have  small 
bones  and  carry  a  large  quantity  of  breast  meat,  and  the  Dorkings 
also  carry  a  large  proportion  of  meat  on  the  parts  that  are  gen- 


WYANUOTTES. 


erally  liked  best;  so,  for  these  reasons,  the  farmers  whose  chief 
objeqt  in  raising  poultry  is  to  supply  their  own  tables  with  an 
abundance  cf  fresh  meat  will  probably  like  these  breeds  and 
find  them  profitable,  and  it  sometimes  happens  that  the  poul- 
try raiser  gets  hold  of  a  class  of  private  customers  who  have  a 
notion  that  the  flesh  of  fowls  of  this  or  that  breed  is  superior 
to  all  others,  and,  in  such  cases,  he  should  aim  to  please  his 
customers — especially  when,  by  so  doing,  he  can  get  two  or 


POULTRY. 


1071 


SILVER-GRAY  DORKING  COCK. 

three  cents  more  per  pound  for  his  poultry.  Dorkings  are 
nothing  extra  for  layers, 
and  chicks  of  this  breed 
are  hard  to  raise,  except 
in  localities  where  the  soil 
is  dry  and  warm.  The  il- 
lustrations on  this  page  /I 

it 

represents  a  pair  of  Silver-   ['. 
gray  Dorkings. 

The    different  varieties  '\ 
of  game   fowls   are  hardy, 
active,  good  foragers,  good  i^- 
layers,  good  sitters,  excel-   % 
lent  mothers,  and  highly  es- 
teemed as  table  fowls,  but 
on  account  of  their  fighting 
proclivities  I  can  not  recom-  i<^ 

mend    them   for   farm  fowls.  SILVER-GRAY  DOKKINO  HKN. 


1072 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


The  different  varieties  of  Bantams  are  classed  among  the  or- 
namental fowls,  and  are  chiefly  desirable  as  pets  for  the  chil- 
dren. The  illustration  on  this  page  represents  a  pair  of  Jap- 
anese Bantams. 

Improve  the  Common  Fowls. — The  farmer  who  can  not 
aiford  to  stock  up  with  fowls  of  pure  blood  should  do  the  next 

best  thing — be- 
gin with  common 
f o  w 1 s  and  im- 
prove the  stock 
as  he  goes  along. 
This  can  be  done 
at  little  expense. 
The  first  year 
mate  the  best  of 
the  common 
hens  and  pullets 
with  young 
cocks  of  the  pure 
breed  best  suited 
to  your  purpose ; 

the  second  year  mate  the  same  cocks  with  the  best  of  the  half- 
breed  pullets ;  the  third  year  get  young  cocks  that  are  not 
closely  related  to  the  old  stock.  By  adhering  to  this  plan  of 
keeping  only  the  very  best  of  the  cross-bred  pullets  each  year, 
and  using  only  pure  bred  cocks,  the  common  stock  can  be  crossed 
out  of  existence  in  a  few  years,  and  in  their  place  will  be  a 
stock  of  fowls  that  for  all  practical  purposes  will  be  just  as  good 
as  those  of  the  pure  blood. 

Choice  of  a  Cock. — In  choosing  a  breeding  cock  be  sure 
that  he  is  in  good  health,  comes  of  healthy  parent  stock,  and  is 
free  from  deformity  of  any  kind.  Pay  some  attention  to  sym- 
metry— i.  e.,  choose  a  well-proportioned  bird.  A  mature  cock 
that  seems  to  be  all  legs  and  neck  would  not  be  desirable  for  a 
breeder.  Never  buy  or  keep  a  cock  that  has  a  cowed  look  and 
runs  upon  the  approach  of  other  cocks,  but  select  one  that  car- 
ries his  head  up,  steps  as  if  he  owned  the  whole  poultry-yard, 


JAPANESE  BANTAMS. 


POULTRY.  1073 

and  stands  ready  for  fight  when  molested  by  other  male  fowls. 
Such  cocks  possess  strong  constitutions,  and  will  surely  trans- 
mit their  good  qualities  to  their  descendants. 

Eggs,  or  Market  Poultry. — "  Which  is  the  most  profit- 
able, eggs,  or  market  poultry  ? "  is  one  of  the  questions  that 
those  who  contemplate  going  into  the  poultry  business  are  sure 
to  ask,  but  it  is  not  difficult  to  answer.  Where  the  average 
price  of  eggs  is  twenty  cents  per  dozen,  the  farmer  can  profit- 
ably keep  fowls  for  eggs  alone — i.  e.,  if  he  will  get  some  of  the 
best  hens  of  the  non-sitting  breed,  run  them  on  the  high  pressure 
plan  until  their  days  of  usefulness  are  past,  then  send  them  to 
market  and  stock  up  again  with  pullets.  But  in  localities  where 
the  average  price  goes  much  below  twenty  cents  the  poultry 
raiser  should  not  depend  on  eggs  alone  for  his  profits.  He  should 
get  some  one  of  the  larger  breeds,  hatch  the  chicks  early  so  as 
to  have  pullets  of  a  suitable  age  for  fall  and  winter  layers,  sell 
the  surplus  cockerels  as  soon  as  they  are  large  enough  for  broil- 
ers, and  manage  to  turn  off  the  old  fowls  when  they  will  bring 
the  highest  price.  From  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  the  old  hens 
should  be  disposed  of  each  year,  and  their  places  filled  by 
pullets. 

Management  of  Laying  Hens. — It  is  an  easy  matter  to 
care  for  laying  hens  in  summer;  a  clean,  well  ventilated  roost- 
ing-place,  free  range  if  possible,  a  place  where  they  can  scratch 
and  dust  themselves  in  dry  earth,  plenty  of  fresh  water,  and  the 
necessary  amount  of  food,  is  all  that  the  most  exacting  fowls  re- 
quire to  keep  them  in  good  laying  trim.  When  allowed  free 
range  and  insect  forage  is  abundant,  the  fowls  will  thrive  and 
lay  well  on  two  scant  meals  each  day.  In  the  morning  give  a 
light  feed  made  of  the  scraps  from  the  kitchen  wet  with  boiling 
water  and  thickened  with  wheat-bran ;  at  night,  a  little  corn,  oats, 
or  wheat. 

When  confined,  even  to  quite  large  runs,  more  food  and  a 
greater  variety  will  be  necessary.  Green  food  and  meat  of  some 
kind  must  also  be  given  every  day.  The  most  acceptable  green 
food  for  fowls  in  confinement  is  chippings  of  young  and  tender 
oats,  grass,  and  millet.  When  plenty  of  milk  can  be  had  the 


1074  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

meat  will  not  be  necessary,  for  the  milk  will  take  the  place  of 
the  insect  food  that  the  fowls  get  for  themselves  when  at  liberty. 
But  to  make  hens  lay  in  winter  is  a  different  thing,  and  often 
taxes  the  skill  of  the  poultry  raiser  to  the  utmost.  To  begin 
with,  the  pullets  that  are  expected  to  lay  in  cold  weather  must 
be  of  the  right  age  to  commence  laying  in  October,  when,  with 
proper  care,  they  will  lay  right  along  till  February,  and  by  that 
time,  or  before,  the  old  hens  that  have  been  wintered  over  will 
be  ready  to  begin.  For  winter  layers  the  Brahmas,  Cochins, 
and  Langshans  should  be  out  of  the  shell  in  February  and  March ; 
Plymouth  Rocks  should  be  hatched  in  March  and  April,  while 
the  smaller  breeds  should  be  hatched  later,  say  from  the  mid- 
dle of  April  to  the  middle  of  May.  The  smaller  breeds  mature 
earlier  than  the  large  breeds,  and  if  hatched  very  early  in  the 
season  will  commence  laying  about  the  first  of  August,  lay  out 
their  first  litter,  and  be  ready  to  rest  just  as  the  price  of  eggs 
begins  to  go  up ;  then  cold  weather  comes  on,  and  it  will  be  a 
hard  matter  to  induce  them  to  commence  laying  again  much  be- 
fore February. 

The  absolute  necessity  of  having  a  comfortable  house  for  lay- 
ing hens  in  localities  where  the  mercury  is  liable  to  go  a  long 
distance  below  zero  has  been  spoken  of  under  the  proper  head- 
ing, and  need  not  be  enlarged  upon  here. 

Given  the  house  and  the  hens,  the  next  things  are  the  food 
and  drink.  Every  morning,  as  soon  as  the  fowls  come  from  the 
roost  they  should  have  a  warm  breakfast  made  of  boiled  vegeta- 
bles mixed  with  corn-meal,  oat-meal,  bran,  or  shorts — sometimes 
one  thing  sometimes  another,  taking  care  not  to  feed  too  large  a 
proportion  of  corn-meal.  Give  as  much  variety  as  possible,  and 
season  all  soft  food  with  salt  and  pepper  as  you  would  for  your 
own  eating,  and  do  n't  make  this  soft  food  sloppy ;  it  should  be 
just  moist  enough  to  hold  together.  At  noon  give  the  fowls  a 
few  handfuls  of  buckwheat  or  sunflower  seed  scattered  among 
the  litter  in  the  shed  or  other  place  where  they  exercise.  This 
noon  meal  is  given  more  to  make  the  fowls  exercise  by  scratch- 
ing it  out  of  the  litter  than  for  any  thing  else.  At  night  give 
a  liberal  feed,  as  much  as  they  will  eat  up  clean,  of  grain  of 


POULTRY.  1075 

some  kind.  In  the  colder  parts  of  the  country  this  night  feed 
may  be  of  corn  at  least  two-thirds  of  the  time. 

Meat,  or  something  that  will  take  the  place  of  the  bugs  and 
worms  that  the  fowls  get  in  summer,  must  be  given  daily.  We 
have  followed  the  plan  of  hanging  a  big  piece  of  raw,  fresh 
meat  where  the  fowls  could  reach  it,  and  we  have  yet  to  see  any 
ill  effects  from  feeding  meat  that  way.  We  get  livers  and  other 
cheap  pieces  of  meat  from  the  butcher  twice  a  week,  and  like 
it  much  better  than  the  steamed  meat  that  is  prepared  expressly 
for  fowls.  A  more  economical  way  of  feeding  meat  would  be 
to  boil  it  and  mix  it  with  the  morning  feed.  When  plenty  of 
milk  can  be  had,  and  a  little  sunflower  seed,  which  is  rich  in 
oil,  given  daily,  the  meat  may  be  dispensed  with. 

Fowls  need  drink  in  cold  weather,  and  when  water  or  milk 
can  not  be  kept  by  them  all  the  time  it  should  be  supplied 
regularly  twice  a  day. 

Green  food  is  another  one  of  the  essentials,  and  must  be 
supplied  regularly  every  day.  The  very  best  green  food  for 
fowls  of  all  kinds  in  winter  is  oats,  grass,  and  millet,  that  was 
cut  when  young  and  cured  just  enough  to  keep — cut  fine  and 
soaked  in  hot  water  or  steamed.  If  the  fowls  do  n't  take  kindly 
to  it  at  first,  sprinkle  with  corn-meal  or  bran.  The  next  best 
thing  in  the  way  of  green  food  is  cabbage ;  fasten  the  heads  up 
where  the  fowls  can  reach  them,  and  let  them  help  themselves. 
Of  course,  this  will  not  be  practicable  when  the  temperature  of 
the  house  is  below  the  freezing  point.  When  nothing  else  is 
available  feed  chopped  apples,  potatoes,  turnips,  and  carrots. 

Besides  the  necessary  food  and  drink,  the  winter  laying 
fowls  must  have  a  supply  of  gravel  and  crushed  oyster-shells, 
or  lime  in  some  form  ;  and  if  you  can  give  a  little  raw,  crushed 
bone  twice  or  three  times  a  week,  it  will  do  more  towards  fill- 
ing the  egg  basket  than  any  or  all  of  the  patent  "egg  foods," 
and  it  won't  hurt  the  fowls  by  over-stimulating  them.  Get  fresh 
bones  right  from  the  butcher,  and  by  some  means  reduce  them 
to  bits  of  a  suitable  size.  .The  old  way  was  to  break  them  up 
with  the  head  of  an  old  axe,  but  now  the  poultry  raiser  can  get 
hand-mills  that  will  do  the  work.  When  given  three  times  a 


1076  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

week  a  pint  of  this  ground  bone  is  enough  for  a  dozen  fowls.     An 
occasional  feed  of  burned  bones  is  also  excellent  for  laying  hens. 

The  Best  Market  for  Eggs. — In  regard  to  the  best 
market  for  eggs,  that  is  a  question  that  every  poultry  raiser 
must  settle  for  himself.  He  must  study  the  market  reports  of 
the  cities  that  are  within  his  reach,  find  out  the  cost  of  trans- 
portation, arid  then  compare  with  the  price  of  eggs  in  his  locality. 
In  some  localities  the  nearest  city  market  will  be  the  best;  in 
others,  it  will  pay  better  to  ship  to  some  distant  city ;  while 
some  farmers  may  find  it  more  profitable  to  sell  eggs  to  private 
customers  in  the  nearest  village.  In  regard  to  the  New  York 
market,  it  is  quite  practicable  to  ship  eggs  in  prime  order  from 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  points  farther  west  to  New  York; 
but  before  sending  eggs  such  long  distances  the  poultry  raiser 
should  look  well  to  his  home  markets,  and  take  every  thing  into 
consideration.  Eggs  that  travel  long  distances  to  reach  the 
New  York  market  seldom  sell  so  readily,  or  bring  so  good' prices 
in  that  market,  as  eggs  from  near-by  points.  The  average  prices 
of  Western  eggs  in  New  York  rule  from  three  to  five  cents  per 
dozen  lower  than  those  from  New  York  State,  New  Jersey,  and 
Pennsylvania;  but  in  this  connection  it  is  proper  to  state  that 
the  majority  of  the  Western  eggs,  owing  to  unskilled  packing, 
reach  New  York  in  a  very  bad  condition.  If  the  eggs  were 
fresh  to  begin  with,  and  properly  packed,  they  would  reach 
market  in  much  better  shape,  and  a  higher  price  would  be 
realized. 

How  to  get  the  Highest  Price  for  Eggs. — The  poultry 
raiser  or  farmer  who  sells  eggs  to  private  customers  in  the  near- 
est city  or  village  should  call  regularly  every  week  or  two 
weeks,  as  best  suits  the  convenience  of  his  customers,  and 
always  sell  clean,  fresh,  fair-sized  eggs.  By  so  doing  he  can 
command  a  few  cents  per  dozen  above  the  market  price. 

For  city  markets  the  eggs  should  be  packed  in  crates  or 
barrels,  and  shipped  regularly  every  week  to  some  reliable  com- 
mission house.  The  shipper  should  have  some  particular  brand 
or  mark  which  should  be  on  all  his  packages,  should  warrant 
every  egg  fresh,  see  that  they  are  so,  and  his  brand  of  eggs 


POULTRY.  1077 

soon  be  in  demand  at  the  highest  market  price.  When  his 
brand  of  eggs  becomes  well  known,  and  his  reputation  for  sell- 
ing honest  goods  is  firmly  established,  he  may,  by  looking 
around  a  little,  obtain  a  chance  to  ship  eggs  direct  to  a  hotel  or 
restaurant,  and  thereby  get  a  few  cents  per  dozen  above  the 
market  price,  besides  saving  commission  charges. 

For  the  New  York  market,  generally  speaking,  it  is  best  to 
pack  in  crates  holding  from  thirty  to  forty  dozen,  or  in  ordinary 
flour  barrels,  which  hold  from  sixty  to  seventy  $ozen  each.  A 
New  York  commission  merchant  furnishes  the  following  direc- 
tions for  packing  eggs  in  barrels  : 

"  Use  strong,  stiff  barrels,  put  four  inches  of  packing  evenly 
over  the  bottom  of  the  barrel  (use  fine  kiln-dried  cut  straw  or 
wheat-chaff;  never  use  oat  or  buckwheat  chaff],  then  a  layer  of 
eggs  laid  upon  the  sides,  evenly  embedded  in  the  packing,  with 
the  ends  towards  the  barrel,  but  about  three  quarters  of  an  inch 
from  the  staves;  cover  the  layer  with  packing  to  the  depth  of 
one  inch,  and  rub  well  in  between  the  eggs  with  the  hand.  After 
each  two  or  three  layers  they  should  be  well  settled  by  using 
a  plank  follower  and  shaking  the  barrel.  Put  about  four  inches 
of  packing  over  the  last  layer.  In  heading  great  caution  should 
be  used  in  having  the  head-press  firmly  on  the  packing  so  that 
the  eggs  can  not  work  loose  in  the  barrel  by  handling,  but  it 
should  not  press  so  tight  as  to  break  them.  In  winter,  to  guard 
against  frost,  use  more  packing  and  leave  the  eggs  farther  from 
the  stave.  The  count  should  be  carefully  made  and  correctly 
marked  on  the  barrel." 

Concerning  western  eggs  the  same  commission  man  says: 

"Be  sure  (especially  in  summer)  that  your  eggs  are  not 
only  sound,  but  recently  laid.  Eggs  may  be  'candled'  and 
repacked  at  the  West,  but  if  they  are  stale,  though  apparently 
sound,  they  will  be  sure  to  reach  this  market  in  bad  order,  or 
will  so  rapidly  change  on  being  opened  that  dealers  will  be  sure 
to  lose  money  on  them.  The  motion  of  the  cars  over  such  long 
distances  so  muddles  all  eggs  not  strictly  fresh  that  they  appear 
cloudy  and  stale,  and  will  soon  spoil,  if,  indeed,  they  are  not 
already  bad.  Do  not  hold  lots  after  they  are  packed.  Ship  at 


1078  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

once  while  fresh.  Send  by  express  from  the  first  of  June  to  the 
midddle  of  September;  at  other  seasons  of  the  year  they  can  be 
safely  sent  by  fast  freight  lines." 

For  any  market  the  eggs  should  always  be  clean,  and  the 
crates  and  barrels  should  present  a  neat,  fresh,  attractive  ap- 
pearance. 

Preserving  Eggs. — Eggs  can  not  be  kept  "fresh"  for  any 
great  length  of  time,  but  if  properly  put  up  they  can  be  kept 
"good"  for  some  months,  and  a  great  deal  of  money  is  made 
every  year  by  dealers  who  buy  up  eggs  when  they  are  cheap, 
lime  them,  and  hold  until  the  price  goes  up.  The  following 
(from  the  third  report  of  the  United  States  Butter  and  Cheese 
Association)  is  the  method  of  liming  most  used  by  dealers : 

"To  make  a  pickle  use  stone  lime,  fine  salt  and  water,  in  the 
following  proportions  :  One  bushel  of  lime,  eight  quarts  of  salt, 
twenty-five  ten-quart  pails  of  water.  The  lime  must  be  of  the 
finest  quality,  free  from  sand  dirt — lime  that  will  slack  white, 
fine,  and  clean.  Have  the  salt  clean  and  the  water  pure  and 
sweet,  free  from  all  vegetable  or  decomposed  matter. 

"  Slack  the  lime  with  a  portion  of  the  water,  then  add  the 
balance  of  the  water  and  the  salt.  Stir  well  three  or  four  times, 
at  intervals,  and  then  let  it  stand  until  well  setttled  and  cold. 
Either  dip  or  draw  off  the  clear  pickle  into  the  cask  or  vat  in 
which  it  is  intended  to  preserve  the  eggs.  When  the  cask  or 
vat  is  filled  to  the  depth  of  fifteen  or  eighteen  inches,  begin  to 
put  in  the  eggs,  and  when  they  lie  say  about  one  foot  deep, 
spread  around  over  them  some  pickle  that  is  a  little  milky  in 
appearance,  made  so  by  stirring  up  some  of  the  very  light  lime 
particles  that  settled  last,  and  continue  doing  this  as  each  lot  of 
eggs  is  added.  The  object  of  this  is  to  have  the  fine  lime  drawn 
into  the  pores  of  the  shells,  as  they  will  be  by  a  kind  of  induc- 
tive process,  and  thereby  completely  seal  the  eggs.  Care  should 
be  taken  not  to  get  too  much  of  the  lime  in;  that  is,  not  enough 
to  settle  and  stick  to  the  shells  of  the  eggs,  and  render  them 
difficult  to  clean  when  taken  out.  (The  chief  cause  of  thin, 
watery  whites  in  limed  eggs  is  that  they  are  not  properly  sealed 
in  the  manner  described.  Another  cause  is  the  putting  into  the 


POULTRY.  1079 

pickle  old,  stale  eggs  that  have  thin,  weak  whites.  When  the 
eggs  are  within  four  inches  of  the  top  of  the  cask  or  vat,  cover 
them  with  factory  cloth,  and  spread  on  two  or  three  inches  of 
the  lime  that  settles  in  making  the  pickle,  and  it  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  that  the  pickle  be  kept  continually  up  over 
this  lime.  A  tin  basin  (holding  about  six  or  eight  dozen  eggs), 
punched  quite  full  of  inch  holes,  edge  muffled  with  leather,  and 
a  suitable  handle  about  three  feet  long  attached,  will  be  found 
convenient  for  putting  the  eggs  into  the  pickle.  Fill  the  basin 
with  eggs,  put  both  under  the  pickle  and  turn  the  eggs  out; 
they  will  go  to  the  bottom  without  breaking. 

"When  the  time  comes  to  market  the  eggs,  they  must  be 
taken  out  of  the  pickle,  cleaned,  dried,  and  packed.  To  clean 
them,  secure  half  of  a  molasses  hogshead,  or  something  like  it, 
and  fill  the  same  about  half  full  of  water.  Have  a  sufficient 
number  of  crates  of  the  right  size  (to  hold  twenty  or  twenty- 
five  dozen  eggs),  made  of  laths  or  other  slats,  placed  about 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  apart.  Sink  one  of  these  crates  in 
the  half-hogshead;  take  the  basin  used  to  put  the  eggs  into  the 
pickle;  dip  the  eggs  by  raising  it  up  and  down  in  the  water, 
and,  if  necessary  to  properly  clean  them,  set  the  crate  up.  and 
douse  water  over  them.  Then,  if  any  eggs  are  found  when 
packing  that  the  lime  has  not  been  fully  relieved  from,  they 
should  be  laid  out,  and  all  the  lime  cleaned  off  before  packing. 
When  the  eggs  are  carefully  washed  they  can  be  set  up  or  out 
in  a  suitable  place  to  dry,  in  the  crates.  They  should  dry 
quickly,  and  be  packed  as  soon  as  dry.  In  packing,  the  same 
rules  should  be  observed  as  in  packing  fresh  eggs. 

"Vats  built  in  a  cellar  around  the  walls,  with  about  half 
their  depth  below  the  surface,  about  four  or  five  feet  deep,  six 
feet  long,  and  four  feet  wide,  are  usually  considered  the  best  for 
preserving  eggs  in,  although  many  use  and  prefer  large  tubs 
made  of  wood.  The  place  in  which  the  vats  are  built,  or  the 
tubs  kept,  should  be  clean  and  sweet,  free  from  all  bad  odors, 
and  where  a  steady,  low  temperature  may  be  maintained — the 
lower  the  better;  that  is,  down  to  any  point  above  that  of 
freezing." 


1080  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Another  method,  recommended  by  W.  H.  Todd,  and  used  by 
some  dealers  : 

"To  four  gallons  of  boiling  water  add  half  a  peck  of  new 
lime,  stirring  well;  when  cold  strain  through  a  coarse  sieve  to 
remove  lumps,  and  then  add  ten  ounces  of  cream  of  tartar, 
mixing  thoroughly.  Let  the  mixture  stand  two  weeks  before 
using.  Pack  the  eggs  closely  in  any  thing  that  will  hold  the 
mixture,  and  keep  all  covered  with  the  pickle.  Keep  in  a 
cool  place." 

Another  method  is  to  pack  the  eggs,  small  end  downwards, 
in  dry  bran,  and  keep  in  a  temperature  but  just  above  the 
freezing  point.  Still  another  method,  practicable  only  for  keep- 
ing a  few  dozen  for  home  use,  is  to  wash  the  eggs  perfectly 
clean,  pack  in  jars,  and  pour  melted  lard  or  tallow  over  them 
until  the  jar  is  full.  Perfectly  fresh  eggs,  packed  small  end 
downwards  in  dry  salt,  and  kept  in  a  cool  place,  will  keep  good 
for  six  months. 

For  any  method  of  packing  the  eggs  should  be  perfectly 
fresh,  and  those  from  yards  where  no  male  fowls  are  kept  will 
keep  longer  than  those  that  have  been  impregnated. 

Limed  eggs,  or  eggs  that  have  been  "preserved"  in  any 
way,  never  sell  so  high  as  strictly  fresh  eggs;  but  the  best  of 
them  usually  sell  at  prices  that  enable  the  dealer  to  double  the 
money  invested. 

Spring  Chickens. — Spring  chickens  command  the  highest 
prices  of  any  market  poultry,  and  as  the  demand  for  this  class 
of  poultry  is  constantly  increasing  I  would  call  the  attention 
of  farmers  who  live  within  a  reasonable  Distance  of  a  city  mar- 
ket to  this  very  profitable  branch  of  the  poultry  business. 

Chicks  for  broilers  are  hatched  from  the  middle  of  January 
to  the  middle  of  May,  and  sent  to  market  when  from  eight  to 
twelve  weeks  old,  or  when  they  will  weigh  from  one  and  one- 
half  to  two  pounds  a-piece  alive,  or  from  one  to  one  and  one- 
half  pounds  dressed. 

The  cost  of  hatching  and  raising  these  chicks  to  a  market- 
able age  varies  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  cents  per  head, 
according  to  locality,  season,  price  of  feed,  etc.  The  prices 


POULTRY.  1081 

obtained  also  vary  according  to  locality  and  season.  Very 
early  in  the  season  broilers  sell  in  Boston,  New  York,  and  Phil- 
adelphia as  high  as  seventy-five  cents  per  pound  dressed,  or 
from  one  to  two  dollars  per  pair  alive.  Later  in  the  season  the 
price  declines,  and  customers  demand  greater  weights ;  but, 
generally  speaking,  broilers  can  be  sold  at  a  profit  up  to  the 
middle  of  July  or  first  of  August.  Of  course,  every  body  can 
not  market  their  spring  chickens  in  the  cities  named,  but  there 
is  not  a  city  of  any  consequence  in  the  United  States  where 
prime  broilers  can  not  be  sold  in  season  at  paying  prices. 

Spring  chickens,  to  command  the  highest  prices,  must  be 
plump  and  well  feathered,  and,  if  sold  dressed,  must  be  dressed 
neatly,  and  put  up  in  good  shape. 

The  best  way  to  go  into  the  spring-chicken  business,  or  any 
other  branch  of  the  poultry  business,  is  to  begin  in  a  small  way, 
make  it  pay  as  you  go,  and  work  up  until  there  is  all  that  one 
pair  of  hands  or  one  family  can  manage  profitably.  Many  fail 
in  this,  as  in  other  things,  because  they  attempt  too  much  to 
begin  with.  Remember  that  it  is  more  profitable  to  raise  twenty 
dozen  prime  broilers  than  it  would  be  to  raise  twice  that  num- 
ber of  inferior  ones.  The  best  will  always  sell  at  paying  prices, 
even  when  the  market  is  overstocked  with  poor  poultry,  while 
the  latter  often  sells  for  barely  enough  to  cover  the  cost  of 
transportation  and  commission  charges. 

Eggs  for  Hatching. — In  selecting  eggs  for  hatching,  re- 
member that  the  newest  laid  are  the  best,  and  that  those  from 
the  second  litter  are  better  than  the  first  laying.  Eggs  from 
the  first  litter,  especially  from  pullets,  are  generally  smaller,  and 
are  not  so  likely  to  be  fertile  as  those  from  later  litters.  To 
insure  fertility  of  the  eggs  destined  for  hatching  purposes  the 
fowls  should  have  all  the  exercise  possible,  plenty  of  green  food, 
and  the  males  should  run  with  the  flock  at  least  a  week  before 
the  eggs  are  used  for  setting.  Care  should  also  be  taken  not  to 
overdo  or  underdo  the  rooster  business.  For  the  Plymouth 
Rocks,  Dominiques,  Wyandottes,  and  the  non-sitting  breeds,  one 
vigorous  cock  to  every  fifteen  or  twenty  hens  when  the  fowls 
have  free  range;  but  when  confined  to  yards  the  number  of 


1082         THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

hens  allowed  to  each  cock  should  be  reduced  by  about  one-third. 
For  the  Asiatic  breeds,  allow  one  cock  to  every  twelve  or  fifteen 
hens  when  on  free  range;  one  to  every  ten  or  twelve  hens 
when  confined  to  yards. 

Choose  the  largest  and  best-shaped  eggs  for  incubation;  but 
you  need  pay  no  attention  to  long  eggs,  round  eggs,  or  wrinkled 
eggs,  with  the  idea  that  by  so  doing  you  can  control  the  sex 
of  the  chicks.  There  is  no  known  way  by  which  the  sex  of 
the  egg  can  be  determined  previous  to  hatching. 

To  keep  eggs  for  hatching,  put  them  in  a  cool  place  and 
turn  carefully  every  day  or  two. 

Nests  and  Sitting  Hens. — Sitting  hens  should  always  be 
where  they  can  not  be  disturbed  by  the  other  fowls.  When  there 
is  no  separate  room  for  the  sitting  hens  in  the  poultry-house  they 
should  be  removed  to  another  building.  Given  an  industrious 
hen  and  fertile  eggs  the  chances  of  chicks  depend  greatly  upon 
the  nest.  If  the  poultry-house  or  building  used  for  the  sitting 
hens  has  a  board  floor,  be  sure  there  are  no  cracks  under  the 
nests  where  the  wind  can  come  through  and  chill  the  eggs.  If 
the  floor  is  all  right  arid  covered  as  it  should  be  with  several 
inches  of  dry  earth,  and  you  use  the  bottomless  nest  boxes,  all 
you  have  to  do  is  to  see  the  box  in  place,  hollow  out  the  earth 
a  little  in  the  middle  of  the  nest,  and  put  in  plenty  of  fine  hay 
or  broken  straw.  In  extreme  cold  weather  line  the  nest  with 
feathers.  As  a  precaution  against  lice  sprinkle  sulphur,  snuff, 
carbolic  powder,  insect  powder,  or  fine  cut  tobacco  in  the  nest; 
or,  better  still,  use  tobacco  leaves  or  stems  mixed  with  the  nest- 
ing. If  there  is  no  earth  on  the  floor  of  the  place  used  for  the 
sitting  hens,  one  must  do  the  next  best  thing — put  a  bottom  on 
the  nest  boxes,  and  put  in  a  sod  or  a  few  inches  of  earth  under 
the  nesting.  If  the  nest  box  has  been  used  for  the  laying  hens, 
scald  it  out  with  hot  suds,  or  whitewash  it  inside  and  out  before 
using  it  for  a  sitting  hen.  Do  n't  use  coal-oil  about  the  nests  of 
sitting  hens ;  the  fumes  are  so  powerful  and  penetrating  that 
they  are  liable  to  destroy  the  germ  of  life  contained  within 
the  egg. 

In  regard  to  setting  the  hens  and  caring  for  them  during  the 


POULTRY.  1083 

period  of  incubation,  I  append  the  following  directions  that  I 
wrote  for  the  Prairie  Farmer  a  few  years  ago  :  Set  your  hens 
at  night,  always.  If  you  have  any  doubts  about  the  reliability 
of  your  hen,  give  her  two  or  three  nest-eggs  to  practice  upon 
until  she  settles  down  to  business.  If  you  want  to  set  your  hen 
in  a  strange  place,  have  your  nest  ready,  get  your  hen  after  dark, 
avoid  frightening  her,  place  her  carefully  on  the  nest,  fasten  a 
board  over  the  front  of  the  nest,  leaving  only  a  crack  for  venti- 
lation, and  do  not  remove  the  board  until  after  dark  the  next 
night.  In  nine  cases  out  of  ten  the  hen  will  come  off  in  the 
morning,  eat  her  breakfast,  and  go  back  to  her  nest;  but  you 
must  be  on  the  lookout  for  her  soon  after  daylight,  and  if  she 
does  not  go  back  to  her  nest,  put  her  back  gently,  and  fasten 
her  in  for  another  day.  Keep  corn,  water,  gravel  and  charcoal, 
and  a  dust  box  where  your  sitting  hens  can  help  themselves. 
After  the  eggs  have  been  set  on  a  few  days  those  that  have 
been  impregnated  can  readily  be  detected  by  testing  them  with 
an  egg-tester.  If  the  eggs  are  white-shelled  they  can  be  as- 
sorted by  the  fourth  day,  but  with  dark-shelled  eggs  it  is  bet- 
ter to  wait  until  the  eighth  day. 

The  advantage  to  be  derived  from  assorting  eggs  during  in- 
cubation are  obvious.  If  three  or  four  hens  are  set  at  the  same 
time,  it  quite  frequently  happens  that  after  the  non-fertile  eggs 
have  been  taken  from  the  nest  two  of  the  hens  can  accommo- 
date all  the  eggs  that  contain  a  living  germ,  and  in  that  case 
the  other  hens  can  be  set  again  with  a  fresh  lot  of  eggs.  In 
the  earlier  part  of  the  season,  when  setting  hens  are  scarce,  I 
find  this  a  great  advantage.  The  clear  eggs,  if  taken  from 
the  nest  before  the  ninth  day,  can  be  boiled  and  used  for 
chicken  food. 

Should  any  of  the  eggs  get  broken  in  the  nest,  wash  the 
remaining  eggs  in  warm  water,  and  clean  out  the  nest,  for  an 
egg  that  is  daubed  with  the  contents  of  another  egg  will  not 
hatch.  During  the  last  week  of  incubation  the  eggs  should  be 
sprinkled  every  other  day  with  warm  water. 

Egg  Testers  can  be  bought  at  prices  ranging  from  thirty 
cents  up  to  two  dollars,  but  for  all  practical  purposes  the  tester 


1084          THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

that  we  use,  and  which  cost  nothing  except  a  little  time  and  a 
few  nails,  is  just  as  good  as  any.  It  is  simply  a  wooden  box 
large  enough  to  hold  a  small  kerosene  lamp.  There  is  a  round 
hole  in  the  top  as  large  as  the  top  of  the  lamp  chimney,  and  in 
one  side,  high  enough  to  come  just  opposite  the  flame,  there  is 
an  egg-shaped  opening.  The  opposite  side  is  hinged  with  leather 
straps  so  that  it  can  be  used  as  a  door  to  admit  the  lamp.  Place 
the  lamp  in  the  box,  close  the  door,  partially  darken  the  room, 
and  hold  the  eggs,  one  at  a  time,  between  the  thumb  and  fore- 
finger, between  the  eye  and  the  egg-shaped  opening. 

A  barren  or  non-fertile  egg  looks  light  and  nearly  clear  when 
viewed  through  the  egg  tester.  A  fertile  egg  will,  at  the  fourth 
or  fifth  day,  show  a  small  dark  spot,  with  tiny  veins  radiating 
from  it.  In  the  live  embryo  the  veins  will  be  distinct ;  in  the 
dead  one  they  will  appear  broken  and  cloudy.  The  eggs  that 
contain  dead  embryos  should  be  removed,  as  they  will  soon  rot 
and  become  very  offensive.  From  the  fifteenth  day  onward  the 
eggs  which  contain  living  chicks  look  dark,  except  the  space  oc- 
cupied by  the  air  bubbles  at  the  large  end.  When  the  air  bub- 
ble occupies  an  unusually  large  amount  of  space,  and  is  fairly 
on  one  side,  the  chick  is  generally  dead,  and  the  sooner  it  is  out 
of  the  nest  the  better. 

Artificial  Incubation. — The  ancient  Egyptians  hatched 
and  raised  chickens  successfully  by  artificial  means,  but  in  our 
day  and  generation  all  such  attempts  have,  until  within  the  past 
few  years,  proved  failures,  or  at  best  but  partial  successes.  The 
first  incubators  offered  to  the  public  in  this  country  were  not 
practical  enough  to  meet  the  wants  of  poultry  raisers,  but  the 
demand  for  an  incubator  that  would  "beat  the  old  hen"  was 
so  great  that  inventive  genius  was  stimulated,  and  as  a  result 
there  are  at  present  some  half  a  dozen  different  kinds  of  incu- 
bators that  will — if  the  manufacturers'  directions  are  carefully 
and  intelligently  followed — hatch  a  larger  per  cent  of  the  fertile 
eggs  than  the  hens.  These  incubators  are  rapidly  coming  into 
use,  arid  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  no  poultry  raiser  who 
wishes  to  raise  over  two  or  three  hundred  early  chicks  will 
consider  his  outfit  complete  without  one  or  more  incubators. 


POULTRY. 


1085 


Fig.  18  correctly  represents  one  of  the  most  popular  of  the 
standard,  self-regulating  incubators,  called  the  "  Eclipse." 

The  advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  use  of  a  good  incu- 
bator are  many.  In  the  first  place,  one  can  set  a  large  number 
at  any  desired  time  without  waiting  for  sitting  hens,  and  this  is 
a  matter  of  prime  importance  to  poultry  raisers  who  desire  to 
raise  any  considerable  number  of  early  broilers  for  market.  Next, 
there  is  an  actual  saving  of  time  and  money — it  requiring  very 


FIG.  18.— ECLIPSE  INCUBATOR. 

much  less  time  to  care  for  three  hundred  eggs  in  a  self-regulat- 
ing incubator  than  it  would  to  care  for  the  twenty-five  or  thirty 
sitting  hens  that  would  be  required  to  hatch  the  same  number 
of  eggs  the  natural  way ;  and  the  cost  of  running  the  incubator 
is  more  than  balanced  by  the  cost  of  food  necessary  for  the  num- 
ber of  hens  that  would  be  required  to  do  the  same  amount  of 
work.  I  would  also  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  incubator 
chicks  are  always  free  from  lice  to  begin  with,  and  incubators 
do  n't  trample  the  life  out  of  chicks  before  they  get  fairly  out 
of  the  shell. 

Incubator  chicks  that  break  the  shell  promptly  on  the  twen- 
tieth, twenty-first,  or  even  the  twenty-second  day  (they  will  be 
out  on  time  if  the  temperature  has  been  kept  right),  are  just  as 
strong  and  healthy  in  every  way,  and — if  properly  cared  for 


1086          THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

after  hatching — no  more  liable  to  die  off  "  sudden  like,"  with- 
out any  apparent  cause  than  those  hatched  in  the  natural  way. 

Farmers  who  do  not  care  to  raise  more  than  two  or  three 
hundred  early  chicks  each  season  will  not,  generally  speaking, 
unless  they  keep  non-sitters  exclusively,  find  incubators  profit- 
able ;  but  those  who  desire  to  raise  anywhere  from  three  hun- 
dred to  a  thousand  or  more  early  chicks  must,  if  they  would 
get  their  chicks  out  early  enough  to  command  the  best  prices, 
use  incubators. 

Care  of  Young  Chicks. — When  the  mother  hen  is  quiet 
do  not  meddle  at  all  while  the  chicks  are  coming  out;  but  if 
she  be  restless  and  inclined  to  tramp  around  in  the  nest,  remove 
the  chicks  as  soon  as  dry,  and  keep  in  a  warm  place  in  the 
house  until  all  are  out;  then  place  hen  and  chicks  in  the  coop, 
which  should  be  prepared  beforehand  for  their  reception.  In 
cold  weather  these  coops  must  be  placed  in  a  building  or  room 
that  can  be  warmed  artificially  when  necessary,  and  in  order  to 
economize  space  as  much  as  possible  each  hen  should  be  given 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  chicks. 

Do  not  feed  the  chicks  until  they  are  from  sixteen  to  twenty- 
four  hours  old.  The  yolk-sac,  which  is  absorbed  by  the  chick 
the  last  thing  before  it  leaves  the  shell,  is  sufficient  in  the  way 
of  food  until  the  chick  is  strong  on  its  feet.  The  best  food  that 
chicks  can  have  at  first  is  undoubtedly  the  yolks  of  hard  boiled 
eggs  crumbled  and  mixed  with  stale  bread  crumbs  that  have 
been  just  moistened  with  milk.  If  eggs  for  chicken  feed  are 
scarce,  use  curds  made  by  warming  a  pan  of  thick  sour  milk, 
and  then  draining  off  the  whey.  Cooked  oat-meal  and  rice  are 
also  among  the  best  kinds  of  food  for  young  chicks,  and  should 
be  added  to  the  bill  of  fare  after  the  first  two  or  three  days. 
The  kinds  of  food  mentioned  are  rather  expensive  for  chicken 
feed,  but  as  young  chicks  require  but  little  at  a  time  for  the 
first  week,  they  may  be  fed  on  such  food  for  a  week  or  so  at 
very  little  expense.  It  pays  to  give  chicks  a  good  start,  for 
those  that  are  stunted  to  begin  with  will  never  make  as  nice 
broilers  or  be  so  good  for  any  purpose  as  those  that  are  fed 
generously  from  the  start. 


POULTRY.  1087 

When  two  weeks  old  commence  feeding  cooked  corn-meal, 
and  cooked  potatoes  mixed  with  shorts.  An  excellent  way  to 
cook  corn-meal  for  chicks  is  to  wet  it  up  with  water  or  skim- 
milk,  add  a  pinch  of  salt  and  soda,  and  bake  an  hour  or  more, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  loaf.  Do  not  soak  this  corn-bread 
before  feeding — except,  perhaps,  the  outer  crust — but  just  crum- 
ble up  and  feed  as  you  would  cracked  corn  or  any  other 
dry  food. 

When  the  boiled  eggs  and  curds  are  dropped  from  the  fare, 
feed  a  little  meat  each  day.  Boil  the  meat,  chop  fine  and  mix 
with  the  soft  food.  Bear  in  mind  that  a  little  meat  goes  a  good 
way — a  table-spoonful  being  sufficient  to  mix  with  a  pint  of  feed. 
As  soon  as  the  chicks  are  old  enough  to  swallow  the  grains, 
the  last  meal  at  night  should  be  cracked  corn,  wheat,  wheat 
screenings,  and  millet.  All  soft  food  should  be  seasoned  slightly 
with  salt,  and  occasionally  a  dash  of  pepper  may  be  used. 
Twice  a  week  powdered  charcoal  and  ground  bone — a  table- 
spoonful  of  each  to  every  pint  of  feed — may  be  given. 

After  the  first  few  days  give  milk,  sweet  or  sour,  to  drink. 
Other  things  being  equal,  the  chicks  that  are  fed  on  milk  will 
grow  right  away  from  those  that  are  deprived  of  it. 

Chicks  that  are  hatched  in  late  winter  or  early  spring,  be- 
fore the  grass  makes  its  appearance,  must,  after  the  first  few 
days,  have  a  daily  supply  of  tender,  green  food.  Lettuce, 
grass,  and  oats  can  be  raised  in  shallow  trays  or  boxes  hung 
around  the  room  where  the  chicks  are  kept,  and  clipped  when  a 
few  inches  high.  Raw  cabbage,  sweet  apples,  onions,  etc.,  may 
be  chopped  fine,  and  will  be  greatly  relished  by  the  chicks. 
Onions  should  not  be  fed  within  a  week  of  killing.  A  supply 
of  gravel  must  also  be  kept  where  the  chicks  can  help  them- 
selves at  all  times.  Lack  of  gravel  is  a  fruitful  source  of  indi- 
gestion among  young  chicks  that  are  raised  entirely  within  doors. 

Feed  often — nearly  every  two  hours  between  daylight  and 
dark  for  the  first  four  weeks ;  after  that  time  five  times  a  day 
up  to  within  twenty-four  hours  of  killing  for  market.  Some 
poultry  raisers  who  raise  large  numbers  of  early  chicks,  make  a 
practice  of  going  around  with  a  lantern  and  feeding  as  late  as 


1088  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

between  eight  and  nine  in  the  evening.  I  think  it  pays,  for  in 
raising  broilers  the  object  is  to  get  a  given  weight  in  the  short- 
est possible  time,  and  every  thing  that  tends  to  that  end  should 
be  done.  Feed  all  the  chicks  will  eat  up  clean  each  time,  but 
no  more.  Never  leave  food  around  to  be  wasted,  and  never  feed 
sour  food  or  sloppy  food.  All  food  must  be  fresh  and  sweet, 
and  soft  food  should  only  be  moist  enough  to  stick  together. 

The  foregoing  directions  for  the  care  and  food  of  young 
chicks  are  intended  more  especially  for  those  who  only  desire 
to  hatch  and  raise  a  limited  number  of  early  chicks  with  hen 
mothers,  and  who  have  only  the  convenience  of  an  ordinarily 
comfortable,  well-lighted  poultry-house  that  can  be  warmed  by 
means  of  a  common,  air-tight,  wood  stove,  or  by  a  home-made 
brick  stove ;  but  they  will  answer  equally  well  for  the  manage- 
ment of  the  later  hatched  chicks  that  are  intended  for  the  fall 
and  winter  market,  and  for  breeding  stock  for  the  next  season — 
except  that,  of  course,  the  later  hatched  chick  should  have  free 
range  as  soon  as  possible,  when  they  will  pick  up  their  own 
green  food  and  gravel,  and  obtain  their  own  supply  of  meat  in 
the  shape  of  insects,  etc.  When  allowed  free  range  chicks  will, 
after  they  are  two  or  three  months  old,  thrive  on  three  meals  a 
day  until  the  time  comes  to  fatten  for  the  fall  market. 

After  the  chicks  have  been  weaned  they  should  be  colonized 
and  taught  to  roost  in  sheds  like  the  one  illustrated  by  Fig.  14. 
If  very  young  when  weaned  they  may  be  left  in  the  nursing 
coops  a  few  weeks  longer. 

How  to  Raise  Incubator  Chicks. — When  one  proposes 
to  hatch  and  raise  any  considerable  number  of  early  chicks, 
wholly  by  artificial  means,  there  will  be  needed — besides  the 
incubator — artificial  mothers  or  brooders,  and  a  comfortable, 
roomy,  well-lighted,  well-warmed  poultry-house.  The  first  ex- 
pense will  necessarily  be  comparatively  large,  but  after  every 
thing  is  once  in  running  order  the  annual  outlay  will  be  but 
trifling,  while  the  business,  if  properly  managed,  will  pay  a  large 
profit  above  all  expenses,  including  interest  on  capital  invested. 

The  best  way  to  heat  a  poultry-house,  where  a  large  number 
of  chicks  are  to  be  raised,  is  by  means  of  a  green-house  boiler 


POULTRY.  1089 

and  hot-water  pipes.  A  boiler,  pipes,  etc.,  that  will  heat  almost 
any  poultry-house  will  cost,  when  set  up  ready  for  use,  from 
seventy-five  to  one  hundred  dollars. 

Artificial  mothers  are  made  of  different  sizes,  and  there  are 
several  different  makes  to  choose  from.  The  manufacturers  of 
nearly  all  the  standard  incubators  also  manufacture  or  furnish 
plans  for  artificial  mothers.  When  the  chicken  home  is  heated 
by  hot-water  pipes  brooders  can  be  made  under  the  pipes  at  a 
trifling  cost.  "  The  essentials  in  an  artificial  brooder  are  :  First, 
a  provision  for  furnishing  the  proper  heat  above  the  chickens; 
second,  a  good  method  of  ventilation ;  third,  a  perfect  freedom 
from  harboring  places  for  vermin,  and  a  simple  arrangement  by 
which  the  fleece  or  woolen  lining  may  be  readily  removed  and 
cleaned  at  any  time."  The  shape  of  an  artificial  mother  should 
be  such  that  the  chicks  can  not  be  crowded  into  corners  and 
stifled.  Avoid  brooders  with  bottom  heat.  When  the  incubator 
chicks  are  hatching  they  should  be  taken  from  the  tray  soon  after 
they  are  dry,  and  kept  in  a  box  or  basket  in  a  warm  place  for  a 
few  hours,  when  they  may  be  placed  under  the  artificial  mothers. 

Avoid  overheating  the  brooders.  Too  much  heat  will  cause 
the  chicks  to  "wilt"  and  die  off  like  newly-set  cabbage  plants 
under  the  hot  sun.  The  body  heat  of  the  mother  hen  is  ninety- 
eight  degrees,  and  the  temperature  of  the  brooder,  when  the 
chicks  are  under  it,  should  not  go  above  that  point. 

Avoid  crowding  either  in  the  house  or  under  the  brooders. 
Not  more  than  fifty  chicks  should  be  put  in  one  brood,  and 
when  three  weeks  old  the  number  should  be  reduced  to  twenty- 
five.  Separate  the  different  broods  by  partitions  of  wire  netting. 
The  amount  of  floor-room  required  for  a  brood  of  fifty  for  the 
first  three  weeks  will  be  about  thirty-six  square  inches  for  each 
chick,  or  something  like  twelve  or  thirteen  square  feet  for  each 
brood.  When  three  weeks  old  more  space  will  be  required,  and 
only  twenty-five  chicks  should  be  in  each  one  of  these  small 
pens  for  the  next  three  weeks.  When  six  weeks  old,  move 
them  to  still  larger  pens,  where  each  chick  will  have  an  allow- 
ance of  at  least  one  square  foot  of  floor-room.  In  these  pens 
they  may  be  kept  until  sent  to  market.  A  little  figuring 

69 


1090 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


upon  the  above  allowance  of  floor-room  will  enable  any  one  to 
determine  the  size  of  a  building  required  to  accommodate  any 
given  number  of  chicks  until  they  reach  a  marketable  age,  re- 
membering that  if  one  proposes  to  hatch,  say  two  hundred  and 
fifty  chicks,  every  three  weeks,  space  must  be  allowed  for  some 
seven  hundred  and  fifty  chicks  in  the  building  at  one  time,  for 
the  first  lot  will  not  be  ready  for  market  until  after  the  third 
lot  comes  out. 

The  runs  and  the  bottoms  of  the  brooders  must  be  covered 
with  dry  earth,  sand,  or  gravel,  which  must  be  renewed  often 
enough  to  keep  clean;  and  every  thing  about  the  chicken-house 
must  be  kept  clean.  Neglect  in  this  respect  will  cause  the  chicks 
to  die  off  at  an  alarming  rate. 

Incubator  chicks  raised  with  artificial  mothers  require  the 
same  kind  and  quantity  of  food,  drink,  etc.,  as  early  chicks  that 
are  raised  with  hen  mothers.  As  soon  as  the  weather  is  warm 
enough,  and  sitting  hens  are  plenty,  incubator-hatched  chickens 
may  be  raised  out  of  doors  with  hen  mothers.  Fill  the  incuba- 
tor with  eggs  and  set  a  number  of  hens  at  the  same  time ;  when 
the  chicks  hatch  those  from  the  incubator  can  be  divided  among 
the  hens — eighteen  or  twenty  chicks  to  each  hen. 

Coops  and  Runs  for  Young  Chicks. — Fig.  19  shows  the 
style  of  coop  that  the  writer  has  in  use  on  her  poultry  farm, 

and  it  comes  about  as  near 
perfection  as  any  coop  that 
we  ever  tried;  at  least  we 
\  never  heard  the  hens  or 
chicks  say  a  word  against 
it.  The  upper  half  of  the 
front  is  of  wire  netting 
which  admits  air  and  light, 
while  the  projecting  roof 
no.  19.-MODEL  CHICKEN-COOP.  keeps  out  sun  and  rain. 

The  lower  half  is  made  with  perpendicular  slats,  and  a  door 
which  turns  up  on  hinges  and  fastens  with  a  wooden  button, 
making  all  snug  and  tight.  When  down  this  door  makes 
an  excellent  place  to  feed  the  chicks.  In  one  end  there  is  a 


POULTRY.. 


1091 


Fia.  20.— BARKEI/-COOP. 


small  door  for  the  hen,  and  when  the  coop  is  made  with  a  floor 
the  door  will  be  necessary  to  enable  one  to  clean  the  coop. 
Make  the  coop  high  enough  so  that  the  hen  can  stand  up- 
right without  bumping  her  head 
against  the  roof,  and  large  enough 
so  that  she  can  turn  around  with- 
out going  out  of  doors. 

Fig.  20  is  an  illustration  of  a 
chicken-coop  that  any  man  or 
boy  can  make  from  a  barrel,  and  a  very  good  coop  it  is,  too. 
Here  are  the  directions  for  making :  "  Take  an  old  barrel  and 
tack  every  hoop  on  each  side  of  a  seam  between  the  staves  with 
an  inch,  wrought  nail;  after  clinching  the  nails  saw  the  hoops 
off  on  the  seam.  Then  spread  the  barrel  open,  as  shown  in  the 
illustration,  by  cutting  a  board  about  twenty  inches  long  and 

fitting  to  the  back  end,  and  two 
small  pieces  to  tack  laths  on  for 
the  front.  Fasten  the  upper 
part  of  the  buck  with  leather 
hinges  so  that  it  can  be  opened 
at  pleasure." 

Fig.    21    represents    a    very 
FIG.  2i.-siMPLE  CHICKEN  COOP.          sensible  coop  that  any  body  can 
make   from  the   illustration.     Fig.  22   shows  a  coop  with  door 
and  floor,  and  is  a  good  coop  where  rats  are  troublesome. 

It  is  often  necessary  to 
confine  the  chicks  as  well 
as  the  hens;  in  that  case 
safety  coops  and  runs  like 
those  illustrated  by  Figs. 
23,  24,  and  25  will  fill  the 
bill.  The  runs  may  be 
covered  with  the  wire 
netting  or  plastering  lath,  "" 

but  we  prefer  the  netting,  and  use  such  runs  in  connection  with 
the  coop  shown  by  Fig.  19. 

In  some  localities  the  chicken  or  pigeon  hawks  are  so  numer- 


1092 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


FIG.  23.— SAFETY-COOP. 


ous  and  troublesome  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  raise  chicks 

without  the  aid  of  these  safety  runs.     Coops  without  floors  are 

much  the  best  for  both  hen  and  chicks,  but  when  on  account  of 

the  dampness  of  the  ground,  or 
because  rats  are  troublesome,  a 
floor  is  necessary,  it  should  be 
covered  with  dry  sand  or  gravel, 
which  should  be  renewred  every 
few  days.  When  the  coops  have 
no  floor  they  should  be  moved 

to  a  fresh  spot  of  ground  twice  or  three  times  a  week. 

Coops  and  runs  must  be  kept  clean,  dry,  and  free  from  lice. 

When  a  coop  has   once  been  used  it  should  be  whitewashed, 

or   else   thoroughly 

scrubbed    with    an 

old  broom  and  hot 

suds,  and  when  dry 

treated    to    a    dose 

of    coal    oil    before 

another   family    oc- 


FlG.  24.— COOP   \V1TU    WlKK   llUN. 


cupies    it.     When 

through  with  the  coops  for  the  season,  carefully  clean  them  and 

put  them  under  cover. 


FIG.  25.— COOP  WITH  LATH  RUN. 


Feeding-pens. — When  chicks  run  at  large  among  older 
fowls  it  is  desirable  that  they  have  a  feeding  place  where  they 
can  eat  without  being  robbed  and  driven  away  by  the  old  fowls. 
For  this  purpose  feeding-pens,  Something  like  the  one  shown  by 
Fig.  26,  will  be  very  convenient.  The  directions  for  making  are 


POULTRY. 


1093 


FIG.  26.— FKEDINCJ-PKN 


as  follows :  "  Get  out  fourteen  strips  one-inch  thick,  two  inches 
wide,  and  six  feet  long ;  upon  the  edges  of  these  strips  nail 
plastering  lath  cut  to  half  lengths 
(two  feet),  so  as  to  make  seven 
hurdles,  each  two  feet  wide  by 
six  feet  long,  nailing  the  lath 
two  inches  apart.  Set  four  of 
these  hurdles  together  so  as  to 
form  a  square  pen,  nailing  them 
together  at  the  corners,  and  cover 
with  the  remaining  hurdles.  This  makes  a  pen  where  the  little 
chicks  can  be  fed,  and  they  will  soon  learn  to  run  to  it  when  called." 
When,  Where,  and  How  to  Market  Spring  Chick- 
ens.— Commence  sending  to  market  as  soon  as  they  are  well 
feathered  and  will  weigh  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  pounds, 
each,  live  weight.  Sell  where  you  can  get  the  best  prices,  and 
you  must  find  that  place  by  watching  the  market  reports  of  the 
places  within  your  reach.  If  on  a  line  of  railroad,  within  rea- 
sonable distance  of  a  city,  try  that  market.  A  "  reasonable  dis. 
tance  "  is  one  that  is  not  so  great  that  the  cost  of  transportation 
will  eat  up  all  the  profits.  If  near  a  large  village  where  there 
is  a  demand  for  spring  chickens,  take  a  load  and  sell  from  house 
to  house.  We  know  one  farmer  who  lives  near  a  large  manu- 
facturing village  who  has  built  up  quite  a  business  in  this  man- 
ner. The  first  load  was  hard  to  get  rid  of,  but  he  kept  on  going 
regularly,  always  selling  good  poultry,  until  at  last  he  secured 
as  many  regular  customers  as  he  could  supply.  Village  custom- 
ers usually  call  for  greater  weight  than  city  markets  demand, 
and,  of  course,  do  not  often  pay  New  York  prices;  but  still,  at 
the  prices  obtained,  there  is  a  large  margin  for  profit,  and  it 
sometimes  happens  that  the  poultry  raiser  can  obtain  better 
prices  in  a  densely  populated  manufacturing  or  mining  district 
than  he  could  in  any  city  market  within  his  reach.  In  Western 
markets  spring  chickens  are  usually  sold  by  the  pair  or  dozen 
alive ;  in  the  East  they  are  usually  sold  by  weight,  either  alive 
or  dressed,  but  the  dressed  are  preferred,  and  bring  much  the 
best  prices. 


1094          THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

For  shipping  live  chicks  the  coops  should  be  light,  strong, 
durable,  and  large  enough  so  that  the  occupants  can  stand  or 
sit  without  too  much  crowding.  Folding  coops  are  the  best, 
because  they  occupy  the  least  space  when  returned  empty.  A 
coop  holding  four  dozen  is  a  very  convenient  size,  but  do  not 
crowd  the  four  dozen  all  in  together;  it  is  better  to  divide  the 
coop  into  two  or  four  compartments.  The  bottom  of  the  coop 
should  be  covered  with  dry  sand.  Have  all  the  chickens  in  a 
coop  as  nearly  of  one  size  as  possible.  Do  not  put  in  a  few  in- 
ferior ones  to  "  make  out  a  dozen,"  thinking  that  the  good 
chickens  will  sell  the  poorer  ones ;  two  or  three  undersized 
chickens  in  a  dozen  will  often  injure  the  sale  of  the  whole  lot. 
When  the  chicks  are  to  be  several  hours  on  the  road,  feed  and 
water  the  last  thing  before  starting. 

Fall  and  Winter  Chickens. — Chicks  that  are  hatched 
late  in  the  fall  and  in  early  winter  can,  as  soon  as  they  will 
weigh  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  pounds  each,  dressed,  be  sold 
in  New  York  and  other  large  cities  for  winter  broilers.  They 
do  not  bring  as  high  prices  as  spring  broilers,  but  still  the  mar- 
gin for  profit  is  large  enough  to  induce  poultry  raisers  who  can 
reach  the  large  cities  to  engage  in  the  business.  Late  in  the 
winter  and  in  early  spring  when  these  late  fall  chicks  will  dress 
from  three  to  four  pounds  each,  they  are  sold  for  roasters  at 
prices  considerable  above  those  obtained  for  ordinary  poultry. 

Capons.  —  Caponizing  or  castrating  young  cockerels  has 
been  practiced  in  different  countries  for  many  centuries.  The 
object  is  to  increase  the  weight  of  the  fowl  and  improve  the 
quality  of  the  flesh.  Cockerels  that  have  been  caponized  will 
at  maturity  weigh  fully  one-third  more  than  the  ordinary  male 
fowl  of  the  same  age  and  breed ;  the  flesh  is  finer  grained,  ten- 
derer, and  more  juicy,  and  they  will  bring  prices  from  thirty  to 
fifty  per  cent  higher  than  common  poultry. 

Caponizing  is  not,  as  many  seem  to  think,  a  difficult  opera- 
tion ;  any  grown  person  of  ordinary  intelligence  can  soon  learn 
to  caponize  quickly  and  successfully.  The  following  directions, 
originally  published  in  the  Prairie  Farmer,  are  plain  enough  for 
any  body  :  "  In  the  first  place,  examine  carefully  the  fowls  that 


POULTRY.  1095 

you  kill  for  the  table,  so  that  you  may  be  able  to  tell  the  exact 
position  of  the  organs  to  be  removed.  You  will  find  them  in 
the  abdominal  cavity  attached  to  the  back,  one  on  each  side  of 
the  spine;  they  are  light  colored  and  shaped  something  like  a 
Lima  bean.  The  size  varies  with  the  age  and  breed. 

"Next,  kill  some  young  cockerels  and  practice  on  them  until 
you  are  sure  that  you  can  perform  the  operation  quickly  and  suc- 
cessfully ;  then  you  may  try  your  hand  on  the  living  chickens. 
Select  young  cockerels  that  are  fully  three  months  and  not  over 
four  months  old,  but  some  who  caponize  operate  successfully 
upon  cockerels  that  are  five  or  six  months  old.  Keep  them 
from  food  for  twenty-four  hours  previous  to  the  operation ;  if 
the  intestines  are  full  the  operation  will  be  more  difficult.  Draw 
the  wings  gently  backward  and  secure  by  a  broad  strip  of  soft 
cloth,  lay  the  fowl  on  the  left  side,  draw  the  legs  backward  and 
secure  by  another  strip  of  cloth.  From  the  spot  near  the  hip 
joint,  and  between  the  last  two  ribs,  pick  off  the  feathers  for 
the  space  of  an  inch  square.  With  a  small,  sharp  knife  make 
a  cut  an  inch  and  a  half  long  through  the  skin,  then  another 
through  the  flesh  between  the  ribs,  and  lastly  through  the  thin 
membrane  that  lines  the  abdominal  cavity — taking  care  in  the 
last  cut  not  to  injure  the  intestines,  and  see  that  you  make  a 
clean  cut  every  time.  Now  introduce  the  fore-finger,  which 
should  be  well  oiled,  find  the  testicles,  scratch  them  off  with  the 
finger  nail,  and  bring  them  out  with  the  finger.  If  you  have 
practiced  enough  on  the  dead  chickens  you  can  do  this  quickly 
and  readily ;  and  if  you  have  not  practiced  enough  on  the  dead 
fowls  you  have  no  business  to  attempt  the  operation  on  the  liv- 
ing ones.  This  part  of  the  operation  over,  bring  the  edges  of 
the  cut  together,  take  two  or  three  stitches,  and  press  the  feathers 
that  were  removed  upon  the  cut  to  absorb  the  blood  and  cover 
the  wound.  Feed  sparingly  for  a  few  days.  Of  course  some 
of  the  chickens  will  die,  but  unless  you  bungle  your  work  the 
loss  will  be  trifling. 

"  Instead  of  performing  the  chief  part  of  the  operation  with 
the  finger,  as  I  have  directed,  some  use  the  caponizing  instru- 
ments that  are  made  especially  for  the  purpose ;  but  I  can  do 


1096  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

just  as  well,  if  not  better,  with  no  instruments  except  a  sharp 
knife,  my  finger-nail,  a  needle  and  some  white  sewing  silk.  For 
greater  convenience  the  needle  should  be  a  curved  one."  A  set 
of  caponizing  instruments  consists  of  a  pointed  hook,  a  steel 
splint  with  a  broad  flat  hook  at  each  end,  a  pair  of  tweezers, 
and  a  pair  of  crooked  concave  forceps.  Full  directions  for  using 
accompany  each  set.  Outside  our  largest  cities  there  is  at  pres- 
ent no  market  for  capons,  but  as  the  fine  quality  of  this  class  of 
poultry  becomes  more  generally  known  the  demand  will  doubt- 
less increase. 

Turkeys. — Most  farmers  who  undertake  to  raise  a  brood  or 
so  of  turkeys  do  so  with  a  feeling  of  uncertainty  as  to  the  ul- 
timate result.  Still  it  is  not  a  difficult  matter  to  raise  turkeys, 
provided  one  knows  how ;  and  turkey  raising  is  certainly  a  very 
profitable  branch  of  the  poultry  business.  I  have  never  seen 
the  time  when  good,  fat  turkeys  would  not  bring  remunerative 
prices. 

The  first  step  to  be  taken  towards  success  in  turkey  raising 
is  to  secure  good  breeding  stock.  The  parent  birds  must  be 
strong,  healthy,  of  good  size,  and  mature  specimens.  No  greater 
mistake  could  be  made  than  that  of  buying  inferior  breeding 
stock  just  because  it  can  be  obtained  for  less  than  the  price 
asked  for  good,  mature  birds.  When  possible  to  avoid  it,  do  not 
breed  from  a  yearling  gobbler ;  but  when  no  other  can  be  ob- 
tained, select  one  of  the  earliest  and  largest  of  last  season's 
hatch.  Hens  that  are  two  years'  old  and  over  are  better  for 
breeders  than  those  that  are  younger. 

In  regard  to  the  "best  breed" — for  that  question  is  sure  to 
come  up  as  soon  as  one  mentions  chickens,  ducks,  geese,  or  tur- 
keys— there  is  really  not  much  choice,  except  in  size.  The 
standard  recognizes  six  different  breeds — Bronze,  White,  Black, 
Buff,  Slate,  and  Narraganset;  and  then  there  is  the  old-fash- 
ioned mongrel  variety,  which  is  n't  such  a  bad  variety,  after 
all ;  but  on  account  of  the  inferior  size  of  the  mongrels  they 
are  not  so  profitable  to  raise  for  market  as  some  of  the  larger 
breeds. 

Bronze  turkeys  are  the  largest  and  handsomest  of  the  whole 


POULTRY. 


1097 


turkey  tribe.  The  illustration  on  this  page  is  intended  to  rep- 
resent a  Bronze  turkey  cock,  but  no  cut  can  do  justice  to  their 
beauty.  The  main  color  of  the  plumage  is,  as  the  name  indi- 


BRONZE  TURKEY. 

cates,  bronze — dark  in  the  shade,  but  when  viewed  in  the  sun- 
light each  feather  glistens  like  burnished  gold.  On  account  of 
their  great  size  Bronze  turkeys  are  great  favorites  with  those 
who  raise  turkeys  for  market;  well-grown  males  of  this  breed 
will  weigh  from  eighteen  to  twenty-two  pounds,  alive,  at  six 
months,  and  the  females  from  ten  to  fourteen  pounds  at  the 
same  age.  Mature  gobblers  will  weigh  from  thirty  to  forty 
pounds ;  hens  from  eighteen  to  twenty-two  pounds.  They  do 
not  reach  maturity  until  the  third  year. 


1098 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


The  White  Holland  ranks  next  to  the  Bronze  in  size,  and  is 
an  excellent  variety  to  raise  for  market.  It  is  rapidly  growing 
in  favor  with  market  poultry  raisers.  Our  cut  on  this  'page 
shows  a  cock  of  this  breed. 

The  Narragansetts  are  very  popular  among  the  farmers  of 
southern  New  England,  where  great  numbers  are  annually  raised 
for  market.  Their  plumage  is  a  rich  metallic  black,  each  feather 
ending  in  a  broad,  light  steel-gray  band  edged  with  black. 

The  other  varieties  are  all  good,  but  not  so  large  as  the  three 


WHITE  HOLLAND  TURKEY. 


named.  Farmers  who  have  only  common  stock  can,  by  mating 
the  hens  with  a  gobbler  of  any  of  the  larger  varieties,  produce 
good  market  birds. 


POULTRY.  1099 

The  breeding  stock  secured  and  mated  (one  gobbler  to  every 
ten  or  dozen  hens),  which  should  be  by  the  middle  of  January 
at  latest,  feed  sparingly  from  that  time  until  March.  I  do  n't 
mean  starve  them,  but  only  give  food  enough  to  keep  them  in 
"  good  working  order."  Fat  turkeys  will  not  lay  so  well  as 
those  that  are  thinner  in  flesh.  Give  green  food  and  meat  of 
some  kind  as  often  as  four  times  a  week  after  the  first  of  Feb- 
ruary, and  the  hens  will  commence  laying  quite  as  early  as  it  is 
desirable  to  have  them. 

It  is  natural  for  turkeys  to  hide  their  nests,  and  while  I  be- 
lieve in  humoring  their  whims  in  that  respect,  I  do  not  believe 
that  it  is  necessary  to  allow  them  to  wander  a  mile  from  the 
farm  buildings  and  deposit  their  eggs  where  no  living  thing — 
except,  perhaps,  crows  and  foxes — can  find  them.  Long  expe- 
rience with  turkeys  has  convinced  me  that  it  is  possible  to  in- 
duce them  to  lay  pretty  much  where  one  wants  them  to.  By 
much  petting  of  our  turkeys,  and  by  never  allowing  them  to  be 
frightened  and  driven  about  by  either  man  or  beast,  we  have 
made  them  so  tame  that  they  will  generally  go  into  the  hen- 
house and  lay  in  nests  like  any  other  sensible  biddies  ;  but  all 
this  takes  time  and  patience,  and  the  average  poultry  raiser  had 
better  fix  up  nests  in  secluded  places,  not  too  near  or  too  far 
from  the  farm  buildings.  Do  n't  make  "  nice  "  nests  ;  turkeys 
have  a  prejudice  against  "nice"  nests  that  are  prepared  espe- 
cially for  them.  An  old  barrel  turned  on  its  side  in  some  se- 
cluded fence-corner  and  partly  covered  with  brush,  brush  thrown 
carelessly  around  an  old  stump,  and  other  such  arrangements, 
suit  turkeys;  and  also  delude  them  into  the  belief  that  they  are 
hiding  their  nests. 

If  the  eggs  are  not  allowed  to  accumulate  in  the  nest  the 
turkey  will  lay  from  thirty  to  forty  eggs  before  offering  to  sit. 
The  eggs  first  laid  should  be  set  under  hens.  When  the  turkey 
has  laid  from  fifteen  to  twenty  eggs,  and  the  danger  of  chilly 
nights  is  past,  the  eggs  may  be  left  in  the  nest  as  laid,  and  when 
the  turkey  gets  ready  she  will  go  to  work  and  hatch  every  one 
of  them.  If  she  concludes  to  sit  before  she  has  a  nest  full  of 
eggs,  fill  it  up  with  some  of  those  that  you  have  taken  from  her. 


1100  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

A  good  sized  turkey  will  cover  twenty  eggs.  It  is  a  good  plan 
to  raise  a  few  chickens  with  each  brood,  for  when  chickens  and 
turkeys  are  raised  together  the  turkeys  are  less  inclined  to 
wander  when  young,  are  tamer,  and  when  weaned  will  learn  to 
come  home  at  night  with  their  foster  brothers  and  sisters.  And 
besides,  when  turkeys  and  chickens  are  raised  together  the  grown 
turkeys  seldom  fight  chickens. 

Do  n't  set  turkey  eggs  too  early ;  as  a  general  thing  it  is  not 
advisable  to  have  them  hatch  before  the  grass  is  well  started. 
When  the  turkey  hen  sits  in  her  own  nest  out  of  doors,  let  her 
alone.  Some  turkey-raisers  recommend  taking  the  sitting  turkey 
from  her  nest  every  day  for  feed  and  water,  but  we  don't 
believe  in  it.  Turkeys  are  close  sitters,  but  they  are  not  bent 
on  starving  themselves  to  death,  and  if  left  to  act  their  own 
pleasure  they  will  usually  come  off  every  other  day,  and  if  they 
are  reasonably  tame  they  will  come  around  the  buildings  for 
food.  When  possible  set  two  or  three  turkeys  at  one  time; 
then,  when  they  hatch,  give  all  the  young  to  one  hen  and  the 
others  will  lay  again.  These  late  hatched  turkeys  will  make 
fine  birds  for  the  late  winter  market. 

When  the  turkey  eggs  are  set  under  hens  follow  the  same 
directions  that  have  already  been  given  for  preparing  nests  for 
sitting  hens.  Unless  the  nest  is  on  the  ground,  the  sprinkling 
of  the  eggs  during  the  last  three  weeks  of  incubation  must  be 
carefully  attended  to. 

When  the  young  turkeys  are  first  hatched  let  them  severely 
&lone  for  the  first  twenty-four  hours ;  they  do  not  need  food 
before  the  expiration  of  that  time,  and  as  they  are  delicate  at 
first  handling  injures  them ;  in  fact,  a  good  many  are  killed 
outright  by  much  handling  while  they  are  very  young.  When 
they  are  twenty-four  hours  old  the  turkeys  will  be  quite  strong 
on  their  feet,  and  with  the  mother  should  be  removed  to  a  coop 
which  should  be  clean  and  dry  and  have  a  board  floor  covered 
with  sand  or  gravel. 

The  first  food  for  young  turkeys  should  be  the  same  as  for 
young  chickens — hard  boiled  eggs,  curds,  and  stale  bread  crumbs 
moistened  with  milk,  and  for  the  first  two  weeks  feed  nothing 


POULTRY.  HOI 

else.  The  third  week  commence  feeding  cooked  corn  meal.  Do 
not  give  a  full  feed  of  rneal  at  first,  but  add  a  little  more  each 
day  until  at  four  or  five  weeks  they  may  be  fed  entirely  on 
corn-meal,  cooked  potatoes,  and  about  any  cooked  food  that  one 
would  give  to  chickens  of  the  same  age.  A  very  little  cooked 
meat  may  be  mixed  with  the  food  once  each  day  until  they  are 
big  enough  to  forage  for  fresh  meat;  but  when  plenty  of  sour 
milk  can  be  had  the  meat  is  not  necessary.  Onion  tops  and 
lettuce  chopped  fine  and  mixed  with  the  food  is  greatly  relished 
by  young  turkeys,  and  is  very  beneficial  during  the  first  few 
weeks.  Never  feed  any  raw  meal  to  young  turkeys;  it  should 
always  be  cooked  for  the  first  ten  or  twelve  weeks.  Feeding 
young  turkeys  raw  meal,  feeding  meal  too  soon,  and  feeding 
grain  before  they  are  able  to  digest  it  will  kill  about  one-half 
of  the  number  hatched. 

Feed  young  turkeys  often,  five  or  six  times  a  day,  until  they 
are  three  months  old.  If  you  expect  fine  large  birds  for  Thanks- 
giving you  must  keep  them  growing  right  straight  along;  full 
feed  for  the  first  three  months  will  make  a  decided  difference 
in  the  weight  of  the  bird  when  market  day  comes.  When  they 
are  three  months  old  feed  cracked  corn,  wheat,  oats,  wheat 
screenings,  etc.,  but  no  whole  corn  until  cold  weather.  After 
the  third  month  turkeys  will,  if  insect  food  be  abundant,  pick  up 
a  good  deal  of  their  living,  and  as  long  as  the  insects  hold  out 
they  will  thrive  on  two  meals  a  day. 

Young  turkeys  must  be  kept  dry  and  comfortable  during  the 
first  ten  or  twelve  weeks  of  their  lives,  or  until  they  are  fully 
feathered  and  have  thrown  out  the  red  on  their  heads.  Expo- 
sure to  cold  and  wet,  tramping  about  in  the  grass  before  the 
dew  is  off,  and  damp,  filthy  coops  will  thin  out  a  flock  of  young 
turkeys  with  alarming  rapidity.  To  keep  the  young  turkeys  out 
of  the  wet  grass  use  the  safety  coops  and  runs  like  the  one 
illustrated  by  Fig.  23,  or  else  make  a  pen  in  front  of  the  coop 
by  placing  wide  boards  on  edge  and  fastening  in  position.  The 
boards  should  be  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  wide,  and  for  a 
dozen  young  turkeys  the  pen  should  inclose  some  fifteen  square 
feet.  For  a  few  days  after  the  poults  are  hatched,  whether  you 


1102  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

raise  them  with  a  hen  mother  or  a  turkey  mother,  they  must  be 
confined  to  this  coop  and  pen;  then,  if  all  appear  strong  and 
well,  and  the  weather  favorable,  open  the  pen  and  give  the 
young  liberty  after  the  sun  has  completely  dried  the  dew  off 
the  grass. 

Should  a  sudden  shower  come  up  while  your  young  turkeys 
are  out  in  the  field,  you  must  turn  out  and  drive  them  to  the 
coops.  If  any  are  chilled,  take  them  to  the  house,  dry  and 
warm  them  thoroughly,  give  them  a  good  feed  with  plenty  of 
ginger  or  red  pepper  in  it,  and  then  return  to  the  mother  hen. 

A  good  way  to  revive  chilled  turkeys  is  to  dip  them,  all 
except  the  heads,  in  quite  warm  water,  and  hold  them  there 
until  they  show  signs  of  life;  then  wrap  them  up,  and  keep  in 
a  warm  place  in  the  house  until  thoroughly  warm  and  dry. 

See  that  your  turkeys  come  home  every  night.  A  hen 
mother  will  bring  her  brood  home  at  night-fall,  but  for  the  first 
few  nights  the  turkey  mother  must  be  hunted  up  and  driven 
home,  else  she  will  squat  down  wherever  night  happens  to  over- 
take her,  and  get  up  in  the  morning  and  drag  her  brood  around 
through  the  wet  grass  long  before  you  think  of  getting  out  of 
bed.  After  you  have  driven  her  home  a  few  nights  she  will 
probably  come  without  any  urging,  especially  if  you  always  give 
her  a  good  meal  after  she  gets  into  the  pen. 

After  they  are  fully  feathered  and  have  thrown  out  the  red 
on  their  heads,  which  usually  occurs  at  about  three  months, 
young  turkeys  are  quite  hardy,  and  may  be  allowed  unlimited 
range  at  all  times. 

To  fatten  turkeys,  give  them  their  accustomed  range  and 
all  the  cooked  corn-meal  and  potatoes  they  will  eat  up  clean 
twice  a  day,  plenty  of  grain  at  night,  and  milk  to  drink  at  all 
times.  Mix  a  little  pulverized  charcoal  in  the  food  once  a  day. 
Three  weeks  of  this  feeding,  and  your  turkeys  will  be  in  the 
best  possible  condition  for  the  table ;  that  is,  if  they  have  been 
kept  growing  and  in  good  condition  from  the  start.  Remember 
that  no  amount  of  stuffing  for  a  few  weeks,  just  before  killing, 
will  make  a  prime,  extra-large,  table  or  market  bird  out  of  a 
turkey  that  has  been  starved  and  stunted  from  the  beginning. 


POULTRY. 


1103 


Ducks  may  be  profitably  kept  on  any  farm  that  has  a 
pond,  swamp,  or  stream  of  running  water  within  its  limits,  and 
is  within  reach  of  a  city  market;  but  the  farmer  who  has  not 
the  advantage  of  a  city  market  can  hardly  make  it  pay  to  keep 
ducks,  unless  he  wants  the  eggs,  meat,  and  feathers  for  home 
use,  or  can  sell  eggs  for  fancy  prices.  In  large  cities  ducks' 
eggs  will  bring  extra  prices  just  before  Easter;  but  at  country 
stores  "an  egg  is  an  egg,"  and  ducks'  eggs  that  weigh  from 
three  to  three  and  one-half  ounces  each  will  bring  no  more  per 


dozen  than  hens'  eggs  that  weigh  two  ounces  each.  City  deal- 
ers will-  pay  from  twenty-five  to  thirty-five  cents  per  pound  for 
prime  live  duck  feathers,  country  merchants  and  peddlers  about 
one-third  as  much.  Prime  young  ducks  will  command  paying 
prices  in  most  city  markets;  in  remote  country  places  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  sell  them  at  any  price. 

Ducks  can  be  raised  with  only  plenty  of  water  to  drink; 
but,  after  all,  they  are  water  fowls,  and  do  best  when  they  have 
access  to  a  pond  or  stream,  for,  aside  from  the  enjoyment  that 


1104 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


they  doubtless  derive  from  paddling  about  in  the  water,  they 
pick  up  a  great  deal  of  food  about  such  places,  and  it  is  the 
very  kind  of  food  that  suits  them  best. 


ROUEN    DUCKS. 

The  Pekins,  Rouens,  and  Aylesburys  are  the  leading  vari- 
eties of  ducks. 

The  Pekins  (see  illustration,  page  1103)  are  pure  white,  or 
creamy  white,  with  yellow  bills  and  orange-colored  legs  and 
feet.  They  are  easy  to  raise,  hardy,  great  layers  of  large,  pure, 
white  eggs,  and  excellent  market  birds.  Full-grown  Pekins 


POULTRY. 


1105 


will  weigh,  when  fattened  for  market,  from  sixteen  to  twenty 
pounds  a  pair. 

The  Rouens  (see  illustration,  page  1104)  are  marked  almost 
exactly  like  the  wild  Mallards;  in  fact,  they  are  the  wild  Mal- 
lards domesticated  and  improved.  In  size  and  useful  qualities 
they  rank  next  to  the  Pekins. 


AYLESBUBY    DUCKS. 


The  Aylesburys  (see  illustration,  this  page)  do  not  often 
grow  so  large  as  the  Pekins,  but  in  other  respects  they  rank 
about  the  same. 

Concerning  the  Black  Cayugas  (see  illustration,  page  1106), 
a  variety  not  so  well  known  as  those  already  mentioned,  the 
"  Complete  Poultry  Book  "  has  the  following  : 

"  This  fine  breed  is  American,  and  is  supposed  to  have  orig- 
inated in  the  neighborhood  of  Cayuga  Lake,  New  York,  by  a 
cross  between  the  wild  black,  or  Buenos  Ayres  duck,  and  the 
wild  Mallard.  The  markings  of  the  Cayuga  duck  are  black 
throughout,  except  a  narrow  white  collar  around  the  neck,  and 
white  flecks  on  the  breast,  which  latter  tend  to  increase  with 
age,  and  are  avoided  by  breeders  as  much  as  possible.  Both 

ducks  and  drakes  show  a  greenish  tinge  about  the  head. 

70 


1106 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


"  The  Cayugas  are  very  hardy  ;  nearly  as  large  as  the  Rouens, 
good  layers  and  easily  fattened.  They  are  very  quiet  in  their 
habits,  and  a  fence  a  foot  high  will  turn  them.  They  are  good 
sitters  but  careless  mothers,  hens  being  for  these  as  for  other 
ducklings,  the  best  mothers." 


BLACK  CAYUGA  DUOK8. 

There  are  two  varieties  of  Muscovy  ducks — the  White  and  the 
Colored.  The  Colored  (see  illustration,  page  1107,)  are  Black 
mixed  with  white.  Young  Muscovy  ducks  are  excellent  table 
birds,  out  their  flesh  is  not  so  desirable  as  they  grow  older. 
Drakes  of  this  variety  are  quarrelsome,  and  can  not  be  kept 
with  chickens  and  turkeys.  Muscovies  are  great  flyers,  and 


POULTRY. 


1107 


can  not  be  fenced  in  like  the  Pekins,  Rouens,  and  Cayugas. 
Muscovy  drakes  weigh  from  ten  to  eleven  pounds ;  ducks  from 
five  to  seven. 


COLORED  MUSCOVY  DRAKE. 

A  flock  of  ducks  around  the  door-yard  or  the  barn-yard  is 
an  unmitigated  nuisance,  and  for  that  reason  a  piece  of  land 
around  the  stream  or  pond 
should  be  set  apart  for  their 
use,  and  they  should  be  con- 
fined to  its  limits.  Where 
the  fence  crosses  a  stream, 
put  in  water  gates.  It  is  said 
that  ducks  will  endure  the 
severe  weather  of  our  coldest 
winters  without  shelter,  but 
it  certainly  is  not  good  econ- 
omy to  keep  them  that  way, 
and  the  fact  that  they  always 
seek  shelter  during  driving 
storms  of  sleet  and  snow 
and  in  extreme  cold  weather  COLORED  MUSCOVY  DUCK. 

convinces  me  that  they  need  it.     Upon  our  farm  there  is  a  long, 
low  building  a  few  rods  from  the  water,  and  I  find  that  in  winter 


1108  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

and  during  the  cold  rains  of  early  spring  and  late  fall  the  ducks 
spend  a  good  deal  of  the  time  there.  This  building  or  shed  is  but 
five  feet  high  in  front,  and  slopes  down  to  within  a  foot  of  the 
ground  at  the  back.  It  was  built  of  refuse  lumber ;  has  a  board 
roof;  three  windows,  each  containing  six  panes  of  seven  by  nine 
glass  in  the  south  side  ;  no  floor,  but  every  fall  a  few  loads  of  dry 
gravel  are  put  in,  which  keeps  it  free  from  filth.  Under  each 
window  there  is  an  opening  for  the  ducks,  and  along  the  rear 
there  are  nests. 

Ducks  are  very  much  inclined  to  lay  around  anywhere,  and 
a  little  management  is  necessary  in  order  to  secure  the  eggs. 
The  best  way  is  to  shut  them  up  at  night  during  the  laying 
season.  Ducks  always  lay  at  night,  or  very  early  in  the  morn- 
ing, so  the  eggs  can  be  collected  and  the  ducks  fed  and  turned 
out  by  sunrise.  In  front  of  our  duck-house  there  is  a  good- 
sized  yard,  and  as  they  are  always  fed  in  that  yard  they  come 
regularly  at  sundown  for  their  supper,  when  they  are  shut  in 
for  the  night. 

A  trough  of  water  should  always  be  kept  in  the  pen  or  yard 
where  the  ducks  are  shut  up  at  night,  unless  the  weather  is 
freezing  cold,  and  in  that  case  they  should  be  supplied  with 
drink  when  given  their  supper.  Ducks  are  often  killed  by  giv- 
ing them  a  hearty  supper  without  drink,  and  then  shutting  them 
up  all  night  where  they  can  not  get  at  water,  and  when  not 
killed  outright  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  they  suffer  greatly 
from  thirst. 

Ducks  generally  make  poor  mothers,  and  as  they  lay  a  long 
time  before  offering  to  sit,  it  is  necessary  to  set  the  eggs  under 
hens.  The  directions  that  have  been  given  for  the  management 
of  turkey's  eggs  during  incubation  will  answer  equally  well  for 
duck's  eggs.  Duck's  eggs  usually  hatch  well.  Ducklings  should 
not  be  hatched  too  early ;  those  hatched  in  April  and  May  will 
grow  to  a  good  size  for  the  early  fall  market,  and  those  hatched 
later  will  make  fine  birds  for  the  winter  market. 

Until  they  are  fully  feathered  ducklings  are  as  liable  to  die 
of  chills  and  damp,  caused  by  exposure  to  cold  and  wet,  as 
young  turkeys,  and  for  this  reason  they  must  be  kept  out  of  the 


POULTRY.  H09 

dew  and  rain,  and  away  from  the  ponds  and  streams  until  they 
are  some  six  weeks  old. 

"As  soon  as  the  ducklings  are  well  out  of  the  shell,  whether 
the  mother  be  a  hen  or  duck,  coop  them  up  in  a  coop  with  a 
pen  like  the  one  I  have  already  described  for  turkeys.  The 
ducklings  can  not  climb  over  the  sides  of  this  pen,  and  should 
be  confined  to  it  for  about  a  week.  Water  that  has  had  the 
chill  taken  off  may  be  supplied  in  shallow  pans,  and  the  ducklings 
will  dabble  around  in  it  and  enjoy  it.  Have  your  duck  coops  as  far 
as  convenient  from  the  stream  or  pond,  and  they  must  be  moved 
at  least  three  times  a  week  to  fresh  ground.  After  the  duck- 
lings are  a  week  old,  if  they  had  a  hen  mother,  the  pen  may  be 
opened  on  pleasant  days  after  the  dew  is  off  the  grass,  and  the 
mother  and  her  brood  allowed  liberty  to  wander  around  in 
search  of  food.  By  the  time  they  are  six  weeks  old  their  under 
feathers  will  be  well  out,  and  they  may  be  allowed  unlim- 
ited range. 

"Ducklings  are  great  eaters,  and  will  eat  almost  any  thing 
in  the  shape  of  food.  Feed  cooked  food,  with  plenty  of  green 
food,  until  they  are  old  enough  to  give  free  range.  Almost 
any  kind  of  food  that  you  would  give  chicks  and  young  turkeys 
is  good  for  ducklings.  Until  they  take  to  the  pond  or  stream, 
unless  insect  forage  is  plenty,  feed  a  little  cooked  meat.  Feed 
often,  but  never  give  all  they  can  possibly  swallow ;  sometimes 
ducklings  will  eat  until  they  kill  themselves.  After  they  take 
to  the  water  the  ducklings  will  pick  up  a  large  amount  of  the 
food  that  suits  them  best,  and  for  this  reason  ducks  are  most 
economically  raised  in  the  neighborhood  of  ponds,  streams,  wet 
marshes,  or  near  the  sea." 

To  get  fine,  large  ducks,  keep  them  growing  from  the  begin- 
ning, and  for  three  weeks  before  sending  to  market  feed  extra 
rations  of  cooked  potatoes  and  corn-meal,  with  whole  corn  at 
night.  Ducks  that  are  to  be  kept  over  for  breeding  stock 
should  be  fed  through  the  winter  on  grain,  with  an  occasional 
meal  of  green  food.  Keep  the  best  for  breeding  stock,  and 
allow  one  drake  for  every  three  ducks. 

In  regard  to  picking  live  ducks  the  following  directions  (from 


1110  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

the  Prairie  Farmer)  will  be  found  useful :  "  The  proper  time  for 
picking  ducks  may  be  ascertained  by  catching  two  or  three  out 
of  your  flock  and  pulling  out  a  few  feathers  here  and  there ;  if 
they  pull  hard  and  the  quills  are  filled  with  bloody  fluid,  the 
feathers  are  not  'ripe,'  and  must  be  left  awhile  longer;  but  if 
they  come  out  easily,  and  the  quills  are  clear,  the  feathers  are 
called  ( ripe,'  and  the  birds  should  be  picked  at  once  or  they  will 
lose  the  greater  part  of  their  feathers.  To  pick  a  duck  before 
the  feathers  are  fully  ripe  is  to  injure  the  fowl  very  much. 
You  will  find  a  bunch  of  long,  rather  coarse  feathers  under  each 
wing ;  do  not  pluck  them,  they  support  the  wings.  When  pick- 
ing, take  but  few  feathers  at  a  time  between  the  thumb  and 
forefinger,  and  give  a  short,  quick  jerk  downward ;  with  a  little 
practice  you  will  soon  get  the  '  knack '  of  picking  easily  and  rap- 
idly. Before  commencing  tie  the  duck's  legs  together,  not  with 
a  cord  that  may  cut  into  the  flesh  and  lame  the  bird,  but  with 
a  tolerably  wide  strip  of  cloth ;  and  if  the  ducks  are  inclined  to 
pinch  with  their  bills,  draw  an  old  cotton  stocking  over  the 
head ;  but  with  the  exception  of  now  and  then  a  vicious  old 
drake,  our  Pekins  are  as  tame  and  peaceable  as  kittens,  so  we 
never  bother  ourselves  or  the  ducks  with  the  'night-caps/ 
Handle  laying  ducks  carefully,  and  sitting  ducks  and  ducks  that 
you  intend  to  set  soon  should  not  be  picked.  When  handling 
young  ducks  do  not  lift  or  carry  them  by  the  legs  with  the  head 
hanging  downwards ;  their  bodies  are  heavy,  bones  tender  and 
easily  broken,  or  joints  may  be  dislocated.  In  hot  weather  a 
great  deal  of  the  down  may  be  taken  from  the  drakes,  but  the 
down  should  never  be  taken  in  cold  weather.  Ducks  can  usually 
be  picked  from  four  to  six  times  a  year." 

Geese. — No  fowls  can  be  so  cheaply  raised  as  geese,  and 
farmers  who  have  a  pasture  containing  a  pond  or  stream  of 
water  will  find  the  rearing  of  geese  very  profitable.  There  is 
always  a  demand,  and  at  good  prices  too,  for  live  geese  feath- 
ers, and  prime  geese,  dressed  or  alive,  will  bring  paying  prices 
in  any  city  market  throughout  the  late  fall,  winter,  and  early 
spring  months.  In  New  York  extra  market  geese  can  be  sold 
nearly  the  year  round.  The  leading  varieties  of  thorough-bred 


POULTRY. 


1111 


geese  are  the  Toulouse,  Embden,  or  Bremen,  as  they  are  some- 
times called,  and  the  China. 

The  Toulouse  geese  are  the  largest  in  the  world,  weighing, 
when  fully  matured  at  three  years  of  age,  from  thirty  to  forty 
pounds  a  pair.  Goslings  of  this  variety  will  weigh  from  four  to 
six  pounds  apiece  when  four  weeks  old.  In  color  the  Toulouse 
are  dark  gray  on  the  back,  shading  off  to  light  gray,  and  almost 
white  on  the  under  part  of  the  body.  They  have  fine  feathers; 


TOULOUSE  GEESE. 


are  not  so  noisy  as  common  geese ;  goslings  easy  to  raise,  and 
are  considered  stronger  than  common  goslings.  On  this  page 
we  give  a  fine  illustration  of  a  pair  of  Toulouse  geese. 

The  Embden  are  not  quite  so  large  as  the  Toulouse,  but 
many  consider  the  flesh  superior ;  and  the  pure  white  feathers 
will,  in  some  markets,  bring  a  higher  price  than  those  of  colored 
geese.  The  Embdens  are  quite  as  hardy,  and  the  goslings  are 
as  easy  to  raise  as  those  of  the  Toulouse  variety.  The  cut  on 
page  1112  represents  an  Embden  goose. 


1112 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


There  are  two  varieties  of  the  China  geese — the  Brown  and 
the  White — but  they  are  really  the  same  thing — except  in  color 
of  plumage.  The  China  geese  are  not  so  large  as  the  Toulouse 

and  the  Embden, 
but  they  are  bet- 
ter layers,  while 
their  reputation  for 
early  maturity, 
hardiness,  and  for 
quality  of  feathers 
is  quite  up  to 
that  of  the  larger 
breeds. 

The  very  finest 
market  geese  are 
produced  from  a 
cross  between  the 
Toulouse  and 
Embden.  These 
cross-bred  birds 
grow  larger  than 
either  of  the  thor- 
o  u  g  h-b  reds,  and 
their  flesh  is  remarkably  fine.  All  the  geese  should  be  pure 
Embdens  and  the  gander  a  pure  Toulouse.  These  cross-bred 
geese  should  never  be  kept  for  future  breeders  for  they  produce 
young  of  inferior  size  and  quality. 

Three  geese  can  be  mated  to  one  gander,  and  the  same 
breeding  stock  kept  for  several  years.  Keep  breeding  geese 
thin  in  flesh,  they  will  lay  better  and  their  eggs  will  hatch  bet- 
ter than  when  kept  on  a  full  feed  of  grain.  The  best  breeders 
turn  out  to  pasture  as  soon  as  the  snow  is  gone,  and  after  the 
grass  is  well  up  feed  nothing.  After  the  geese  are  turned  out 
to  pasture  they  can  get  along  without  shelter,  but  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  have  a  shed  somewhere  near  the  water. 

Geese  commence  laying  from  the  latter  part  of  February  to 
the  middle  of  March,  and  lay  from  twenty  to  thirty  eggs  before 


EMBDEN  GOOSE. 


POULTRY.  1113 

offering  to  sit.  The  time  for  hatching  goslings  is  from  the  mid- 
dle of  April  to  June.  The  eggs  should  be  set  under  hens, 
especially  if  you  keep  the  Toulouse.  The  Embden  and  the 
China  geese  sit  well  and  make  good  mothers.  When  set  under 
hens  goose  eggs  need  the  same  care  during  incubation  as  duck 
and  turkey  eggs,  but  when  geese  sit  let  them  alone. 

When  the  goslings  are  out  they  must  have  a  warm,  dry  coop, 
and  like  young  ducks  and  turkeys  they  must  be  sheltered  from 
storms  and  kept  out  of  the  dew  for  the  first  four  or  five  weeks. 
Give  goslings  the  same  food  recommended  for  ducklings.  When 
five  or  six  weeks  old  they  may  be  turned  out  to  pasture,  and 
the  rations  gradually  reduced  to  one  meal  a  day.  If  on  good 
pasture  they  will  grow  on  grass  alone  after  the  first  six  or 
seven  weeks ;  but  if  extra  large  geese  are  desired  it  will  pay 
to  give  scalded  meal  or  boiled  turnips  mixed  with  bran  and  meal, 
once  a  day. 

Concerning  the  fattening  of  geese  for  market  a  writer  in  the 
Poultry  World  says  : 

"  Geese  may  be  fattened  for  market  at  two  different  periods 
of  their  lives,  either  at  the  age  of  six  or  eight  weeks,  when  they 
are  termed  green  geese,  and  are  highly  esteemed,  or  when  they 
have  attained  their  full  growth.  The  method  is  very  nearly  the 
same,  plenty  of  wholesome  food  and  limited  space  for  exercise, 
as  the  more  quiet  they  remain  the  faster  they  will  fatten.  Since 
all  geese  are  gregarious  and  sociable,  if  only  a  part  of  the  flock 
are  to  be  fattened  they  had  best  be  fastened  up  where  they  will 
not  see  their  accustomed  companions,  as,  should  they  feel  lonely, 
they  are  apt  to  sulk  and  refuse  food." 

Most  geese  are  sold  in  winter,  and  these  should  be  fed  (after 
the  supply  of  grass  is  cut  off  by  frost),  with  boiled  corn,  cooked 
potatoes,  boiled  oats  and  barley-meal,  with  rowen  soaked  in  warm 
water  and  sprinkled  with  meal.  Of  course  they  must  at  all  times 
have  plenty  of  water  to  drink.  The  Poultry  World  writer,  be- 
fore quoted  from,  says  that  "  care  must  be  taken  to  seize  just 
the  right  time  for  killing  your  fatted  geese,  as  when  they  have 
reached  a  certain  limit  they  begin  to  fall  off."  Geese  can  be 
picked  two  or  three  times  during  the  season,  according  to  the 


1114  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

weather.  Full-grown  Toulouse  geese  will  yield  nearly  half  a 
pound  of  feathers  at  a  picking.  To  pick  geese,  follow  the  direc- 
tions for  picking  ducks,  given  on  another  page. 

Preparing  Poultry  for  Market. — The  very  best  poultry 
will  fail  to  bring  the  highest  price  if  it  be  not  dressed  in  good 
shape  and  put  up  in  the  style  that  customers  demand.  This  is 
especially  true  of  New  York  and  New  England  markets.  From 
the  Ohio  Farmer  I  copy  the  following  directions  for  preparing 
poultry  for  the  New  York  market.  They  were  prepared  from 
information  furnished  by  leading  New  York  commission  mer- 
chants : 

"  Western  poultry  does  not  usually  bring  the  highest  price 
in  the  New  York  market,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  generally  in- 
ferior in  quality,  and  put  up  in  an  unattractive  shape.  In  order 
to  sell  well  in  New  York,  poultry  must  be  of  good  quality,  and 
put  up  in  the  style  that  that  market  demands. 

"  Fowls,  old  or  young,  that  have  been  kept  in  good  condi- 
tion right  along,  will  require  about  ten  days  of  extra  feeding  in 
order  to  put  them  in  prime  condition  for  market.  Separate  the 
market  birds  from  the  rest  of  the  flock,  and  feed  liberally  three 
times  a  day.  For  the  first  day  or  two  do  not  give  all  the  fowls 
will  eat,  but  increase  the  quantity  of  food  given  each  meal  until 
they  have  as  much  as  they  will  eat  up  clean.  For  the  morning 
and  noon  feed  give  boiled  potatoes,  beets  or  carrots  mixed  into 
a  stiff  mass  with  corn  and  barley-meal ;  at  night  give  whole  corn. 
Keep  gravel,  charcoal,  and  plenty  of  pure  water  or  milk  in  the 
coop.  If  skim-milk  is  plenty  mix  their  food  with  it.  For  the 
last  three  or  four  days  mix  a  handful  of  pulverized  charcoal  with 
each  bucketful  of  soft  feed. 

"  It  is  against  the  law  to  offer  in  the  New  York  market 
dressed  chickens  or  turkeys  with  full  crops.  The  city  ordinance 
reads  as  follows  : 

"  *  SEC.  1.  That  no  turkeys  or  chickens  be  offered  for  sale  in 
the  city  unless  the  crops  of  such  turkeys  and  chickens  are  free 
from  food  or  other  substance  and  shrunken  close  to  their  bodies. 
That  all  fowls  exposed  for  sale  in  violation  of  this  ordinance 
shall  be  seized  and  condemned ;  such  of  them  as  shall  be  tainted 


POULTRY.  1115 

shall,  upon  examination,  be  destroyed,  and  the  rest  which  is  fit 
for  food  shall  be  used  in  the  public  institutions  of  the  city. 

" '  SEC.  2.  Every  person  exposing  for  sale  any  chicken  or 
turkey  in  contravention  of  this  ordinance  shall  be  liable  to  a 
penalty  of  five  dollars  for  each  chicken  or  turkey  so  exposed 
for  sale. 

"  *  SEG.  3.  This  ordinance  shall  take  effect  on  the  first  day  of 
October,  1882.' 

"  The  city  authorities  claim  that  this  ordinance  will  be  strictly 
enforced,  and  shippers  must  keep  all  food  from  poultry  at  least 
twelve  hours  before  killing,  and  it  would  be  better  not  to  feed 
for  twenty-four  hours  previously. 

"  The  reason  for  this  is,  that  a  mass  of  undigested  or  half 
digested  food  soon  sours,  becomes  putrid,  and  taints  the  whole 
carcass. 

"  The  fowls  may  be  killed  by  opening  the  veins  in  the  neck 
or  by  making  an  incision  in  the  mouth  at  the  back  of  the  roof, 
which  will  cause  almost  immediate  death.  Suspend  the  fowls 
by  the  feet  and  make  the  cut  with  a  narrow-bladed,  very  sharp 
knife.  If  one  lacks  spunk  enough  to  kill  fowls  that  way,  or  pre- 
fers cutting  off  the  head,  take  it  off  'just  back  of  the  ears,'  and 
after  the  feathers  are  removed  turn  down  the  skin,  cut  off  a 
piece  of  the  neck  bone,  draw  the  skin  back  in  place,  tie  and  trim 
so  as  to  present  a  neat  appearance.  But  no  matter  how  you  kill 
the  fowls  they  must  be  allowed  to  bleed  freely  in  order  to  have 
the  meat  present  a  bright,  healthy  appearance. 

"  Most  of  the  poultry  sold  in  New  York  market  is  wet  picked, 
and  is  generally  preferred  for  the  reason  that  a  slightly  inferior 
fowl  looks  better  after  scalding  and  *  plumping'  than  a  dry-picked 
fowl  of  the  same  quality.  It  takes  extra  nice  fowls  to  look  well 
when  dry-picked,  but  when  dry-picked  poultry  is  prime,  it  brings 
a  higher  price  than  the  best  scalded.  Most  of  the  prime  dry- 
picked  poultry  that  is  sold  in  New  York  comes  from  Bucks 
County,  Pennsylvania,  is  known  as  Philadelphia  poultry,  and 
brings  extra  prices. 

"  For  scalding  poultry  have  the  water  scalding  hot,  take  the 
fowl  by  the  head  and  legs  and  dip  in  and  out  of  the  water  three 


1116  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

times.  If  the  head  is  to  be  left  on  it  must  not  be  scalded,  for 
that  would  injure  the  bright  appearance  of  the  comb,  give  the 
eyes  a  shrunken  look  which  would  convey  the  impression  that 
the  fowl  was  diseased  when  killed.  Remove  the  feathers  and 
pin-feathers  without  breaking  the  skin,  and  avoid  bruising  the 
flesh ;  bruised  places  and  abrasions  of  the  skin  soon  turn  black 
and  greatly  injure  the  appearance  of  the  fowl.  Singe  the  fowl 
without  smoking  it,  then  dip  for  about  two  seconds  into  water 
that  is  almost  boiling  hot,  and  at  once  into  cold  water  for  the 
same  length  of  time.  This  process  is  called  '  plumping,'  and 
will  give  a  tolerably  lean  old  hen  an  appearance  of  respectable 
fatness.  The  intestines  and  crop  must  not  be  drawn.  If  the 
feet  and  shanks  are  dirty  wash  them  clean,  also  the  comb  and 
the  feathers  about  the  head. 

"  The  poultry  should  be  entirely  cold,  but  not  frozen,  before 
it  is  packed ;  if  packed  before  it  is  quite  cold  it  is  sure  to  spoil. 
Use  boxes  of  medium  size,  those  that  will  contain  from  one  to 
two  hundred  pounds,  and  dry,  clean  straw  for  packing.  Put  a 
layer  of  straw  in  the  bottom  of  the  box,  then  a  layer  of  poultry, 
backs  upward,  legs  drawn  backward  under  the  body,  wings 
folded  snugly  at  the  sides,  and  heads  of  the  first  row  tucked 
under  the  body.  In  the  next  row  pass  the  heads  up  between 
the  rumps  of  the  first  row.  The  last  row,  turn  the  heads 
towards  the  end  of  the  box  as  in  the  first  row  and  pass  the  legs 
back  under  the  others.  Never  double  up  the  legs,  and  in  plac- 
ing the  heads  of  the  first  and  last  rows  be  careful  not  to  crowd 
so  close  to  the  bodies  as  to  leave  a  discolored  mark.  Fill  all 
spaces  with  straw,  cover  this  layer  with  straw  enough  to  keep 
from  contact  with  the  next  one,  and  fill  the  whole  box  in  the 
same  way.  Cover  the  top  layer  with  straw  enough  to  make  the 
cover  fit  down  pretty  snug,  for  if  the  fowls  shift  about  in  the 
box  it  will  injure  the  appearance,  and  consequently  affect  the 
sale.  When  the  weather  is  very  cold,  use  more  straw  around 
the  top,  bottom,  and  sides  of  the  box,  and  wrap  each  fowl  in 
clean,  white  paper.  It  is  a  good  idea  to  wrap  each  fowl  in  the 
white  paper,  any  way,  whether  necessary  to  keep  from  freezing 
or  not;  the  fowls  look  neater,  it  will  prevent  discoloration  where 


POULTRY.  HIT 

the  fowls  come  in  contact  with  each  other,  and  if  there  should 
happen  to  be  a  bit  of  dust  in  the  straw,  the  paper  will  keep  it 
from  the  fowls.  Unprinted  paper  can  be  obtained  at  any  print- 
ing office,  and  costs  but  a  trifle. 

"  The  poultry  will  sell  better  if  it  runs  even  through  the  pack- 
age. When  packing  large  lots,  put  the  largest  and  best  in  one 
box,  the  medium  size  in  another,  and  the  smallest  in  the  third. 
Do  n't  think  that  by  mixing  a  few  large  fowls  in  with  the 
smaller  ones  that  it  will  help  the  sale  of  the  small  ones ;  it  will 
be  more  apt  to  spoil  the  sale  of  the  whole  lot.  And  if  you  have- 
a  lot  of  chickens  that  are  really  inferior,  don't  send  at  all;  dis- 
pose of  them  for  what  you  can  get  in  your  local  market.  Do  n't 
pack  turkeys,  ducks,  geese,  and  chickens  all  in  the  same  box; 
have  a  separate  box  for  each  kind. 

"Mark  the  address  of  the  commission  house  to  which  the 
goods  are  shipped  plainly  on  the  cover;  also  the  kind  of  poultry 
and  weight.  Have  your  own  name  and  address,  or  some  partic- 
ular mark  or  brand  of  your  own  on  all  packages,  and  if  you  ship 
first-class  poultry  your  brand  will  soon  be  in  demand.  The 
marking  should  be  done  neatly,  for  the  better  your  packages 
look  on  the  outside  the  more  favorably  will  they  strike  the  eye 
of.  the  buyers  at  the  first  view. 

"When  you  ship  your  poultry  send  at  once  by  mail  a  cor- 
rect invoice  of  the  shipment." 

For  shipping  wild  turkeys,  wild  ducks,  and  smaller  wild 
fowls,  Messrs.  Van  Valkenburg  &  Ronk,  New  York,  give  the 
following  advice :  "  Wild  turkeys,  wild  ducks,  and  the  smaller 
birds  should  be  packed  in  the  natural  state.  Prairie  chickens, 
woodcock  and  quail,  in  cool  weather,  reach  us  in  better  order 
and  sell-more  readily  when  wrapped  in  paper,  the  feathers  being 
first  laid  smoothly  in  place.  Grouse,  when  shot,  should  be 
hung  up  by  the  feet,  so  that  all  the  blood  may  run  out  of  the 
mouth.  If  the  weather  is  very  cold,  so  as  to  freeze  at  once,  it 
is  better  to  stroke  the  feathers  down  smoothly  and  hang  up  by 
the  neck.  All  animal  heat  should  be  out  of  the  birds  before 
packing.  Press  firmly  into  the  package;  two  hundred  pounds 
may  thus  be  packed  into  a  common  flour-barrel.  The  freight  on 


1118 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


trapped  birds  is  no  more  than  others,  and  those  shot  or  other- 
wise mutilated  not  only  bring  a  low  price,  but  are  apt  to  spoil, 
and  by  their  more  rapid  decomposition  cause  the  others  to  smell 
badly,  thus  injuring  those  that  they  are  packed  with  more  than 
the  value  of  the  mutilated  birds.  If  they  must  be  sent  send 
in  separate  packages.  The  number  of  dozen,  pairs,  or  pieces,  as 
the  case  may  be,  should  be  marked  on  the  head  of  the  barrel. 
Wild  turkeys  should  be  packed  in  boxes  instead  of  barrels." 

For  New  England  markets  poultry  must  always  be  drawn; 
in  fact,  it  is  against  the  law  in  Boston  to  offer  undrawn  poultry 
for  sale,  except  spring  chickens  that  weigh  two  pounds  or  less, 
and  these  must  have  empty  crops.  New  Englanders  also  prefer 
dry-picked  poultry.  After  dressing  poultry,  instead  of  laying 
on  a  board,  shelf,  or  table  to  cool,  tie  the  wings  close  to  the 
body  in  a  natural  position,  and  then  hang  up  by  the  feet.  By 
this  method  there  are  no  flattened  portions,  and  the  fowls  look 
better  and  pack  better.  For  tying  the  wings  back  use  strip  of 
cloth  rather  than  strings,  for  the  latter  are  apt  to  cut  into  the 
flesh  and  leave  a  mark.  To  pick  domestic  ducks  and  geese 
easily,  scald  as  you  would  chickens,  and  then  wrap  for  ten  or 
fifteen  minutes  in  a  blanket  or  piece  of  an  old  quilt;  this  steam- 
ing, provided  you  happen  to  get  the  right  scald,  loosens  i«he 
feathers  and  down  so  that  all  come  off  easily.  The  feathers 
should  be  saved  and  carefully  dried. 


POULTRY  DISEASES  AND  THEIR  REMEDIES.  1119 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

POULTRY   DISEASES  AND  THEIR    REMEDIES. 

/""^AUSBS. — The  chief  causes  of  disease  among  poultry  are 
-  damp  houses,  swampy  yards,  lack  of  cleanliness  about  the 
^•^  houses  and  yards,  impure  water,  improper  food,  overfeed- 
ing, lack  of  sufficient  ventilation,  crowding  too  many  fowls  into 
one  house,  lice,  and  lack  of  constitutional  vigor  in  the  parent 
stock. 

Prevention. — It  is  easier  to  prevent  poultry  diseases  than 
to  cure  them,  and  it  is  cheaper,  too.  The  preventive  measures 
here  recommended  are  indorsed  by  all  the  leading  poultry  author- 
ities in  the  country,  and  from  practical  experience  and  personal 
observation  I  can  assure  the  reader  that  the  poultry  yards  where 
the  following  directions  are  faithfully  observed  will  not  often  be 
visited  by  disease  of  any  kind. 

1.  The  poultry-house  should  be  dry,  clean,  thoroughly  ven- 
tilated without  exposing  the  fowls  to  draughts  of  air,  and  never 
over-crowded.  Every  morning  some  absorbent — dry  earth  or 
land  plaster — should  be  sprinkled  over  the  droppings  beneath 
the  roosts ;  and  twice  a  week  in  summer,  once  a  week  in  winter, 
the  droppings  should  be  removed  from  the  house.  When  the 
floor  of  the  house  is  covered  with  earth  it  should  be  frequently 
raked  over,  and  twice  a  week  fresh,  dry  earth  should  be  put  in. 
Every  spring  and  fall,  oftener  when  chicken  cholera  or  any  con- 
tagious disease  is  in  the  locality,  whitewash  the  whole  of  the 
inside  of  the  house.  When  disease  is  present  among  the  flock, 
dissolve  one-half  pound  of  copperas  in  a  pailful  of  hot  water  and 
use  it  to  mix  the  wash  with.  When  chicken  cholera  prevails  in 
neighboring  poultry  yards  use  daily  a  disinfectant  fluid  made 
by  dissolving  three  pounds  of  copperas  in  five  gallons  of  water, 


1120  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

and  then  adding  one-half  pint  of  crude  carbolic  acid.  Sprinkle 
about  the  inside  of  the  house  with  a  common  watering-pot.  This 
mixture  should  be  kept  corked  in  jugs. 

2.  The  yards  and  other  places  where  the  fowls  congregate 
should  be  well  drained,  and   no  decaying   animal  or  vegetable 
matter,  no  stagnant  water,  no   filth  of  any  kind,  allowed  any- 
where about  the  premises. 

3.  Keep  fowls  and  chicks  free  from  lice. 

4.  Never  breed  from  unhealthy  fowls,  or  from  fowls  that 
have  recovered  from  a  serious  attack  of  roup.     I  do  not  know 
whether  roup  is  hereditary  or  not;  but  I  do  know  from  experi- 
ence and  observation  that  chicks  from  fowls  that  have  had  the 
roup  do  not,  generally  speaking,  seem  as  strong  as  chicks  from 
fowls  that  have  always  been  healthy.     They  are  very  apt  to 
die  off  rapidly  during  the  first  spell  of  cold,  damp  weather  that 
comes  along  after  they  are  hatched;   and  if  any  survive  until 
fall  they  are  almost  sure  to  take  the  roup  then. 

5.  Feed  only  fresh,  wholesome  food;  do  not  overfeed;  give 
plenty  of  pure  water  or  milk  to  drink;   do  not  overstimulate 
with  any  of  the  so-called  "  egg-food ;"  and  unless  some  contagious 
disease  is  present  among  the  flock,  or  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
borhood, do  not  dose  the  fowls  with  preventive  medicines.     For 
well  fowls,  except  under  the  circumstances  named,  such  medi- 
cines are  worse  than  useless — they  are  positively  injurious. 

6.  Have  some  building  apart  from   the   poultry-house   that 
can  be  used  when  occasion  requires  as  a  hospital  for  sick  fowls, 
and   whenever  a  fowl   exhibits    symptoms   of   disease    at  once 
remove  it  to  this  building.      When   strange   fowls   are   brought 
upon  the  premises  it  is  a  wise  plan  to  keep  them  in  this  build- 
ing, apart  from  the  other  fowls,  until   sure   that  they  have  no 
contagious  disease  lurking  in  their  systems.     When  the  hospital 
has  been  used  for  fowls  afflicted  with  roup,  canker,  or  cholera, 
it  should  be  thoroughly  disinfected  before  it  is  again  used. 

7.  At  any  time,  when  the  fowls  mope  around  and  eat  but 
little,  cut  down  the  allowance  of  food ;  and  once  a  day,  or  until 
the  fowls  appear  all  right  again,  give  the  "Douglass  mixture" 
in  the  food  or  drink.     The  following  is  the 


PO  UL  TR  Y  DISEASES  A  ND  THEIR  REMEDIES.  1121 

RECIPE  FOR  DOUGLASS  MIXTURE. — Dissolve  one  pound  of  cop- 
peras in  two  gallons  of  soft  water;  then  add  one  ounce  of  oil 
of  vitriol.  Keep  corked  in  a  jug.  Dose,  one  tea-spoonful  to  a 
pint  of  drinking  water.  Concerning  this  "  mixture,"  Ward's 
"  Poulterer's  Guide  "  says :  "  This  preparation,  simple  as  it  is,  is 
one  of  the  best  tonics  for  poultry  known.  It  is  alterative  as 
well  as  tonic,  and  possesses,  besides,  antiseptic  properties  which 
make  it  a  remedy  as  well  as  a  tonic." 

Care. — Since  the  utmost  care  and  watchfulness  on  the  part 
of  the  poultry-keeper  can  not  always  prevent  disease  from  gain- 
ing a  foothold  in  the  poultry-yard,  every  one  who  keeps  poultry 
should  know  something  of  the  diseases  to  which  fowls  and 
chicks  are  most  liable — be  able  to  recognize  the  symptoms  and 
decide  what  remedies  to  administer.  A  little  timely  knowledge 
and  a  few  cents'  worth  of  medicine  will  often  enable  the  poul- 
try-keeper to  save  the  life  of  a  valuable  fowl,  and  also  prevent 
the  spread  of  disease  among  the  rest  of  the  flock. 

In  preparing  the  following  pages  upon  the  treatment  of 
poultry  diseases,  I  have  aimed  to  give  in  a  condensed  form  all 
the  information  that  will  be  of  any  practical  use  in  the  treat- 
ment of  sick  fowls.  The  remedies  prescribed  are  the  best  yet 
discovered ;  but  the  poultry-keeper  should  bear  in  mind  that  in 
order  to  successfully  combat  any  disease  the  cause  which  pro- 
duced the  disease  must  be  first  searched  out  and  removed,  and 
that  medicine  will  not  often  work  the  hoped-for  cure  unless  the 
fowls  are  treated  in  the  very  first  stages  of  the  disease. 

Lice. — If  lice  on  fowls  do  not  actually  cause  disease  they  so 
weaken  the  vitality  that  the  fowls  fall  easy  victims  to  the  first 
poultry  disease  that  comes  along;  and  quite  frequently,  when 
fowls  mope  around  and  appear  about  half  sick,  an  examination 
will  reveal  the  fact  that  lice  are  at  the  bottom  of  the  mischief; 
hence,  whenever  fowls  are  ill,  lice  should  be  the  first  thing 
looked  after,  and,  if  found,  a  vigorous  warfare  of  extermination 
should  be  waged. 

For  common  chicken  lice  on  adult  fowls,  and  also  for  the 
spider  lice,  or  red  mites,  as  they  are  generally  called,  there  are 
no  better  remedies  than  whitewash  and  sulphur  smoke  to  kill 

71 


1122          THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

those  about  the  poultry-house,  .and  coal-oil  for  those  on  the 
fowls.  Catch  the  fowls,  and  rub  a  little  of  the  oil  on  their 
heads,  under  the  wings,  and  into  the  feathers  on  the  under-part 
of  their  bodies.  Burn  the  old  nesting,  clean  the  nest-boxes 
with  boiling  soap-suds,  and  then  apply  coal-oil  to  the  cracks. 
When  the  new  nesting  is  put  in  use  a  little  tobacco,  sulphur, 
or  carbolic  powder  in  the  nest. 

Whitewash  the  whole  of  the  inside  of  the  house,  taking  care 
to  get  it  well  into  the  cracks ;  then  shut  up  the  house  tight, 
carry  in  a  pan  of  coals,  throw  on  a  half  pound  or  so  of  sulphur 
and  smoke  out  the  lice  that  the  whitewash  and  coal-oil  do  not 
reach.  Keep  the  house  filled  with  sulphur  smoke  for  an  hour 
or  so,  and  then  open  and  air  before  admitting  the  fowls.  The 
roosting  perches  should  be  carried  out  of  doors,  scrubbed  with 
an  old  broom  and  hot  suds,  and  when  dry  wet  with  coal-oil. 
Some  three  or  four  days  after  this  general  cleaning  up,  treat  the 
fowls  and  perches  to  another  dose  of  coal-oil,  and  again  fumi- 
gate the  house ;  this  will  probably  finish  up  all  that  escape  the 
first  onslaught.  The  red  mites  are  harder  to  get  rid  of  than 
the  common  chicken  lice,  but  patience  and  plenty  of  whitewash, 
coal-oil,  and  sulphur  fumes  will  finally  clear 'them  out. 

After  you  have  once  cleaned  the  lice  out,  keep  them  out  by 
supplying  the  fowls  with  a  dust  bath  in  which  there  is  a  mix- 
ture of  dry  unleached  ashes,  and  occasionally  drenching  the 
perches  with  coal  oil. 

Lice  on  Chicks. — For  the  large  lice  that  infest  the  heads 
of  young  chicks,  anoint  the  head  with  sweet-oil  and  carbolic 
acid — one  part  of  acid  to  one  hundred  of  oil ;  or  if  this  be  not 
at  hand,  use  whale-oil,  bacon  fat,  or  salted  lard.  As  the  chicks 
grow  older,  if  they  are  troubled  with  lice,  use  the  mixture  of 
oil  nnd  carbolic  acid  under  their  wings  and  on  the  under  part 
of  their  bodies;  or  dust  the  mother  hen  at  dusk  with  carbolic 
powder,  or  with  insect  powder ;  the  chicks  will  get  their  share 
from  the  feathers  of  the  mother.  Never  use  sulphur  and  lard,  or 
sulphur  and  coal-oil  on  young  chickens  ;  it  will  generally  kill 
lice  and  chickens  together.  Coal-oil  may  be  used  on  chicks 
after  they  are  three  or  four  months  old. 


POULTRY  DISEASES  AND  THEIR  REMEDIES.  1123 

Chicken  Cholera  is  one  of  the  "  germ"  diseases,  and  these 
germs  are  undoubtedly  generated  by  filth  in  some  form  or  other. 
D.  E.  Salmon,  D.  V.  M.,  veterinarian  of  the  department  of  ag- 
riculture, says  :  "  These  germs  under  ordinary  conditions  must 
be  taken  into  the  stomach  with  the  food  or  drink  to  produce 
their  effects,  and  consequently,  by  a  proper  use  of  disinfectants, 
the  disease  may  be  almost  entirely  prevented.  Fowls  may  also 
be  made  insusceptible  to  cholera  by  vaccination  with  a  feeble 
virus,  or  by  inoculation  with  a  diluted  virus.  A  few  investiga- 
tions to  determine  the  best  method  of  putting  up  the  virus,  and 
there  is  no  doubt  but  that  it  could  be  sent  to  every  part  of  the 
country  in  such  form  that  any  one  could  use  it." 

The  usual  symptoms  of  cholera  are  thus  described  by  A.  J. 
Hill  in  his  "  Treatise  on  Chicken  Cholera  :"  "  The  fowl  has  a 
dejected,  sleepy,  and  drooping  appearance  and  does  not  plume 
itself,  is  very  thirsty,  has  a  slow,  stalking  gait,  and  gaps  often. 
Sometimes  the  fowl  staggers  and  falls  down  from  great  weakness. 
The  comb  and  wattles  lose  their  natural  color,  generally  turning 
pale,  but  sometimes  they  are  dark.  There  is  diarrhoea  with 
greenish  discharge,  or  like  sulphur  and  water ;  afterwards  it  be- 
comes thin  and  frothy.  Prostration  comes  on,  the  crop  fills 
with  mucus  and  wind,  and  at  last  the  food  is  not  digested, 
breathing  is  heavy  and  fast,  the  eyes  close,  and  in  a  few  hours 
the  fowl  dies." 

Should  your  fowls  commence  to  die  off  "  kind  o'  sudden 
like,"  and  you  have  any  doubts  about  the  nature  of  the  disease, 
make  an  examination  of  the  internal  organs  of  the  defunct 
fowls,  and  that  will  settle  the  matter.  I  have  made  a  post- 
mortem examination  of  several  fowls  that  died  from  cholera, 
and  I  always  found  the  crop  filled  with  wind  and  sour  food; 
the  gizzard  sometimes  contained  sour,  half  digested  food,  and 
sometimes  the  contents  seemed  dried  up;  the  intestines  very 
much  inflamed,  and  generally  half  filled  with  a  greenish  matter; 
blood  very  dark  and  thick;  heart  generally  enlarged  ;  liver  always 
very  much  enlarged,  in  some  cases  twice  its  natural  size,  of  a 
dark  green  color,  sometimes  almost  black,  full  of  blood,  and  so 
tender  that  it  would  fall  to  pieces  from  its  own  weight. 


1124  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

There  is  no  known  "  sure  cure  "  for  chicken  cholera — noth- 
ing that  can  be  depended  upon  to  cure  all,  or  even  a  majority 
of  the  fowls  affected.  The  best  method  of  dealing  with  the 
disease  when  it  appears  is  the  heroic  course  of  treatment,  and  it 
is  substantially  as  follows :  Kill  all  the  sick  fowls  and  bury  them 
deep  with  a  quantity  of  quick-lime.  Follow  these  funeral  rites 
with  a  general  cleaning  up  and  disinfecting  of  the  whole  premises. 
Whitewash  the  house  and  scatter  lime  freely  about  the  yards. 
Wherever  the  sick  fowls  have  left  their  droppings,  wet  the 
earth  freely  with  the  disinfecting  fluid  recommended  on  another 
page.  Turn  the  fowls  out  of  the  house,  shut  it  up  as  close  as 
possible,  put  a  pound  of  sulphur  in  an  iron  kettle,  pour  on  a 
half  pint  of  alcohol,  set  it  inside  the  house  where  you  can  reach 
it  from  the  door,  hold  your  nose  with  one  hand,  set  fire  to  the 
alcohol  with  the  other,  shut  the  door  and  run.  The  burning 
sulphur  and  alcohol  will  send  off  sulphurous  acid  gas  that  will 
will  kill  every  thing  that  has  life,  cholera  germs  included.  After 
this  fumigation  use  the  disinfecting  fluid  daily  about  the  house, 
and  all  places  that  the  fowls  are  in  the  habit  of  frequenting  until 
after  the  last  trace  of  the  disease  has  disappeared. 

Give  the  apparently  well  fowls  something  to  kill  the  germs 
that  may  have  been  taken  into  their  systems,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose there  is  nothing  better  than  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid  and 
water.  Sixty  drops  of  water  to  one  of  acid  forms  a  solution ; 
give  each  fowl  three  or  four  drops  of  this  solution  daily  for  a 
week;  or,  instead  of  giving  it  that  way,  add  four  or  five  drops 
of  the  acid  to  a  quart  of  water,  and  use  it  to  mix  their  morn- 
ing food  with.  Give  plenty  of  willow  charcoal,  or  if  that  be  not 
at  hand  feed  charred  corn  once  a  day.  In  nine  cases  out  of  ten 
this  method  will,  if  the  work  be  thoroughly  done,  stamp  out  the 
disease  at  the  very  outset,  and  with  the  loss  of  but  few  fowls. 
In  the  tenth  case  keep  right  on  with  the  killing,  disinfecting, 
and  use  of  preventives ;  it  will  finally  conquer. 

For  the  benefit  of  those  who  may  think  it  best  to  doctor  the 
sick  fowls,  I  have  selected  the  following  as  the  best  of  a  long 
list  of  cholera  cures.  They  are  highly  recommended,  and  will 
without  doubt  effect  some  cures,  provided  the  disease  is  in  a 


POULTRY  DISEASES  AND  THEIR  REMEDIES.  1125 

mild  form  and  the  medicine  is  administered  in  the  very  first 
stages.  With  all  these  remedies,  except  No.  4,  give  the  Douglass 
mixture  freely — a  table-spoonful  to  a  pint  of  water — in  the  drink ; 
but  do  not  allow  the  fowls  to  drink  much  at  a  time. 

1.  Two  drachms  of  calomel  mixed  with  one  quart  of  corn- 
meal  ;  feed  twice  a  day. 

2.  Calomel  and  blue  mass  in  two  grain  doses,  or  four  grains 
of  blue  mass  mixed  with  two  grains  each  of  gum  camphor  and 
cayenne  pepper ;  give  twice  a  day. 

3.  Powdered  chalk,  powdered  charcoal,  gum  camphor,  assa- 
foetida,  and  pure  carbolic  acid,  equal  parts ;  mix  all  together  and 
feed  in  the  proportion  of  one  tea-spoonful  to  every  ten  fowls. 
Give  in  soft  food  twice  a  day. 

4.  Fowler's  solution,  one  ounce ;  aqua  ammonia,  half  an  ounce ; 
water,  one  gallon ;  mix.     Give  this  to  the  fowl  to  drink  in  mod- 
erate quantity  three  times  a  day.     Allow  no  other  drink. 

5.  Hyposulphite  of  soda;  half  a  level  tea-spoonful,  in  as  much 
water  as  will  dissolve  it,  is  a  dose  for  a  grown  fowl.     Give  once 
a  day  for  three  days. 

Roup  is  the  most  troublesome,  offensive,  and,  with  the  single 
exception  of  cholera,  the  most  fatal  disease  that  the  poultry 
raiser  has  to  fight  against.  In  his  book  on  poultry  diseases,  H. 
H.  Stoddard  says  :  "  Roup  is  a  disease  of  the  lining  membrane 
of  the  beak,  extending,  however,  to  the  whole  head  and  throat, 
through  the  tear  duct  to  the  eye,  and  finally  affecting  the  whole 
constitution.  In  fatal  cases  death  ensues  in  three  to  eight  days 
after  the  specific  roup  symptoms  show  themselves,  and  cases 
not  treated  are  generally  fatal  whenever  the  malady  appears  as 
an  epidemic  in  its  severe  form.  There  are  many  other  names 
under  which  this  malady  is  often  described — swelled  eyes,  diph- 
theria, sore  head,  hoarseness,  bronchitis,  asthma,  snuffles,  canker, 
blindness,  influenza,  sore  throat,  quinsy,  etc. — but  some  of  these 
conditions  may  exist  even  when  roup  is  not  present." 

Roup  never  comes  without  a  cause,  and  the  cause  generally 
comes  from  neglected  colds  among  fowls  that  are  kept  in  damp, 
sunless,  filthy,  ill-ventilated  houses.  Fowls  bike  cold  from  un- 
due exposure  to  cold  and  wet,  roosting  in  draughts  and  in  damp 


1126          THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

houses,  and  from  the  sudden  change  from  the  warmth  of  arti- 
ficially heated  poultry-houses  to  the  cold  outer  air. 

Roup  is  contagious,  and  when  it  once  gets  started  in  a  dis- 
trict the  premises  of  the  most  careful  poultry-keeper  are  liable 
to  be  invaded.  Upon  this  subject  the  American  Poultry-yard 
says:  "The  fact  that  fowls  sometimes  get  along  amid  the  filth- 
iest surroundings  with  no  attacks  from  roup  shows  that  filth  and 
this  disease  are  not  inseparably  connected.  Roup  in  poultry  is 
like  diphtheria  in  the  human  subject.  It  is  a  disease  as  different 
from  all  other  diseases  as  wheat  is  from  oats,  and,  like  wheat  or 
other  grain,  must  spring  from  seed.  The  filthiest  drains,  cess- 
pools, or  streets  near  human  habitations  may  not  cause  diphtheria. 
Before  this  disease  appears  in  a  locality,  the  filthy  districts  and 
the  clean  ones  are  alike  exempt,  but  after  it  appears  the  places 
having  the  most  filthy  surroundings  offer  it  the  most  congenial 
home,  and  it  is  apt  to  come  there  soonest,  stay  longest,  and  show 
the  most  severity  at  such  places.  But  the  cleanest,  neatest  fam- 
ilies are  not  entirely  exempt  from  diphtheria  either.  Just  so  when 
roup  is  not  epidemic,  the  fowls  in  the  foulest  poultry  houses  es- 
cape its  ravages ;  but  when  it  is  prevalent  in  a  country  or  sec- 
tion, it  thrives  and  shows  the  most  malignant  form  in  damp,  dirty 
fowl-quarters." 

But  the  poultry-keeper  who  carefully  avoids  all  the  known 
causes  of  the  disease,  and  takes  proper  sanitary  precaution  when 
it  is  in  his  immediate  neighborhood,  will  have  but  little  cause  to 
fear  the  roup.  If  it  comes  it  will  generally  be  of  a  mild  type, 
and  easily  controlled.  Roup  generally  commences  with  hoarse- 
ness and  sneezing,  and  while  in  this  stage  may  be  easily  cured. 
In  the  second  stage,  the  eyes  swell,  the  nose  and  eyes  discharge 
a  thin  watery  substance  that  thickens  and  becomes  very  offen- 
sive as  the  disease  progresses.  In  the  third  and  last  stage  ulcers 
form  in  the  mouth  and  throat,  and  sometimes  around  the  eyes; 
in  many  cases  one  or  both  eyes  are  closed  ;  the  head  swells,  the 
comb  turns  black ;  the  fowl  loses  its  appetite,  and  soon  dies. 

When  the  roup  makes  its  appearance  among  the  fowls,  sep- 
arate the  sick  from  the  well  at  once,  and  proceed  with  the  clean- 
ing and  disinfecting  exactly  as  recommended  for  the  treatment  of 


POULTRY  DISEASES  AND  THEIR  REMEDIES.  1127 

cholera.  As  the  disease  is  communicated  from  one  fowl  to  an- 
other by  the  discharge  from  the  nostrils  and  eyes,  particular  at- 
tention should  be  paid  to  the  cleansing  and  disinfecting  of  feed 
troughs  and  drinking  vessels.  For  this  purpose  use  the  disin- 
fecting solution  of  copperas,  carbolic  acid,  and  water.  If  the 
sick  fowls  have  not  advanced  beyond  the  first  stage  of  the  dis- 
ease, give  them  a  large  dose,  say  a  dessert-spoonful  apiece  of 
castor-oil  at  night,  and  for  the  next  three  or  four  days  feed  only 
cooked  food,  with  plenty  of  pepper  or  ginger,  and  pulverized 
charcoal  mixed  in;  give  the  Douglass  mixture  freely  in  the  drink- 
ing water,  and  it  would  be  well  enough  to  give  three  drops  daily 
for  two  or  three  days  in  succession  of  the  solution  of  carbolic 
acid  recommended  for  cholera.  This  course  of  treatment  will 
generally  cure  in  a  week. 

If  the  disease  reaches  the  second  stage  before  treatment  is 
begun,  give  the  dose  of  castor  oil,  and  afterwards  use  "  German 
Roup  Pills,"  according  to  directions.  The  genuine  German 
roup  pills  will  cure  roup  if  used  before  the  disease  reaches  the 
last  stage.  Besides  the  pills  give  the  charcoal  in  the  food  and 
the  Douglass  mixture  in  the  drink.  If  ulcers  have  commenced 
to  form  in  the  mouth  or  throat,  dust  them  twice  a  day  with  pow- 
dered chlorate  of  potash.  Give  the  apparently  well  fowls  the 
charcoal  and  the  Douglass  mixture  until  the  disease  disappears 
from  the  place. 

After  the  roup  reaches  the  third  stage,  the  fowl  is  not  worth 
fussing  over ;  kill  it  and  bury  or  burn  the  whole  carcass. 

Use  care  in  handling  roupy  fowls  ;  if  any  of  the  discharge 
comes  in  contact  with  the  eye,  or  with  a  cut  or  scratch  on  the 
hands,  it  will  produce  serious  inflammation. 

Gapes  in  chicks  are  caused  by  the  presence  of  minute 
worms  in  the  windpipe;  when  these  worms  are  present  in  great 
numbers  they  completely  fill  the  windpipe  and  (he  chick  dies  of 
suffocation.  The  name  of  the  disease  sufficiently  describes  the 
symptoms.  It  occurs  most  frequently  during  the  summer 
months,  and  among  chicks  that  are  kept  in  filthy  coops  and 
runs,  fed  on  sour,  sloppy,  unwholesome  food,  and  allowed  ac- 
cess to  impure,  stagnant  water.  Fresh,  wholesome,  cooked  food 


1128  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

until  the  chicks  are  old  enough  to  swallow  wheat  and  cracked 
corn,  milk,  or  plenty  of  pure  water,  perfect  cleanliness  about 
the  coops  and  run,  and  an  occasional  dash  of  pepper  in  the  food 
will  prevent  gapes,  unless  the  disease  has  been  on  the  premises 
before ;  in  that  case  give  the  Douglass  mixture  in  the  drink 
twice  or  three  times  a  week,  and  scatter  air-slaked  lime  freely 
about  the  places  formerly  used  for  the  coop  and  runs.  When 
possible,  keep  the  chicks  on  a  fresh  piece  of  ground  some  dis- 
tance from  the  old  runs. 

To  cure  gapes  fumigate  with  carbolic  acid  ;  it  will  cure  when 
the  chick  is  apparently  at  its  last  gasp.  Shut  the  afflicted 
chicks  in  the  upper  half  of  a  tolerably  tight  box,  and  put  sev- 
eral drops  of  the  acid  on  a  red  hot  shovel  held  in  the  lower  half. 
Keep  them  in  the  fumes  a  minute  or  so,  but  watch  closely  lest 
they  be  suffocated.  Instead  of  fumigating  all  at  once,  the 
chicks  may  be  treated  one  at  a  time  by  having  some  one  hold 
the  hot  shovel  and  drop  on  the  acid  while  you  hold  the  chick's 
bill  open  over  the  fumes  that  rise.  After  fumigating,  give  each 
chick  two  drops  of  the  solution  of  carbolic  acid  and  water. 
When  the  acid  is  not  at  hand  fumigate  with  sulphur ;  and  if 
neither  be  available  give  each  a  pill  of  camphor  gum  half  the 
size  of  a  small  pea. 

Another  cure,  recommended  by  the  Poultry  World,  is  to 
shut  the  chicks  in  a  box  having  a  cover  made  of  thick  muslin, 
spread  air-slaked  lime  on  top  of  the  cover  and  then  strike  or 
jar  so  as  to  sift  some  of  the  lime  down  into  the  box ;  the  lime 
causes  the  chicks  to  sneeze  and  throw  up  the  worms.  Chicks 
that  have  died  of  the  gapes  should  be  burned  or  buried  deep, 
with  plenty  of  quick-lime. 

Chills  among  young  chickens,  ducks,  and  turkeys  are  caused 
by  a  thorough  drenching  with  cold  rain  or  dew.  When  the 
"  patients "  are  discovered  before  life  is  quite  extinct,  warm 
them  thoroughly  by  dipping  all  but  the  head  in  quite  warm 
water  for  a  few  minutes ;  then,  as  soon  as  they  are  able  to 
swallow,  give  a  teaspoonful  of  quite  strong  pepper  tea  and  put  in 
a  warm  place  until  they  are  quite  dry  and  lively.  In  extreme 
cases  give  a  teaspoonful  of  whisky  instead  of  the  pepper  tea. 


POULTRY  DISEASES  AND  THEIR  REMEDIES.  1129 

Cramps  in  the  legs  of  chicks  are  caused  by  tramping 
around  in  the  grass  when  it  is  wet  with  dew  or  rain.  Bathe 
the  feet  and  legs  with  coal-oil,  or  with  strong  mustard  water, 
give  cayenne  pepper  in  the  food,  and  keep  the  patients  in  a 
warm,  dry  place  till  quite  well. 

Scaly  L/egs  are  caused  by  the  presence  of  minute  insects, 
which  burrow  under  the  scales  and  thus  cause  the  legs  to  as- 
sume a  rough,  bunchy,  unsightly  appearance.  Coal-oil  will  cure 
every  time.  Pour  a  sufficient  quantity  in  any  old  tin  and  dip 
the  fowls'  feet  and  legs  in  up  to  the  feathers;  hold  them  there 
a  few  minutes  until  the  oil  has  time  to  penetrate  beneath  the 
scales  and  kill  the  insects.  Repeat  this  treatment  every  other 
day  until  the  scales  begin  to  loosen  and  fall  off;  then  rub  on 
fresh  lard  or  sweet  oil  every  day  until  the  legs  present  a  smooth, 
healthy  appearance.  Usually  three  applications  of  the  coal-oil 
will  be  sufficient. 

Leg  Weakness. — Sometimes  chicks  of  the  rapidly  growing 
breeds  "outgrow  their  strength,"  and  fail  up  in  the  legs  when 
from  three  to  five  months  of  age.  Sometimes  this  is  caused  by 
lack  of  constitutional  vigor,  but  oftener  from  lack  of  bone-form- 
ing material  in  the  food.  In  the  latter  case  the  remedy  is 
obvious ;  in  the  former  there  is  no  help. 

Rheumatism  is  generally  confined  to  old  fowls,  and  is 
usually  caused  by  damp  houses  and  cold,  swampy  yards.  The 
symptoms  are  lameness  and  stiffness  of  the  joints  of  the  legs. 
Put  the  feet  and  legs  in  mustard  water  (an  even  teaspoonful 
of  pure  ground  mustard  to  a  quart  of  water)  as  hot  as  they 
can  bear  for  ten  minutes;  then  wipe  dry  and  rub  with  "Magic" 
oil,  coal  oil,  or  any  good  stimulating  liniment.  Give  ginger  and 
pepper  in  the  food  and  Douglass  mixture  in  the  drink.  Con- 
tinue the  treatment  daily  until  the  fowl  shows  signs  of  improve- 
ment; then  every  other  day  or  every  third  day  until  they  are 
cured.  Keep  in  a  dry  place. 

Canker  in  fowls  should  not  be  neglected,  for  it  is  often  a 
forerunner  of  roup  in  its  worst  forms.  Chlorate  of  potash  will 
always  cure  if  used  in  season.  Dust  the  canker  spots  with  the 
dry  powder  twice  a  day.  Keep  fowls  that  have  canker  apart 


1130  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

from  the  rest  of  the  flock,  and  cleanse  feed  troughs  and  drink- 
ing vessels  before  they  are  used  for  other  fowls. 

Bumble-foot  is  a  lump  on  the  bottom  of  the  foot,  and  is 
usually  caused  by  jumping  from  a  high  perch  on  to  a  hard  floor. 
When  the  lump  appears  to  contain  matter,  cut  it  open,  press 
the  matter  out,  wash  the  foot  with  warm  castile  soap  suds,  and 
keep  the  fowl  in  a  separate  coop  on  a  bed  of  straw  until  the 
foot  is  well.  To  prevent  this  disease  put  the  roosting  perches 
nearer  the  floor,  or  cover  the  floor  with  four  or  five  inches  of 
dry  earth,  or  else  make  a  ladder  for  the  use  of  the  fowls. 

Diarrhoea  among  young  chicks  is  caused  by  indigestion, 
arising  from  weakness  of  the  digestive  organs,  which  is  caused 
by  lack  of  gravel,  and  by  improper  food.  Chicks  that  are  fed 
on  proper  food,  and  supplied  with  coarse  sand,  or  gravel  of  a 
suitable  size,  are  never  troubled  with  this  form  of  diarrhoea. 
Sometimes  a  cure  can  be  effected  in  the  early  stages  of  this  dis- 
ease by  giving  a  half  teaspoonful  of  ca.stor  oil  at  night,  and  the 
next  morning  a  small  pill  made  of  equal  parts  of  powdered 
chalk,  rhubarb,  and  cayenne  pepper,  wet  up  with  camphor 
enough  to  mold  into  shape.  A  pill  for  a  chick  one  or  two  weeks 
old  should  be  about  half  the  size  of  a  common  pea.  Skip  a 
morning  and  then  give  another  pill,  and  so  on  until  you  have 
given  three.  Give  Douglass  mixture  in  the  drink  every  day 
until  the  chicks  are  well.  Feed  cooked  rice  and  stale  bread 
soaked  in  milk  and  seasoned  with  pepper.  Older  fowls  are 
sometimes  attacked  by  this  form  of  diarrhoea,  and  it  proceeds 
from  the  same  causes.  Give  one  of  the  pills  (as  large  as  a 
common-sized  pea)  daily  until  the  fowls  show  signs  of  improve- 
ment. Give  also  plenty  of  burnt  bone,  food  that  is  easily 
digested,  and  the  Douglass  mixture  once  a  day.  Diarrhoea 
sometimes  becomes  chronic,  and  for  that  I  recommend  the 
hatchet. 

Frost  Bites. — Thaw  by  rubbing  with  snow  or  ice  water ; 
then  bathe  with  camphor  and  afterwards  with  sweet  oil. 

Crop-bound. — When  you  see  one  of  your  fowls  going 
around  with  a  crop  that  looks  twice  as  big  as  it  ought  to,  catch 
her,  and  if  the  crop  is  hard  arid  swollen,  you  may  conclude  that 


POULTRY  DISEASES  AND  THEIR  REMEDIES.  1131 

there  is  some  obstruction  in  the  passage  from  the  crop  to  the 
stomach.  Pour  some  warm  water  down  the  throat,  and  then 
knead  the  crop  gently  until  the  conlents  seem  soft;  then  hold 
the  head  down  and  the  bill  open  and  work  at  the  crop  a  few 
minutes  longer.  Next,  give  a  tablespoonful  of  castor  oil,  and 
shut  the  fowl  up  without  food  for  twelve  hours  or  more.  If 
this  course  of  treatment  does  not  benefit  the  fowl,  cut  open  the 
crop,  and  remove  the  contents  with  a  teaspoon  handle.  Make 
the  cut,  which  should  be  about  an  inch  long,  near  the  top  of  the 
crop.  After  the  crop  has  been  emptied,  oil  the  finger,  and  pass 
it  carefully,  as  far  as  possible,  down  the  passage  to  the  stomach. 
Lastly  sew  up  the  cut,  but  do  n't  sew  all  the  edges  up  together ; 
take  two  or  three  stitches  in  the  cut  of  the  crop,  and  then  sew 
up  the  outer  skin  separately.  Keep  the  fowl  on  soft  cooked 
food,  and  but  little  of  that,  and  away  from  the  other  fowls  for 
a  week  or  so.  Give  no  drink  for  two  or  three  days  after  the 
operation.  In  making  the  cut  take  care  not  to  injure  any 
large  blood  vessel. 

Egg-bound. — When  a  hen  mopes  around  with  hanging 
wings,  appears  in  distress,  and  goes  often  to  the  nest,  but  does 
not  lay,  she  is  egg-bound,  and  the  first  treatment  should  be  a 
large  dose,  say  two  tablespoonfuls  of  castor  oil ;  if  this  does 
not  give  relief  within  a  reasonable  time  inject  sweet  oil  into 
the  oviduct. 

Eggs  Broken  in  Oviduct. — Inject  a  teaspoonful  of  cas- 
tor oil  or  sweet  oil,  but  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  the  hen  will  die. 

Apoplexy  is  caused  by  high  feeding  and  exposure  to  the 
heat  of  unshaded  yards  during  hot  weather.  Sometimes  the 
fowls  that  are  threatened  with  an  attack  appear  dizzy,  but  gen- 
erally they  just  fall  over  and  die  without  giving  any  previous 
warning  of  disease.  When  a  dizzy  fowl  is  discovered,  pour  cold 
water  on  the  head ;  then  give  a  dessert  spoonful  of  castor  oil, 
and  put  the  fowl  in  a  coop  placed  on  the  ground  in  a  shady 
place.  Give  no  food  for  a  day  or  two,  then  moderate  rations 
of  unstimulating  food. 

Soft-shelled  Eggs,  and  eggs  without  shells,  result  from 
lack  of  shell-forming  food,  and  sometimes  from  inflammation  of 


1132  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

the  oviduct  caused  by  over-stimulating  food,  and  by  the  excess- 
ive use  of  "  egg-food."  The  remedies  are  evident. 

Egg-eating. — Fowls  that  have  all  their  wants  supplied, 
and  have  plenty  of  exercise,  never  learn  to  eat  their  eggs  unless 
they  first  get  hold  of  a  broken  egg,  and  thereby  find  out  that  raw 
eggs  are  good.  To  guard  against  such  accidents,  gather  the  eggs 
daily,  furnish  artificial  nest-eggs,  and  do  not  throw  egg-shells 
to  the  hens.  If  you  have  only  one  or  two  egg-eaters,  kill  them 
at  once  (unless  they  are  specially  valuable),  for  one  egg-eater 
will  soon  teach  the  trick  to  every  fowl  on  the  place.  But  if 
the  majority  of  the  fowls  have  taken  to  devouring  the  eggs  as 
fast  as  laid,  arrange  the  nests  so  that  they  will  be  quite  dark 
inside  (better  do  that  any  way),  and  have  a  few  peppered  eggs 
around  in  sight;  also  furnish  exercise  by  scattering  small  grain 
among  the  litter  on  the  floor.  To  prepare  the  peppered  eggs,  chip 
out  a  small  piece  of  shell  from  one  side  of  an  egg,  scoop  out 
most  of  the  contents,  fill  the  cavity  with  red  pepper  mixed  very 
thick  with  the  white  of  an  egg,  and  paste  a  piece  of  white  paper 
over  the  hole.  One  or  two  bites  of  these  prepared  eggs  will  con- 
vince the  erring  fowls  that  "  things  are  not  what  they  seem." 

Feather-eating. — Use  Loomis's  poultry-bit;  it  is  the  only 
sure  cure  that  I  know  of. 

Moulting  is  not  a  disease,  but  it  is  a  critical  time  for  old 
fowls  unless  they  are  well  taken  care  of.  Give  free  range,  feed 
well,  give  the  Douglass  mixture  in  the  drink  three  times  a  week, 
and  the  fowls  will  come  through  all  right. 

Obscure  Diseases  of  Chicks. — It  sometimes  happens 
that  chicks  free  from  lice,  well  fed,  well  housed,  and  well  cared 
for  in  every  respect,  will  droop  around  and  finally  die  without 
any  apparent  cause  for  their  untimely  taking  off.  But  nothing 
ever  happens  in  this  world  without  a  cause  somewhere,  and 
such  cases  the  cause  may  be  found  in  the  parent  stock.  Chicks 
from  fowls  whose  constitutions  have  been  weakened  by  disease, 
or  from  those  whose  vitality  has  been  lowered  by  any  cause, 
will  invariably  be  a  weak,  sickly  lot,  and  if  they  do  not  die  off 
from  sheer  weakness  they  will  readily  succumb  to  the  first  poul- 
try disease  that  comes  along. 


BEES  AND  BEE  CULTURE. 


CHARTKR  XX. 

BEES  AND  BEE  CULTURE.* 

APICULTURE  has  attained  no  mean  rank  among  the  man- 
ual labor  pursuits  of  our  country.  Every  town  and  al- 
most every  neighborhood  has  its  bee-keepers,  some  merely 
amateurs,  with  from  five  to  twenty  colonies,  others  specialists, 
with  from  fifty  to  one  or  two  thousand  colonies.  The  average 
yield  of  honey,  where  the  bees  are  well  cared  for,  is  not  less 
than  from  fifty  to  seventy-five  pounds  per  colony ;  while  from 
one  to  three  hundred  pounds  are  not  uncommon  as  the  product 
of  a  single  colony  and  its  increase  during  the  honey  season. 
The  aggregate  annual  honey  product  of  the  country  runs  so  far 
up  into  the  millions  of  pounds  that  the  cash  value  in  dollars  is 
now  reckoned  by  millions. 

The  importance  of  this  industry  is  further  attested  by  the 
number  and  influence  of  its  associations,  and  by  the  extent  and 
character  of  its  literature.  We  now  have  the  North  American 
Association,  numerous  State  and  inter-state  societies,  while  the 
number  of  county  and  district  associations  in  some  States  is  not 
less  than  eight.  The  meetings  of  these  associations  are  large, 
r.nd  do  very  much  to  foster  the  art. 

There  are  now  eight  excellent  periodicals  in  the  United  States 
devoted  to  bee-keeping,  one  of  which  is  a  weekly.  Nearly  ev- 
ery agricultural  paper  has  its  department  of  the  apiary,  which 
is  also  found  in  many  of  the  general  newspapers.  There  are 
also  six  excellent  books  devoted  to  this  art,  all  of  which  are  ad- 
mirable. Three  of  these  are  large,  full,  recent,  and  invaluable 
to  the  wide-awake  bee-keeper.  One  of  these,  "  Bee-keepers' 
Guide,"  by  the  author  of  this  paper,  first  appeared  in  1876,  and 

*  By  PROFI-SSOU  A.  J.  COOK,  of  the  Michigan  State  Agricultural  College. 


1134          THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

is  now  in  the  thirteenth  thousand.  All  of  this  shows  the  inter- 
est felt  in  apiculture,  which  could  not  exist  were  it  not  that 
there  are  generous  profits  to  sustain  it. 

Apiculture  as  an  avocation  possesses  rare  advantages.  It 
gives  fresh  air,  exercise,  and  health,  especially  to  those  of  seden- 
tary habits  like  lawyers,  doctors,  and  divines.  Langstroth  and 
Dzierzon  are  both  clergymen.  It  affords  healthful  recreation  to 
the  student,  and  greatly  strengthens  the  mental  and  observing 
powers.  It  takes  but  little  time  and  labor,  when  carried  on  in 
a  small  way,  and  from  the  physical  ease  with  which  an  apiary 
can  be  conducted,  by  careful  planning,  it  affords  special  induce- 
ments to  the  women.  Some  of  our  most  intelligent  and  success- 
ful American  bee-keepers  are  ladies.  Mrs.  Harrison,  of  Illinois, 
and  "  Cyula  Liriswick,"  of  Michigan,  rank  among  our  first 
apiarists. 

Hindrances  to  the  Industry. — The  fear  of  stings  is  the 
great  barrier  in  the  way  of  the  spread  of  this  vocation.  Many 
persons  have  such  a  dread  of  bees  that  they  can  not  be  induced 
to  go  near  them.  Those  who  suffer  great  pain  when  stung,  and 
who  are  so  susceptible  to  the  poison  that  the  swelling  is  great 
and  the  fever  and  irritation  long  and  severe,  should  not  enter 
this  field.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that  to  many  who  suffer 
considerably  at  first,  frequent  stings  seem  to  bring  relief.  The 
poison  inoculates  the  system,  and  soon  there  is  no  swelling  and 
little  suffering  from  being  stung.  I  have  known  a  large  num- 
ber of  such  cases.  All  who  are  not  severely  affected  with  the 
poison  need  not  hesitate ;  for  with  the  appliances  at  our  com- 
mand stings  are  easily  avoided,  and  very  soon  all  this  fear  and 
nervousness  will  entirely  disappear. 

Requisites  to  Success. — There  are  a  few  qualities  that 
we  must  have  would  we  succeed.  The  would-be  bee-keeper  must 
have  persistence.  Many  are  faint-hearted,  and  give  up  before 
experience  even  could  promise  any  considerable  success.  Again, 
the  candidate  for  successful  apiculture  must  be  mentally  active, 
and  by  a  thorough  study  of  our  best  books  make  himself  fully 
conversant  with  the  history  and  habits  of  the  bees,  and  the 
methods  which  are  practiced  by  the  most  prosperous  apiarists. 


BEES  AND  REE  CULTURE.  1135 

His  mental  energy  must  also  keep  him,  by  aid  of  the  admirable 
periodicals,  fully  abreast  of  all  the  latest  discoveries  and  inven- 
tions which  bear  on  his  business.  Most  important  of  all,  he 
must  be  prompt  to  do  the  work  of  the  apiary  exactly  on  time. 
Neglect  is  the  cause  of  nearly  all  the  failures  in  apiculture. 
With  but  few  bees  we  may  be  successful  and  have  some  regu- 
lar business  besides  our  bees  ;  but  we  must  be  sure  that  when 
our  bees  need  our  care  and  attention  that  they  surely  have  it. 

Natural  History  of  Bees. —  In  every  colony  of  bees 
there  are,  in  mid-summer,  a  queen,  a  few  hundred  drones,  and 
several  thousand  workers. 

The  Queen  is  the  only  fully  developed  female  in  the  hive. 
She  lays  all  the  eggs,  and  has  no  other  function.  The  queen 
(Fig.  1)  is  long  and  tapering,  her  mouth 
parts  weak,  her  wings  short,  her  sting 
curved,  and  her  posterior  legs  without  the 
pollen-baskets  of  the  worker  bees.  She  is 
much  longer  and  slimmer  than,  either  the 
drones  or  workers,  and  though  not  as  large  FIG.  I.-QUEKN  BEE.* 
as  the  drones,  she  is  a  little  larger  than  the  workers,  so  that  an 
aperture  that  will  just  permit  a  worker  to  pass,  three-sixteenths 
of  an  inch,  will  effectually  blockade  both  queen  and  drones. 

The  queen's  abdomen  is  long  and  plump,  as  it  contains  the 
many  tubed  ovaries  in  which  grow  the  thousands  of  eggs.  The 
queen  of  ted  lays  as  many  as  two  or  three  thousand  eggs  a  day. 
The  eggs  pass  from  the  ovaries  through  a  tube — the  oviduct. 
On  the  side  of  this  (Fig.  2)  is  a  sack,  the  spermatheca,  which 
contains  the  sperm-cells  which  were  received  from  the  drone 
when  mating  took  place.  It  is  estimated  that  this  sack  some- 
times holds  one  thousand  million  sperm-cells. 

The  queen  is  developed  in  a  special  cell  (Fig.  26),  which 
looks  much  like  a  thimble  or  peanut.  This  is  usually  built  on 
the  edge  of  the  comb,  extends  downward,  and  is  much  larger 
than  the  other  cells.  The  cell,  in  natural  swarming,  receives  an 
egg  directly  from  the  queen.  In  case  a  queen  is  killed  or  re- 
moved the  bees  will  build  a  queen  cell  about  a  worker  larva  of 
some  age,  and  thus  hasten  the  advent  of  a  queen,  though  pre- 

*The  illustrations  in  this  article  are  from  Cook's  Bee  Keeper't  Guide. 


1136 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


sumably  not  so  good  a  one.  In  three  days  the  egg  hatches. 
The  queen  larva — most  would  call  it  a  worm  or  maggot — is  fed 
liberally  of  a  rich  food,  called  by  the  keepers  royal  jelly.  So 
much  of  this  rich  food  is  given  her  that  there  is  always  some 

more  than  she  will  need  or  use.  In 
five  days  the  worker  bees  cap  the 
cell.  This  is  eight  days  from  the 
laying  of  the  egg.  The  queen  larva 
then  spins  a  cocoon,  and  in  eight 
days  more — sixteen  days  from  the 
laying  of  the  egg — she  comes  forth 
from  the  cell.  In  three  days,  if  the 
day  is  pleasant,  the  queen  flies  forth 
to  meet  the  drone,  as  pairing  always 
occurs  on  the  wing.  When  she  re- 
turns from  a  successful  marriage  flight 
the  evidences  of  coition  will  appear 
in  a  white  thread  hanging  from  the 
tip  of  her  abdomen.  If  she  fails  to 
find  a  drone  the  first  day  she  will  go 
forth  on  succeeding  days  till  mating 
is  accomplished.  In  two  or  three 
days  after  the  queen  mates  she  commences  to  lay  eggs. 

After  mating  is  accomplished  a  queen  never  leaves  the  hive 
again  except  as  she  goes  with  a  swarm.  The  queen,  if  a  good 
one,  will  often  live  three  or  four  years.  There  is  a  great  dif- 
ference in  the  fecundity  of  queens.  Some  lay  so  abundantly 
that  the  hive  is  kept  overflowing  with  bees;  others  are  so  im- 
potent that  the  colony  is  always  weak  and  inefficient.  The 
difference  is  owing  partly  to  ancestry,  and  partly  to  the  care 
she  receives  while  yet  in  the  larva  state.  If  a  queen  fails  to 
mate  for  twenty  days  after  she  issues  from  the  cell  she  will 
ever  be  worthless. 

The  Drones. —  The  drones  (Fig.  3)  are  the  male  bees. 
They  are  not  as  long  as  the  queens,  but  much  stouter  and 
more  robust  than  either  queen  or  workers.  Like  the  queen, 
they  have  short  mouth  parts,  and  no  pollen-baskets  on  the 


FIG.  2.— OVARIES  OF  QUEEN. 


BEES  AND  BEE  CULTURE. 


1137 


posterior  legs.     Unlike  both  the  queen  and  workers,  their  eyes 
meet  above,  on  top  of  the  head,  and  they  have  no  sting.    When 
they   fly   they  make  a  great  noise,  and 
though   entirely    powerless    to    do   harm, 
they  often  frighten  the  young  bee-keeper 
more   than   do  the  workers.      The  drone 
organs   (Fig.  4)   are   much   like  those  of 
other   male  insects.     In  coition  the  tube 
forming  the   penis,  and  which  holds  the 

sperm-cells,  turns  inside  out,  when  certain  scale-like  projections 
point  back.  This  is  caught  in  the  vulva  of  the  queen  and  held 
fast,  so  it  is  torn  from  the  drone,  causing 
instant  death.  This  is  the  white  thread 
which  hangs  to  the  queen  for  a  day  after 
copulation,  and  which  speaks  certainly  of  her 
success. 

The  only  function  of  the  drones  is  to  fecun- 
date the  queen,  which  act  is  always  performed 
while  on  the  wing.  Successful  coition  seems 
to  demand  the  fullest  activity  of  the  drones. 
In  flight  the  muscles  are  tense,  the  air-tubes 
full ;  and  so  the  tension  on  the  abdomen  nec- 
essary to  extrude  the  male  organ,  and  force 
out  the  full  measure  of  sperm-cells,  is  only 
possible  at  such  times.  Hence  fecundation 
in  confinement  will  probably  never  be  desir- 
.  4.-MALK  GROANS,  able,  if  practicable. 

The  reason  for  so  many  drones  is  that  the 
queen  may  soon  meet  a  drone  when  she  flies  forth,  and  so 
escape  danger  from  bird  or  other  enemy. 

The  drones  are  reared  in  the  large  cells,  (Fig.  10,  a)  which 
are  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  when  capped  reach 
beyond  the  face  of  the  comb,  so  they  are  a  little  more  than  one- 
half  of  an  inch  long.  Like  all  broad  cells,  the  capping  is  convex, 
while  that  of  honey  is  concave.  The  projection  of  drone  brood 
makes  it  very  conspicuous.  The  capping  of  brood  is  always  darker 

than  is  that  of  honey.    The  eggs  from  which  drones  hatch  are  un- 

72 


1138 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


impregnated;  that  is,  they  contain  none  of  the  sperm  cells.  In 
laying  an  egg  the  queen  may  voluntarily  withhold  the  sperm  cells 
by  not  compressing  the  muscular  spernmtheca,  which  she  always 
does  when  laying  in  drone  cells.  Unmated  queens  and  fertile 
workers — really  undeveloped  queens — which  are  physically  un- 
able to  mate,  frequently  lay  eggs.  These  always  produce  males 
or  drones.  Such  drones  are  functionally  perfect.  The  micro- 

scope  shows  that  sperm  cells 
are  always  absent  in  eggs  from 
drone  cells,  and  that  drones  from 
unimpregnated  queens  and  fer- 
tile workers  are  sexually  per- 
fect. 


FIG.  5.— WORKER  BEE. 


FIG.  7.— JAWS  OF  BEES. 


Fiu.  6.— TONGUE  OF  A  WORKER  BEE,  MUCH 

MAGNIFIED. 


FIG.  8.— LF.GS 
OF  BEES. 


mx,  m.r— Maxillae. 
r,c—  Cardos. 


.B-Ligula,  with  sack  dis- 
tended. 
/—Funnel. 


That  drone  bees — the  same 
is  true  of  wasps  and  ants — are 
the  result  of  agamic  reproduc- 
tion or  parthenogenesis,  is  as 
thoroughly  demonstrated  as  any 
law  in  science.  It  was  first  shown  by  the  great  German  bee- 
master,  Dzierzon. 

The  drone  bee  is  longer  in  developing  than  either  queen  or 
worker.     It  is  twenty -four  days  from  the  egg  to  the  fully  devel- 


tit.M  -Stipes. 

I,  I—  Lac  in  iiv.  f—  Cross-section  of  ligula. 

j— Colorless  membrane.  A— Tubular  rod. 

&'— Sheath.  k,  k-  Luliia  pulpi. 

A—  Wuxilhe and  Inblum.  t— Tongue. 

mp.fTiu— Max.  pulpi.  /—Funnel. 

a— Sub  rm-niuru.  K—  Tulmlar  rod. 

m—  Mem  inn.  g,  t—  Colorless  membrane. 

l>,jj—  1'uraglossie. 


BEES  AND  BEE  CULTURE. 


1139 


oped  drone.  The  drones  are  only  present  in  the  hive  at  the 
season  when  mating  is  liable  to  occur.  They  usually  appear 
soon  after  the  fruit  bloom,  and  remain  till  the  close  of  the  sea- 
son, when  the  worker  bees  drive  them  from  the  hive,  and  so 
worry  them  that  death  must  prove  a  sweet  relief.  It  is  prob- 
able that  drones  live  till  functional  activity,  accident,  or  the  gen- 
eral massacre  at  the  close  of  the  season  ends  their  existence. 

The  Worker  Bee.  —  The  worker  bee  (Fig.  5)  is  an 
undeveloped  female  or  queen. 
The  ovaries  are  mere  rudi- 
ments. These  bees  are  much 
shorter  than  either  queen  or 
drone.  They  are  but  little  more 
than  one-half  of  an  inch  in 
length.  The  tongue  is  very 
long  (Fig.  6).  Their  jaws 
(Fig.  7)  are  strong.  Their  pol- 
len baskets  (Fig.  8)  on  the  out- 
side of  the  hind  legs  are  deep 
and  well  fitted  to  carry  the 
pollenarious  food.  Their  stings 
(Fig.  9)  are  strong.  These  are 
composed  of  three  parts,  and 
the  two  outer  portions  are 
barbed,  so  that  when  once  in- 
serted they  can  not  be  with- 
drawn, and  so  are  pulled  out,  C^pol,on8<ick 
which  proves  fatal  to  the  bee.  ^-"rU*.  °:°-0{o<wV,X^ho1- 

I,  I— Hollows  In  lancets.    8— Reservoir. 

'Vho    rimcrm    ia    nalfl    in    o     rrmcfMi       T—Uroove  In  lancet.  K,  K— Valves. 

ine    pOlSOn    IS    IielU    in   a    mUSCU-     M-Tut.efromsaclctore-u-Hollowlnawl. 
i  i      •  ,  servolr.  T.T-HldgesinawL 

lar    sack,   and    is    pressed    out 

through  the  barbed  pieces  when  the  sting  is  used. 

The  tongue  of  the  workers  (Fig.  6)  is  very  complex.  It  is 
really  a  tube  slitted  along  the  under  side,  but  the  sides  of  the 
slit  can  be  approximated  so  that  it  really  becomes  a  tube.  By 
its  use  the  bees  can  sip  slowly  from  long  flowers,  rapidly  from 
a  full  drop  of  honey,  or  can  lap  the  liquid  sweets  from  a  thin 
surface.  With  their  jaws  (Fig.  7)  they  knead  the  wax  and 


Fio.  9.— STINOS  WITH  LANCETS  DRAWN  oif* 

SIDE,  CROSS-SECTION  OF  KTINO,  AND  A 

LANCET,  MUCH  MAOMKIED. 


1140  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

fashion  the  comb.  Large  glands  in  the  head  and  thorax  enable 
them  to  change  the  nectar  to  honey  as  they  bear  it  from  flower 
to  hive.  A  large  sucking  stomach,  anterior  to  the  true  stomach, 
is  the  engine  which  draws  in  the  nectar,  and  the  reservoir  in 
which  it  is  stored  in  transit  from  blossom  to  honey  cells.  The 
large,  deep  pollen  baskets  permit  the  storing  of  pollen  or  glue, 
that  it  may  be  borne  from  flowers  or  buds  to  the  hive.  The 
sting  enables  them  to  defend  their  home  and  stores,  even  though 
done  at  the  sacrifice  of  their  own  lives. 

The  worker  has  come  from  impregnated  eggs,  and  are  de- 
veloped in  the  smaller  horizontal  cells.  (Fig.  10,  c.)  They  are 
sparingly  fed,  and  are  twenty-one  days  from  egg  to  winged  bee. 
The  function  of  the  workers  is  to  do  all  the  work  of  the  hive. 
The  older  bees,  those  over  two  weeks  of  age  in  a  large  normal 
colony,  gather  the  nectar,  collect  the  pollen  and  bee  glue,  and 
defend  the  hive.  The  young  bees  make  the  comb,  nurse  the 
brood,  cap  the  cells — in  fact,  are  the  housekeepers.  In  case 
there  are  few  young  bees,  the  old  bees  may  secrete  wax  and 
work  indoors,  while  if  old  bees  are  scarce,  }roung  bees  will 
commence  to  gather  before  they  are  two  weeks  old.  The 
worker  bees  may  live  several  months,  as  they  do  in  winter.  In 
the  busiest  part  of  the  year  they  live  only  about  forty-five  days. 

Races  of  Bees. — There  are  several  well  marked  races  of 
the  Apis  Mellifica,  or  Honey  Bee. 

BLACK  OR  GERMAN  BEE. — These  are  black  in  color,  modified 
slightly  by  more  or  less  gray  hairs ;  are  rather  ill-tempered, 
have  a  shorter  tongue  than  other  races,  are  not  so  prolific  as  the 
yellow-banded  bees,  and  so  are  generally  being  replaced  by 
other  bees.  They  are,  however,  quicker  to  enter  sections  than 
the  yellow  bees,  and  by  adding  thicker  cappings  make  a  little 
nicer  honey.  There  are  several  varieties  of  this  race,  as  the 
Carniolan,  Heath,  etc. 

ITALIAN  BEES. — These  have  three  yellow  rings  just  back  of 
the  thorax.  The  first  is  narrow,  the  second  wide,  the  third  inter- 
mediate. If  pure,  every  bee  will  possess  these  three  bands. 
The  queen  will  be  solid  yellow  on  the  back  to  near  the  tip  of 
the  abdomen ;  while  the  drones  will  have  large  patches  of  yel- 


BEES  AND  BEE  CULTURE.  1141 

low.  The  queens  direct  from  Italy  seem  very  vigorous  and 
rather  darker  than  those  reared  in  America..  Italians  are  hand- 
some, active,  have  long  tongues,  and  are  very  prolific,  are  easily 
handled,  as  they  are  very  amiable,  and  the  queen  is  easily 
found.  All  these  characteristics  are  very  desirable.  A  variety 
of  the  Italian  with  white  hair  is  called  Albino. 

SYRIANS. — These  bees,  first  imported  by  Jones  &  Benton, 
are  much  like  the  Italians.  The  workers  are  more  yellow  be- 
neath, and  when  they  first  come  forth  from  the  cells  are  shorter 
and  very  dark.  The  queen  is  ringed  the  whole  length  of  her 
abdomen.  The  drones  also  have  regular  rings,  which  are  of  a 
silvery  yellow.  These  bees  have  all  the  excellencies  of  the 
Italians,  except  that  they  are  not  so  amiable.  They  are  very 
prolific,  and  unlike  most  bees,  keep  on  breeding  even  though 
the  workers  are  not  gathering.  I  have  handled  them  now  for 
three  years,  and  have  no  trouble  with  their  irritability.  I 
think  they  are  the  best  bees  yet  domesticated. 

CYPRIAN  BEES. — These  bees  are  much  like  the  Syrians,  from 
which  they  doubtless  sprung,  only  they  are  more  cross. 

Products  of  Bees. — HONEY. — This  is  the  most  important 
bee  product.  It  is  not  made  but  gathered,  although  the  nectar 
of  the  flowers  is  somewhat  changed  as  it  is  conveyed  to  the 
hive.  Necbir  contains  more  cane  sugar  than  does  honey,  and 
is  neutral  in  its  reaction,  while  honey  is  acid.  The  nectar  and 
the  fresh  honey  is  often  very  thin,  but  in  the  cells  it  soon  evap- 
orates. The  bees  never  cap  over  the  cells  containing  honey  till 
by  evaporation  the  honey  becomes  thick.  Honey,  unless  kept 
above  70°  F.,  will  crystallize  or  granulate.  This  is  no  injury ; 
in  fact,  is  one  of  the  readiest  tests  of  purity.  It  is  true  that 
some  honey  never  candies,  though  for  the  most  part  honey 
crystallizes,  so  that  it  is  a  suspicious  circumstance  if  honey  re- 
fuses in  cold  weather  to  granulate.  By  heating  honey  to  180° 
F.,  and  sealing  it  up  air-tight,  it  will  remain  liquid  indefinitely. 
Candied  honey  can  be  readily  reduced  to  the  liquid  state  by 
heat.  If  only  heated  enough  to  melt  it,  it  is  just  as  good  as 
before  it  crystallized.  As  honey  is  more  easily  transported 
when  granulated,  and  as  granulation  in  no  wise  injures  it,  we 


1142 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


may  consider  this  peculiarity  of  honey  a  great  advantage.  The 
function  of  honey  is  to  serve  as  food  for  the  mature  bees,  and 
when  mixed  with  pollen  for  the  brood. 

WAX  AND  COMB. — Wax  is  in  character  and  composition  much 
like  fat.  It  is  secreted  by  the  worker  bees  in  scales,  in  eight 
little  wax  pockets  beneath  the  abdomen.  When  the  hive  is 
destitute  of  comb,  nearly  all  the  bees  are  engaged  in  secreting 
wax ;  while  on  the  .other  hand,  if  the  hive  is  full  of  comb,  few  of 
the  bees  secrete  wax.  The  function  of  the  wax  is  to  form  comb. 
COMB. — (Fig.  10)  is  a  very,  thin,  beautiful  structure  made 

from  wax.  The  cells  are  hexa- 
gonals,  consisting  of  a  hexagonal 
prism  resting  on  a  triangular  pyr- 
amid. The  cells  vary  from  one- 
fourth  inch  (Fig.  10,  a)  in  diam- 
eter— drone  cells  —  to  one-fifth 
of  an  inch  (Fig.  10,  <?)  worker 
cells.  Two  or  three  rows  of 
cells  (Fig.  10,  b)  between  the 
drone  and  worker  comb,  are  ir- 
regular in  size,  neither  worker 
or  drone  size,  but  answer  well 
for  honey.  The  queen  cells  and 
brood  cappings  of  all  cells  are 
partly  composed  of  pollen,  and 
so  are  more  dark,  brittle,  and 
porous.  The  function  of  the  comb  is  to  afford  storage  for  honey 
and  pollen,  and  to  serve  as  a  place  to  rear  brood. 

POLLEN. — This  is  the  "bee-bread,"  and  is  merely  the  gath- 
ered pollen  from  flowers.  It  is  carried  to  the  hive  in  pellets 
packed  into  the  pollen  baskets  on  the  outside  of  the  posterior 
legs.  The  carriers  scrape  it  off  into  the  cells,  when  the  other 
bees  pack  it.  Bees  sometimes  gather  flour,  meal,  etc.,  when 
there  is  no  pollen  to  be  found  in  flowers.  Pollen  contains 
all  the  necessary  food  elements,  including  nitrogen,  and  so  is  a 
typical  food.  The  bees  can  not  rear  brood  without  pollen. 
The  function  of  pollen  is  to  feed  the  bees  and  brood. 


FIG.  10. 


BEES  AND  SEE  CULTURE.  1143 

PROPOLIS. — This  is  the  bee  glue.  It  is  gathered  from  resin- 
ous buds  and  varnished  furniture.  It  is  collected  and  carried 
the  same  as  is  pollen.  Its  function  is  to  seal  up  crevices,  make 
all  tight  about  the  hive,  and  cover  up  any  obnoxious  substance, 
which  can  not  be  removed.  The  bees  will  thus  entomb  mice, 
bumble-bees,  etc. 

Practical  Bee-keeping — HIVES  AND  SECTIONS. — As  the 
bee-keeper  must  have  hives,  and  as  he  can  not  afford  to  have 
different  styles  in  his  apiary,  an  early  consideration  of  hives  is 
desirable.  No  intelligent  bee-keeper,  no  one  who  aims  at  cer- 
tain success,  will  use  box  hives.  They  permit  no  examination 
of  the  bees,  enforce  ignorance,  and  are  worse  than  worthless 
relics  of  the  olden  time.  To  Rev.  L.  L.  Langstroth,  inventor 
of  the  first  practical  movable  frame  hive,  American  apiculture 
is  more  indebted  than  to  any  one  else.  His  great  invention  is 
what  has  lifted  apiculture  into  the  proud  position  which  it 
holds  to-day. 

Let  it  be  stated  and  emphasized  right  here,  that  there  is  nothing 
at  present  about  the  hives  used  by  the  ablest  and  most  progressive 
apiarists  that  is  covered  by  a  patent.  The  vender  of  patent  hives 
never  finds  a  listener,  even,  among  our  informed  bee-keepers. 

LANGSTROTH  HIVE. — As  this  is  the  hive  that  is  almost  uni- 
versally used  by  bee-keepers,  I  will 
describe  no  other.  The  hive,  as  pre- 
ferred by  its  inventor  (Fig.  11)  was 
rather  shallow,  with  a  long,  shallow 
frame.  This  might  be  one  and  one-half 
or  two  story,  as  shown  in  the  figure. 
In  my  own  experience,  after  a  trial 
of  various  forms  of  hive,  I  have  been 
most  pleased  with  the  square  frame.  Fia  U-LA»«"««™ 
The  one  I  prefer  is  styled  the  Gallup  frame.  I  will  describe 
the  hive  that  I  prefer. 

The  body  of  the  hive  (Fig.  12,  a)  is  simply  a  box  made  of 
clear  pine  or  white  wood,  without  top  or  bottom,  one  foot  wide, 
two  feet  long,  and  eleven  and  one-fourth  inches  high.  One  inch 
from  the  top  of  this,  about  the  outside,  shoulder  strips  (Fig. 


1144 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


FIG.  12.— HIVE. 


12,  b]  two  and  one-half  inches  wide   are  nailed.     Just  on  the 
inside,  at  the  upper  edge,  sheet  iron  or  heavy  tin  strips   (Fig. 

12,  e)  three-fourths  of  an  inch 
wide  are  tacked,  so  as  to  pro- 
ject above  one-fourth  of  an 
inch.  On  these  rest  the  frames 
(Fig.  12,  d).  This  keeps  the 
frames  from  being  glued  fast 
to  the  hive.  In  the  middle 
of  one  end  at  the  lower  edge, 
a  strip  eight  inches  long  and 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  wide 


is  sawed  out  to   form  an  en- 
trance. 

The  bottom  board  (Fig. 
13,  a)  is  four  inches  longer  and 
two  inches  wider  than  the  hive.  It  is  nailed  fast  to  supports  (Fig. 
13,  bb),  which  raise  the  hive  four  inches  from  the  earth.  This 
is  not  nailed  fast  to  the  hive,  though  some  prefer  to  have  it 
(Fig.  11).  The  alighting  board 
(Fig.  13,  c]  I  also  prefer  sep- 
arate. The  figure  explains  its  4 


construction.  m 

The  second  story,  or  rather 
half  story  (Fig.  12)  is  also  a  box  without  top  or  bottom,  two 
inches  longer  and  two  inches  wider  than  the  body  of  the  hive, 
and  only  eight  inches  high.  This  also  has  shoulder  pieces  (Fig. 
12,  c),  on  which  may  rest  the  top.  When  in  position  this  second 
story  shuts  around  the  body  and  rests  on  the  shoulders  (Fig. 
12,  b\  as  seen  in  the  figure. 

The  cover   (Fig.  14)   I  make   with  a   gable,  as  it  dries  off 

quicker  after  a  rain,  is  not  so 
apt  to  leak,  and  looks  better. 
This  shuts  around  the  upper 
story  and  rests  on  the  shoul- 
der pieces  (Fig.  12,  c}. 
Some  prefer  to  have  the  entrance  cut  into  the  bottom  board 


FIG.  13. 


M.—  CoVKK. 


BEES  AND  BEE  CULTURE. 


1145 


(Fig.  15),  rather  than  in  the  hive,  where  we  may  close  the  en- 
trance by  simply  pushing  the  hive  back.  Many  bee-keepers  prefer 

a    two-story    hive 

(Fig.  15)  so  that 

the    upper    story 

may  take  a  frame 

the    same    as    the 

lower    story.      In 

such    cases    the 

parts  may  join  by 

a  rabbet  or  a  bevel 

(Fig.  15),  when  the 

cover    may   hinge 

on    to    the   upper 

story.     Some  also 

cut    a    rabbet    on 

the  inner  upper 

edge  to  receive  the 

frames    (Fig.   15), 

but    after    trying 

all  styles  I  think 

the  style  described  Fl°  ^-TWOS-TORY  HIVE. 

above  is,  on  the  whole,  the  best  for  the  practical  bee-keeper. 

The  frames  used  in 
the  country  (Fig.  16) 
are  very  variable.  As 
already  stated,  I  prefer 
the  Gallup,  which  is 
eleven  and  one-fourth 
inches  square  outside 
measure.  It  fits  the 
hive  already  described. 
For  top-bar  I  use  strips 
twelve  and  one -half 
inches  long,  one  inch 
wide,  .and  three-eighths 
FIG.  16. -FRAMES.  of  an  inch  thick,  it  is 


12 

K 
AJUUUCAM. 


18* 


QUINBY. 


11* 


17* 

I. AM. si  K.. I  II. 


19* 
CLOSER  XITD  QUIJIBT.      £ 


A  PA  IK. 


1146 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


FIG.  17. 


very  desirable  to  have  strong  top-bars.     The  end  pieces  are  ten 
and  three-fourths  inches  long,  one  inch  wide,  and  one-fourth  inch 

thick.  The  bottom  piece  is 
eleven  and  one  -  fourth  inches 
long,  one  inch  wide,  and  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  thick.  The 
ends  of  the  top-bar  will  project 
five-eighths  of  an  inch,  so  that 
the  frames  may  be  suspended  in 
the  hive  (Fig.  15). 

It  is  very  important  that  the 
frames  should  always  be  right- 
angled,  perfectly  true,  and  all 
absolutely  alike  in  form  and  size.  To  secure  this,  they  should 
be  made  with  a  gauge.  The  one  I  use  (Fig.  17)  is  very  handy. 
The  steel  spring  (Fig.  17,  b  b)  holds 
the  end-bars  in  place  till  the  top-bar  is 
nailed,  when  it  is  turned  upside  down  c, 
and  the  bottom-bar  tacked ;  then  by  pull- 
ing down  on  the  strap  (Fig.  17,  a)  the 
steel  spring  is  drawn  away  from  the 
frame,  which  can  be  taken  out  all  com- 
plete and  perfect.  I  never  use  a  honey-board  above  the  frames, 
but  cover  with  oil-cloth,  glazed  surface  down,  in  summer,  and 

thick  factory  in  winter.  These 
are  cut  exactly  fourteen  by 
twenty-six  inches. 

A  division-board  (Fig.  18), 
which  is  the  form  of  a  frame, 
1  and  so  made  as  to  make  two 
entirely  separate  compartments 
to  the  hive,  when  used  is  very 
important  in  every  hive.  It  en- 
ables us  to  confine  the  space  in 
fall,  winter,  and  spring  so  that  the 
bees  do  not  have  to  heat  the  whole  space.  They  are  also  impor- 
tant to  enable  us  to  form  nucleus  hives,  soon  to  be  described. 


FIG.  18. 


FIG.  19. 


BEES  AND  JU:E  CULTURE. 


1147 


An  observation  hive  (Fig.  19),  made  to  hold  only  one  frame, 
with  sides  of  glass,  protected  by  doors  hung  on  hinges,  will  af- 
ford great  amusement,  and  afford  opportunity  for  valuable  study 
and  observation. 

SECTIONS. — These  are  small,  shallow  boxes  (Fig.  20)  to  en- 

able  us  to  secure  comb-honey  in  the  most  market- 

j_ I  able  form.     They  should  be  of  white  wood,  and 

very  neat  in  appearance.  The  top  and  bottom 
should  be  three-eighths  of  an  inch  narrower  than 
the  sides,  so  when  placed  together  a  space  is 
formed  that  the  bees  may  readily  pass  through. 
They  may  be  nailed,  united  by  a  dove-tail  (Fig. 
20),  or  consist  of  one  piece,  and  united  only  at 
one  angle  with  a  dove-tail.  They  may  be  from  one  and  throe- 
eighths  to  two  inches  thick,  and  of  a  form  and  size  to  suit  the 
market.  A  very  popular  form  is  four  and  one-fourth  inches 
square,  and  two  inches  deep.  This  holds  a  pound  of  honey. 
The  prize  section  is  five  and  one-fourth  by  six  and  one-fourth 
inches.  Even  smaller  sections  than  the  one  pound  are  now  be- 
The  smaller  sizes  seem  to  sell  more  rapidly,  but  it 

I 


ing  used. 

is  thought  that  we  can   not 

secure    so    much    honey    in 

them. 

FRAMES  AND  CRATES. — If 
we  use  a  two-story  hive  (Fig. 
15),  then  we  may  hang  the 
sections  right  in  a  frame 
(Fig.  21).  The  wide  tins 
(Fig.  21,  t)  secure  the  comb 
in  a  more  regular  form,  and 
are  quite  necessary  if  we  use 
sections  two  inches  deep.  Of 
course  the  wide  frames  which  hold  the  sections  (Fig.  21,  //) 
must  have  a  narrower  bottom-bar,  so  that  the  bees  may  pass 
from  the  lower  story  of  the  hive  up  into  the  sections.  I  have 
now  discarded  the  two-story  hive  and  these  large  frames  for  sec- 
tions except  to  use  in  the  lower  story  of  the  hive,  as  I  much 


FlQ.  21. 


1148  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

prefer  a  crate.  These  (Fig.  22)  sit  just  above  the  frames,  in 
the  upper  half  story,  and  are  very  convenient.  The  bees  can 
not  stick  them  so  terribly  tight  as  they  do  the  frames  in  the 
two-story  hives,  and  it  takes  but  a  moment  to  lift  off  the  upper 
half  story,  remove  the  crate,  and  get  to  the  bees  in  the  brood- 
chamber  or  lower  story.  Some  bee-keepers  hang  frames  on  to 

the  upper  story,  even  when 
it  is  only  a  half  story. 

I  think  it  is  generally 
more  satisfactory  to  buy 
our  sections  where  they  are 
made  by  machinery,  as  they 
will  be  more  beautiful,  and 
FIG.  22.  they  can  not  be  too  nice. 

If  we  make  our  own  hives,  we  shall  need  a  circular  saw.  This 
may  run  by  steam,  water,  horse,  wind,  or  foot  power,  as  the  ex- 
tent of  our  business  and  our  circumstances  suggest.  I  have 
found  the  Barnes  Foot-power  Saw  very  desirable  to  be  used  on 
a  small  scale. 

LOCATION  OF  APIARY. — To  select  a  home,  if  the  prospective 
bee-keeper  is  not  already  located,  is  a  matter  worthy  no  little 
thought.  We  should  aim  to  locate  in  the  midst  of  abundant 
native  honey  plants  of  the  best  sorts,  which  shall  furnish  as 
nearly  as  possible  a  constant  succession  of  nectar-secreting  bloom. 
We  should  also  obtain,  if  possible,  a  monopoly  of  these  plants. 
Six  miles  ought  to  intervene  between  large  apiaries  would  we 
secure  the  best  results.  Nearness  to  a  market,  or  what  will  an- 
swer nearly  as  well,  to  a  depot  or  boat-landing,  is  also  desirable. 
If  we  are  already  located,  and  are  not  free  to  choose,  we  may 
still  rejoice  in  the  fact  that  nearly  every  locality  in  the  United 
States  is  so  rich  in  honey-plants  that  bees  may  be  kept  in  it  at 
a  fair  profit.  Bees  are  often  kept  by  our  most  prosperous  bee- 
keepers in  villages,  or  even  in  cities.  C.  F.  Muth,  the  noted 
apiarist  of  Cincinnati,  keeps  his  bees  on  the  roof  of  his  store. 
The  special  location  of  the  apiary  grounds  is  not  material.  The 
ground  should  be  dry,  and  so  a  slope  to  east,  south,  or  west 
is  to  be  preferred,  especially  if  the  soil  is  wet  and  heavy.  As 


BEES  AND  BEE  CULTURE. 


1149 


shade  is  very  important  in  mid-summer,  a  not  over-dense  grove, 
trimmed  quite  high  so  as  to  be  dry  and  admit  the  early  and 
late  sun  is  very  nice.  Some  utilize  the  apple  orchard  for  the 
purpose  of  shade.  A  grape  vine  (Fig.  23)  or  evergreen  to  the 
south  of  each  hive  furnishes  a  not  very  satisfactory  shade. 
Many  place  the  apiary  in  an  open  space  and  shade  by  use  of  a 
piece  of  tent-cloth  fastened  just  above  the  hive. 

Immediately  about  the 
hives  we  should  have  saw- 
dust, gravel,  coal  ashes,  or 
closely  mown  grass,  as  we 
shall  then  see  without  trou- 
ble any  queen  that  may 
fall  to  the  ground  as  we 
handle  our  bees,  or  that 
may  have  defective  wings 
and  attempts  to  wander 
from  the  hive  at  times  of 
swarming. 

TRANSFERRING. — The  be- 
ginner, and  even  the  expe- 
rienced apiarist,  may  often 
be  able  to  buy  bees  so 
cheaply  in  box  hives  that 
it  will  pay  to  purchase  them 
and  transfer  them  to  mov- 
able comb  hives. 

If  in  the  middle  of  a 
warm  day,  when  the  bees 
are  gathering,  we  approach  a  hive  ;md  blow  enough  smoke  into 
it  (see  article  on  quieting  bees)  to  quiet  the  bees,  we  may  then 
safely  turn  the  hive  bottom  side  up,  and  by  placing  a  box  with- 
out cover  above  the  hive,  this  also  being  bottom  up,  we  can  by 
rapping  on  the  hive  with  a  stick  or  hammer  for  twenty  minutes 
cause  the  bees  to  leave  the  hive  and  go  into  the  box.  Only  a 
few  of  the  young  bees  will  remain  behind. 

The  bees  that  have  been  drummed  out  may  now  be  hived, 


FIG.  23.— HIVE  ANT>  NUCLEUS,  SHADED  BY  A 
GRAPE-VINK. 


1150 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


as  in  swarming  (see  article  on  swarming)  in  a  movable  comb 
hive  on  a  full  set  of  frames  filled  with  foundation.  They  will 
quickly  draw  out  the  foundation,  and  soon  be  as  strong  as  before 
in  brood,  etc.,  and  will  have  a  set  of  combs  that  will  leave  noth- 
ing to  be  desired.  If  this  is  done  while  the  bees  are  gathering 
rapidly  nothing  further  will  be  required,  otherwise  the  bees  will 
need  to  be  fed  till  able  to  gather  sufficient  for  their  needs.  In 
such  cases  from  one  and  one-half  to  two  pounds  should  be  fed 
daily.  A  good  time  to  do  such  work  is  during  fruit  bloom  or 
at  the  dawn  of  the  white  clover  harvest. 

In  the  old  box  hive  there  will  remain  the  comb,  honey, 
brood,  and  some  young  bees.  By  leaving  this  twenty-four  days 
the  bees  will  be  all  hatched  out  and  may  be  drummed  out  as 
before  and  united  with  the  other  bees  after  killing  the  young 
queen  which  they  have  reared.  By  shaking  the  bees  in  front 
of  the  hive  the  queen  will  be  readily  found.  By  using  plenty 
of  smoke,  and  uniting  the  bees  just  at  night,  they  are  made  to 
accept  the  situation  amiably. 

After  this  the  old  honey  in  the  box  hive  should  be  extracted, 
the  comb  melted  up  and  fashioned  into  foundation.  Mr.  Heddon 
first  suggested  this  valuable  improvement  in  the  method  of 
transferring.  The  only  objection  to  it  is  the  danger  of  losing 
the  brood  by  chilling  after  the  removal  of  so  many  bees.  If  the 
weather  is  cold,  the  old  hive  should  be  placed  in  a  warm  room 
till  the  brood  has  hatched  out  sufficiently  to  prevent  this. 

The  old  method  of  cutting  out  the 
combs  and  removing  the  brood  at  once 
to  the  frames  is  expensive  of  time 
and  does  not  secure  first-class  combs. 
When  thought  desirable  the  combs  may 
be  fastened  in  by  tacking  thin  strips 
of  wood  on  each  side  of  the  frames, 
or  wiring  sticks  in  pairs  about  the  frames.  (See  Fig.  24.) 
These  sticks  should  be  removed  in  two  or  three  days  after  the 
transferring  is  completed. 

FEEDING. — It  is  often  true  that  flowers  cease,  either  from 
cold  or  rain,  to  secrete  nectar,  and  frequently,  generally  in  fact, 


FIG.  24. 


BEES  AND  SEE  CULTURE.  1151 

there  is  a  dearth  of  nectar-secreting  bloom  in  midsummer.  At 
such  times  the  bees  are  idle,  and  the  queen,  as  if  possessed  of 
wise  foresight,  ceases  to  lay.  Again,  it  frequently  happens  that 
some  colonies  will  have  too  limited  stores  in  autumn  or  spring, 
and  unless  fed  will  starve.  As  stated  in  the  article  on  trans- 
ferring it  is  sometimes  required  to  feed  in  that  operation. 

It  will  pay  then  to  feed  at  any  time  during  the  season  when 
the  bees  are  unable  for  a  week  or  more  to  gather.  Such  stim- 
ulative feeding,  as  it  is  termed,  often  pays  remarkably  well.  At 
such  times  a  half  pound  per  day  is  quite  sufficient. 

In  autumn,  as  soon  as  the  bees  cease  to  gather,  unless  they 
have  thirty  pounds  of  good  capped  honey  in  their  hives,  they 
must  be  fed  enough  to  make  this  amount. 

It  is  never  wise  to  feed  any  thing  but  good  extracted  honey 
or  syrup  made  of  the  best  granulated  sugar.  This  last  is  as 
good  as  honey,  and  should  be  made  rather  thin — a  quart  of 
water  to  two  of  sugar — that  it  may  not  re-crystallize. 

The  requisites  of  a  good  feeder  are,  that  it  rest  immediately 
above  the  bees,  so  that  they  may  reach  it,  even  if  the  weather 
is  quite  cold.  It  must  not  permit  the  escape  of  heat  from  the 
hive,  must  permit  feeding  without  the  escape  or  disturbance  of 
the  bees. 

The  best  feeder  I  have  ever  used,  and  one  that  fills  all  the 
above  requirements,  was  sent  me  by  John  Smith,  of  Massachu- 
setts, and  which  I  have  styled 
the  Smith  feeder.  It  is  a 
modified  simplicity  feeder, 
and  resembles  the  Shuck 
feeder,  but  is  much  superior 
to  either. 

The  Smith  Feeder  (Fig.  25) 
consists   of  a  two-inch   plank  Fl°-  *  •-*»"»  FEEDK«- 

about  six  by  nine  inches.  In  one  face  of  this  saw-cuts  one- 
half  inch  wide  are  made  to  within  one-half  an  inch  of  the  bot- 
tom, which  are  separated  by  thin,  narrow  partitions.  Two  or 
three  of  the  middle  cuts  do  not  reach  to  the  enc],  so  that  room 
is  left  (Fig.  25,  b)  for  an  inch  and  a  half  augur  hole  (Fig.  25,  c) 


1152         THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

On  the  edge  of  the  face  about  the  cuts,  a  rim  three-eighths  of 
an  inch  high  is  formed  by  tacking  on  strips  of  that  thickness. 
On  top  of  this  rim  a  piece  of  common  wire  gauze  (Fig.  25,  a) 
the  size  of  the  feeder,  is  tacked.  To  use  this,  we  set  the 
augur  hole  just  above  a  similar  hole  in  the  cloth  or  honey-board 
above  the  brood  chamber.  As  this  is  the  only  hole  in  the  cloth 
the  bees  can  only  pass  up  into  the  feeder.  As  the  rim  raises  the 
wire  gauze,  the  bees  can  pass  freely  into  all  the  saw-cuts,  but 
can  not  pass  from  the  feeder  except  into  the  brood  chamber. 
Above  the  feeder,  during  the  early  cold  days  of  spring,  a  sack 
of  sawdust  or  chaff  may  be  placed,  which  serves  to  keep  the  heat 
from  escaping  from  the  hive.  Between  the  feeder  and  this  cover 
I  place  a  piece  of  shingle  or  pasteboard,  so  that  the  sack  will 
not  be  daubed  after  I  have  fed  the  bees. 

To  feed  we  have  only  to  remove  the  cover  of  the  hive,  raise 
the  sack,  if  it  is  on,  and  the  shingle,  and  turn  the  feed  right  on 
the  wire  gauze,  when  it  passes  at  once  to  the  saw-cuts.  If 
some  of  the  bees  are  in  it,  no  harm  is  done,  as  they  can  crawl 
up  the  partitions  and  down  into  the  hive,  when  the  other  bees 
will  soon  clean  them  of  their  sugar  coating.  There  are  many 
feeders  in  use,  but  for  cheapness — any  planing-mill  will  saw  out 
the  blocks  and  cut  the  saw  grooves — convenience  and  excellence, 
I  know  of  no  superior  to  this  Smith  Feeder.  Many  who  use 
close  bottom  boards  pour  the  feed  immediately  into  the  hives. 
Even  if  I  used  such  hives  I  should  still  desire  this  feeder. 

Bees  should  always  be  looked  after  in  the  fall  so  as  never 
to  need  feeding  in  winter.  If,  however,  through  neglect  the 
bees  get  out  of  stores  in  winter  they  should  be  fed  solid,  not 
liquid,  food.  Cakes  of  the  "good  candy,"  yet  to  be  described, 
may  then  be  placed  immediately  above  the  frames  under  the 
cloth  cover.  Grape  sugar,  or  glucose,  should  never  be  used  as 
feed  for  bees.  It  is  unwholesome,  and  its  use  and  manufacture 
even  should  be  frowned  upon  by  the  apiarist. 

QUEEN  REARING. — It  is  not  uncommon  at  any  season  for  the 
bee-keeper  to  find  that  some  of  his  colonies  are  queenless  ;  if 
we  practice  artificial  division,  we  shall  need  queens ;  if  we  wish 
to  change  the  race  of  our  bees  we  have  only  to  introduce  a  queen 


SEES  AND  BEE  CULTURE.  1153 

of  the  desired  race  into  each  colony,  when  presto — the  work  is 
done.  Again,  many  find  in  queen  rearing  for  market  a  profita- 
ble and  pleasant  employment.  Thus  it  is  necessary  to  know 
how  to  rear  good  queens. 

To  secure  queens  of  the  greatest  excellence,  they  should  be 
fed  as  queens  from  the  first,  and  not  fed  as  worker  larvae  for 
one,  two,  or  three  days,  and  then  changed  to  queens.  Again, 
they  should  be  reared  in  large,  vigorous  colonies,  that  they  may 
surely  be  fed  well.  We  have  only  to  remember  that  it  is  only 
quantity  and  quality  of  food  that  accelerates  the  development 
and  produces  a  queen  to  realize  the  value  of  this  position.  If, 
however,  it  is  ever  considered  desirable  to  rear  queens  from  the 
start  in  small  colonies,  we  can  make  it  less  objectionable  by  giv- 
ing little  or  no  other  brood  to  this  colony,  so  that  all  effort  can 
be  concentrated  on  the  developing  queens.  Again,  queens  will 
be  best  if  reared  when  the  bees  are  in  the  height  of  their  ac- 
tivity, during  an  ample  harvest.  At  such  times  all  work  of  the 
hive  is  pushed  with  unwonted  activity,  and  so  the  inchoate 
queens  get  better  treatment.  By  stimulative  feeding  as  de- 
scribed in  the  last  article,  the  apiarist  may  secure  fairly  good 
queens  at  other  seasons  than  when  the  bees  are  rushing  the  nec- 
tar from  bloom  to  hive. 

The  best  queens  are  doubtless  those  that  come  from  cells 
started  by  the  bees  in  preparation  for  natural  swarming.  On 
such  the  young  apiarist  may  well  depend  till  wider  experience 
teaches  him  the  way  to  success  by  a  still  more  artificial  method. 
By  feeding  quite  early  in  the  spring,  at  least  five  weeks  before 
fruit  bloom,  to  stimulate,  and  by  adding  brood  from  other  colo- 
nies, as  they  can  spare  it,  the  best  colony  in  the  apiary  may  be 
early  made  so  strong  that  at  the  very  dawn  of  the  season  they 
will  have  drones  flying,  and  will  have  formed  queen  cells  in 
which  the  queen  will  lay  eggs.  Thus  we  start  out  with  all 
conditions  most  favorable.  Besides,  we  get  queens  before  there 
are  any  drones  except  from  this  or  these  best  colonies,  and  so 
are  pretty  sure  of  pure  fertilization  with  but  little  care. 

The  regular  breeder,  or  he  that  wishes  to  rear  queens  at  all 
times  in  a  season,  can  not  depend  on  queen  cells  naturally 


1154  TEE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

started.  In  this  case  a  comb  of  brood  in  the  middle  of  the  hive 
containing  our  best  queen  is  replaced  by  an  empty  comb,  which 
is  new  and  bright.  In  twenty-four  hours  this  will  be  full  of 
eggs.  This  comb  should  then  be  cut  off  at  the  bottom,  or  holes 
may  be  cut  in  it  to  make  place  for  the  queen  cells,  when  it 
should  be  placed  in  any  hive  containing  a  strong  colony,  from 
which  the  queen  and  all  eggs  and  worker  larvae,  still  uncapped, 
have  been  removed.  The  bees  will  at  once  form  fine  queen 
cells  (Fig.  10)  about  the  edge  of  the  comb  that  was  introduced, 
containing  the  eggs.  In  eight  days  these  cells  will  all  be  capped 
over  and  ready  to  be  used  in  nuclei.  If  desired,  however,  each 
cell  may  be  inclosed  in  a  wire  cage,  the  edge  of  which  is 
pushed  into  the  comb,  and  left  right  in  the  hive,  or  the  whole 
frame  may  be  similarly  inclosed.  As  we  know  that  in  sixteen 
days  from  the  time  the  eggs  were  laid  the  queens  will  come 
forth,  we  shall  know  just  when  to  look  for  their  emergence,  and 
can  be  on  hand  to  take  them  out  as  they  leave  the  cells,  when 
they  can  be  used  at  once  to  form  nuclei  or  given  to  queenless 
colonies  as  desired.  A  virgin  queen,  just  as  she  hatches,  is 
always  received  amicably  by  any  queenless  colony. 

If  we  form  nuclei,  the  cells  must  be  cut  out  before  hatching 
and  each  fastened  into  a  comb  (Fig.  26),  and  with  one  or  two 

other  combs  and  about  a  pint  to  a  quart 
of  bees  put  into  a  new  hive.  Some  who 
use  large  frames  make  small  hives  pur- 
posely for  this,  but  it  is  better  to  use  the 
regular  hive  for  nuclei,  whatever  the  form 

O  ' 

and  size   of  the   frame.     By  the   use  of 
division  boards  the  brood  chamber  can  be 
reduced  so  as  just  to  accommodate  two  or 
three  frames  as  may  be  desired.     In  pro- 
curing combs  with  bees  to  form  a  nucleus 
we   may  go  to   any  hive    in    the   apiary 
PIG.  26. -QUEEN  CEUU       strong  enough  to  spare  the  requisite  num- 
ber of  combs  and  bees,  but  we  must  always  be  very  careful  not  to 
take  the  old  queen,  as  this  would  render  one  of  our  full  colonies 
queenless,  and  insure  the  destruction  of  the  queen  cell  that  we 


BEES  AND  BEE  CULTURE.  1155 

put  in  the  nucleus.  One  or  two  of  the  frames  put  into  the  nu- 
cleus should  contain  brood  in  all  stages,  as  this  keeps  the  bees 
at  work,  and  so  more  contented.  It  is  somewhat  better  to  form 
the  nucleus  twenty-four  hours  before  we  insert  the  queen  cell, 
otherwise  the  bees  may  cut  it  down  and  destroy  it.  Care  is  also 
required  that  too  many  bees  do  not  leave  the  nucleus  and  go 
back  to  the  old  hive  from  which  they  were  taken.  To  avoid 
this  we  may  close  the  entrance  to  the  nucleus  for  the  first  day, 
care  being  taken  that  the  bees  do  not  get  too  little  air  or  too 
much  heat.  In  sixteen  days  the  queen  will  hatch  out,  in  three 
more  she  will  fly  forth  to  mate,  and  in  three  more  will  com- 
mence to  lay,  when  our  nucleus  is  changed  into  a  miniature 
colony  of  bees. 

Some  of  our  best  queen  breeders  use  a  lamp  nursery,  and 
so  rear  their  queens  after  the  cells  are  capped  by  artificial 
heat;  but  these  will  certainly  not  be  desired  by  the  beginner. 

CLIPPING  THE  QUEEN'S  WING. — This  process  does  no  injury  to 
the  queen,  and  as  it  prevents  her  ever  taking  flight,  it  makes 
hiving  swarms  more  easily  accomplished,  and  often  prevents 
swarms  leaving  that  would  otherwise  go  forth  to  parts  unknown. 
I  would  never  think  of  keeping  bees  without  having  the  queen's 
wings  clipped.  This  act  should  be  done  while  her  majesty  is 
yet  in  the  nucleus,  as  then  there  are  so  few  bees  that  the  queen 
is  easily  and  quickly  found.  To  do  this  pick  the  queen  up  by 
the  wings  with  the  right  hand,  then  set  her  feet  on  the  left 
hand,  and  set  the  left  thumb  on  her  feet  so  as  to  hold  her ;  then 
quickly  grasp  some  small  scissors  with  the  right  hand  and  clip 
off  one  of  the  front  wings.  We  should  be  very  careful  not  to 
clip  the  queen  till  we  see  that  she  has  commenced  laying ;  that 
we  may  be  sure  that  she  has  met  the  drone ;  else  we  pre- 
clude mating,  which  must  take  place  on  the  wing,  and  so  our 
queen  will  always  be  barren  or  a  drone  layer,  and  worthless. 

FERTILE  WORKERS. — Every  nucleus  should  be  given  eggs 
every  four  or  five  days,  else  they  may  become,  if  kept  for  some 
time  queenless,  the  abode  of  fertile  workers  which,  as  we  have 
seen,  only  lay  drone  eggs,  and  so  are  worse  than  useless.  If 
any  nucleus  or  colony  is  found  possessed  of  these  pests  it  should 


1156          THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

at  once  be  united  with  a  strong  colony,  which  contains  a  vig- 
orous queen. 

UNITING  COLONIES. — To  unite  two  colonies  we  first,  by  moving 
each  a  few  feet  each  day,  get  them  side  by  side.  We  then  set 
the  stronger  colony  a  little  to  one  side,  place  the  other  hive 
which  is  to  receive  all  the  bees  midway  between  where  the  two 
just  stood,  smoke  both  colonies  thoroughly,  remove  one  queen 
if  both  colonies  have  one,  then  shake  all  the  bees  in  front  of  the 
hive  which  has  been  placed  centrally  as  regards  the  former 
position  of  the  two,  and  set  the  frames  of  the  hives  so  as  to 
alternate  in  the  hive  where  the  bees  are  henceforth  to  stay. 
As  soon  as  the  frames  are  all  adjusted — or  so  many  as  are 
desired — close  the  hive,  and  smoke  the  bees  in  from  the  front ; 
so  much  common  trouble  unites  the  bees  in  one  amiable  broth- 
erhood. Uniting  is  often  desirable,  especially  in  autumn,  when 
by  uniting  two  weak  colonies  or  their  nuclei  we  secure  one 
strong  colony.  Every  apiarist  should  remember  that  strong 
colonies  pay,  weak  ones  never.  So  uniting  at  other  seasons  may 
often  be  very  desirable  and  wise. 

To  INCREASE  THE  NUMBER  OF  COLONIES. — Natural  swarming 
has  several  objections.  It  is  often  carried  so  far  as  to  seri- 
ously weaken  the  bees.  It  requires  close  watching,  or  bees  go 
off.  Hiving  a  swarm  from  some  lofty  tree-top  is  not  always 
easy,  if  it  is  even  possible. 

If,  however,  it  is  practiced,  a  clean  hive  should  be  placed 
where  it  is  to  stand,  and  the  frames  either  empty  or,  better, 
filled  with  comb,  or  foundation  placed  in  it.  We  then  manage  as 
best  we  can  to  shake  the  bees  in  front  of  the  hive.  If  they 
are  on  a  limb  of  a  tree  (Fig.  27)  we  may  be  able  to  saw  it  off 
and  bear  it  to  the  hive,  when  by  a  sudden  shake  all  the  bees 
are  dropped  on  the  alighting  board,  and  quickly  enter  the  hive. 
It  may  be  easier  to  shake  the  cluster  into  a  light  box  or  basket, 
and  then  quickly  carry  and  turn  them  down  in  front  of  their 
prospective  home. 

Hiving  is  made  easier  when  the  queen's  wing  is  clipped. 
This,  too,  will  prevent  the  loss  of  the  colony  if  the  apiarist  is 
away.  The  queen  may  be  lost  as  she  will  come  out  of  the  hive, 


BEES  AND  BEE  CULTURE. 


1157 


and  in  her  attempt  to  leave  may  wander  off  and  fail  to  again 
find  the  hive;  but  the  colony  will  surely  return  soon  after  they 
cluster,  as  they  will  not  leave  without  the  queen. 

To  hive  a  colony  with  queen's  wing  clipped,  we  have  only  to 
step  in  front  of  the  hive  as  the  bees  rush  out,  and  catch  the 
queen  as  she  comes  forth— 
usually  late  in  the  exit — and 
cage  her.  We  may  simply 
place  her  under  a  tumbler.  A 
cloth  is  now  spread  over  the 
old  hive,  and  the  new  hive 
placed  immediately  in  front, 
with  the  queen  in  it.  Soon 
the  bees  will  see  that  they 
have  no  queen,  when  they  will 
break  ranks  and  return,  and 
enter  the  new  hive,  which  con- 
tains the  caged  queen.  When 
all  are  in,  the  hive  should  be 
carried  to  its  desired  location, 
and  at  nightfall  the  queen 
should  be  liberated. 

Artificial  increase  is  at  times 
to  be  preferred  to  swarming. 
It  is  just  as  good,  and  in  its 
practice  a  more  equal  division, 
is  made.  To  do  this  we  form  nuclei,  as  already  described,  and 
then  simply  build  them  up  into  strong  colonies  by  adding  bees 
and  brood  from  other  colonies  as  they  can  spare  them.  Here, 
as  in  forming  nuclei,  great  pains  is  required  that  the  old  queen 
is  not  carried  with  the  bees  that  are  added  to  the  nuclei.  When 
frames  of  brood  are  removed  from  a  hive  their  place  should  be 
filled  by  foundation.  This  is  so  valuable  that  no  apiarist  can 
afford  ever  to  put  empty  frames  into  his  hives. 

To  PREVENT  SWARMING. — When  the  apiarist  does  not  wish 
any  further  increase,  it  is  sometimes  very  desirable  to  keep  the 
swarming  impulse  in  check.  This  can  be  done  usually  by  ex- 


FIG.  27. 


1158  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

tracting  or  giving  abundant  room  for  the  bees  to  work  in.  If 
the  bees  will  swarm,  they  may  be  hived  with  a  colony  which 
previously  swarmed — a  day  or  two  before — after  we  destroy 
the  queen  cells  of  the  latter.  They  are  now  just  as  strong, 
and  in  nearly  the  same  condition  as  before,  except  their  home 
and  location  are  changed.  This  will  usually  stop  all  further 
desire  to  swarm,  and  the  bees  will  settle  down  to  earnest  work 
in  sections  or  frames.  If  they  still  are  bent  on  a  march,  we  can 
cut  this  short  surely  by  caging  the  queen  and  forming  a  nucleus 
with  her,  which  we  place  just  above  the  old  colony  (Fig.  23). 
As  she  fills  the  combs  with  eggs  they  can  be  exchanged  for 
empty  combs  from  some  needy  nucleus  or  colony.  In  eight 
days  the  queen  cells  in  the  old  colony  may  be  destroyed,  and 
the  queen  returned.  The  bees  will  have  gone  to  work,  and  now 
will  think  no  more  of  migration. 

How  TO  ITALIANIZE. — Italian  bees  are  not  only  very  superior 
to  black  bees,  but,  as  they  are  far  more  amiable,  they  are  by 
far  the  most  desirable  for  the  beginner.  The  new  bees,  Syrians 
and  Cyprians,  introduced  by  Messrs.  Jones  and  Benton,  are  in 
some  respects  more  valuable  than  are  the  Italians ;  but  their 
irritability  makes  them  less  desirable  than  the  Italians,  espe- 
cially to  the  novice. 

From  what  we  have  learned  of  the  natural  history  of  bees, 
we  see  that  to  change  our  bees  we  have  only  to  introduce  a 
new  queen.  The  old  bees  soon  die,  and  in  three  months  during 
summer  every  bee  will  be  changed  to  the  new  race. 

To  INTRODUCE  A  QUEEN. — If  we  take  out  the  old  queen,  then 
keep  the  colony  queenless  for  three  days,  after  which  we  destroy 
the  queen  cells,  we  may  then  let  the  new  queen  run  right  in  at 
the  entrance,  smoking  the  bees  all  the  time.  Mr.  Henry  Alley 
says  that  by  use  of  tobacco-smoke  this  can  be  made  invariably 
successful.  If  a  very  valuable  queen  is  to  be  introduced  it  is  best 
to  form  a  nucleus  of  all  hatching  brood  with  no  bees.  Put  in  the 
queen,  and  shut  up  the  hive.  If  this  is  done  at  dawn  there 
will  be  enough  bees  by  night  to  protect  the  queen,  even  if  the 
night  is  a  little  chill,  and  soon  we  may  have  a  strong  colony  by 
adding  enough  brood. 


BEES  AND  BEE  CULTURE. 


1159 


At  present  a  popular  shipping  cage  is  known  as  the  Poet 
cage  (Fig.  28).  One  side  of  this  is  covered  by  a  slide  of  tin, 
and  on  three  sides  are  tin  points  which  may  be  turned  at  right- 
angles  to  the  cage,  as  seen  in  the  figure.  At  one  end  candy  is 
placed  in  small  holes,  so  as  to  be  of  easy  access  to  the  bees. 
To  introduce  a  queen  in  this 
cage  is  easy,  and  generally 
successful.  We  turn  the  tin 
points,  as  seen  in  the  figure, 
and  press  the  cage  against  a 
smooth  piece  of  comb,  so  it 
may  cover  both  capped  brood 
and  honey.  The  tin  points 
will  hold  it  firmly  to  the 
comb.  We  now  pull  out  the 


Fio.  28. 


tin  which  lies  against  the  comb.  Soon  the  bees  cut  through  the 
comb  by  use  of  their  jaws,  and  liberate  the  queen,  when  she  is 
almost  invariably  well  received. 

SHIPPING  QUEENS. — This  same  cage  is  very  convenient  for 
shipping  queens.  In  this  case  the  wire  gauze  is  covered  by  a 
thin  piece  of  wood  (Fig.  28),  which  is  held  out  from  the  gauze 
so  as  to  give  air,  and  yet  prevent  the  mail  agents  from  being 
stung  while  handling  the  cages. 

THE  GOOD  CANDY. — While  being  carried  in  the  mails  the  bees 
must  have  food.  It  used  to  be  common  to  give  them  honey; 
but  this  often  run  out  and  daubed  the  mails,  which  caused 
the  United  States  authorities  to  exclude  bees  from  the  mails. 
Owing  to  the  distance  of  express  offices,  and  the  expense  of 
sending  by  express,  this  worked  great  injustice  to  many.  This 
order  was  revoked  by  the  mail  authorities,  but  only  on  condi- 
tions that  there  should  always  be  the  double  cover,  and  no  food 
that  could  possibly  soil  the  mails.  This  saves  hundreds  of  dol- 
lars each  year,  and  no  shipper  should  presume  to  disregard  either 
of  these  rules.  The  Good  candy  is  simply  granulated  sugar 
moistened  with  extracted  honey,  and  pressed  into  small  auger 
holes  which  are  cut  out  a  little  from  the  side  of  the  chamber 
next  the  bees,  so  that  the  bees  can  reach  the  food.  This  candy 


1160 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


keeps  moist,  and  so  will  keep  the  bees  in  health  for  a  long  jour- 
ney. It  should  not  be  too  wet,  or  it  will  drip;  nor  too  dry,  or 
it  will  crumble. 

SHIPPING  BEES. — To  ship  nuclei  or  full  colonies,  great  care 
should  be  exercised  that  the  frames  are  so  fastened  that  even 
the  roughest  handling  will  not  move  them.  The 
combs  should  be  old,  so  they  will  not  break  out, 
or  else  wired,  as  when  we  use  wired  foundation. 
The  ventilation  should  also  be  ample  and 
perfect.  With  a  large  colony,  in  hot 
weather,  not  only  the  entrance,  but  the 
whole  top  of  the  hive  must  be  thus 
covered  with  gauze. 

EXTRACTING  AND  THE  EXTRACTOR. — Ex-  Fl°- 

tracted  honey  can  be  produced  in  double  the  quantities  of  comb 
honey,  and  is  getting  to  have  a  large  and  regular  demand.  By 
extracting  swarming  can  be  restricted,  and  often  it  would  pay 
to  extract  even  were  there  no  use  for  the  extracted  honey,  as, 
unless  extracted,  the  space  for  brood  is  so  restricted  that  breed- 
ing nearly  or  wholly  ceases.  Well  then  has  it  been  said  that 

few  apiarian  inventions 
equal  in  value  the  honey 
extractor. 

The  honey  extractor 
(Fig.  29)  should  be  of 
metal,  should  run  with 
gearing,  should  hold  one 
or  two  hundred  pounds 
of  honey  beneath  the  re- 


FiG.  30. 


volving  frame  which  car- 


ries the  combs,  should 
have  a  molasses  gate  for  a  faucet,  and  should  have  a  movable 
wire  basket  to  use  in  extracting  from  pieces  of  comb  which 

break  out  of  the  frames. 

• 

To  extract,  we  ought  to  have  a  comb  basket  (Fig.  30),  which 
shall  hold  all  the  frames  of  a  single  hive,  and  shall  have  close 
covers.  To  get  the  bees  from  a  frame  of  comb,  first  give  the 


BEES  AND  BEE  CULTURE. 


FIG.  31.— BINGHAM  KNIFE. 


latter  a  quick,  sharp  jerk,  then  by  use  of  Cook's  brush,  a  pine 
twig,  a  bunch  of  asparagus,  or  a  large  feather,  brush  oil  the 
bees.  If  the  honey  is  capped  over,  it  must  be  uncapped.  To 
do  this  we  ought  to  have  a  knife  (Fig.  31)  with  a  beveled  edge. 
Such  knives  are  incomparably  superior  to  others.  While  extract- 
ing through  the  season  it  is  best  to  extract  just  before  the  bees 

cap  the  honey.  This  prevents 
t.  the  labor  of  uncapping,  and  if  the 
honey  is  kept  in  a  dry,  warm  room 
(and  honey  should  never  be  kept 
in  any  other)  there  will  be  no  danger  of  fermentation.  While 
extracting,  if  any  of  the  combs  have  uncapped  brood  in  them 
we  must  turn  with  a  gentle  motion,  and  some  longer.  This  will 
extract  all  the  honey,  and  disturb  none  of  the  larvae. 

After  it  is  extracted,  the  honey  should  be  kept  in  an  open 
barrel  or  can,  with  a  porous  cloth  spread  over  it.  This  secures 
the  requisite  evaporation,  so  that  the  honey  "  ripens  "  as  thor- 
oughly as  if  left  in  the  hive  till  capped.  In  extracting  in  the 
fall,  when  gathering  has  ceased,  the  bee-tent  already  referred  to 
is  all-desirable. 

HANDLING  BEES. — The  fear  of  bees,  which 
deters  so  many  from  becoming  bee-keepers,  is 
entirely  unnecessary.  Unless  the  sting  of  bees 
is  terribly  poisonous,  no  one  need  hesitate  for 
this  reason.  I  have  had  classes  for  the  past 
fifteen  years  ranging  from  fifteen  to  forty,  and 
of  the  whole  number  only  two  would  be  inter- 
dicted from  this  cause.  The  sting  from  a  bee 
also  inoculates,  so  that  the  poison  from  each 
successive  sting  is  less  and  less  virulent. 

Again,  the  young  bee-keeper  can  so  protect  himself  by  veil, 
gloves — though  these  will  soon  be  discarded  as  undesirable  and 
clumsy — and  bee-tent,  already  referred  to,  that  stings  will  not 
be  received  at  all.  Soon,  with  experience,  all  dread  or  fear  of 
this  kind  will  wholly  disappear.  The  best  bee-veil  (Fig.  32)  is 
made  by  sewing  black  tarlatan  to  a  common,  cheap  hat.  The  tar- 
latan should  be  strong.  If  gloves  are  used,  rubber  ones  are  best. 


FIG.  32. 


1162          THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

To  smoke  bees,  which  in  nearly  all  cases  will  quiet  them  so 
they  will  not  sting  unless  pinched,  a  "  bellows  smoker "  (Fig. 
33)  is  very  desirable.  To  use  these  we  blow  a  little  smoke  into 
the  entrance  of  the  hive,  then  take  off  the  cover  and  smoke 
them  thoroughly  from  above.  This  smoking  causes  the  bees  to 
fill  with  honey,  in  which  state  they  are  kind  and  amiable.  The 
black  and  Italian  bees  are  almost  always  easily  subdued  by 
smoke.  The  Cyprian  and  Syrian  bees  are  sometimes  uncontroll- 
able by  its  use ;  for  which  reason  the  beginner  better  always 

have  Italian  bees.  To  smoke  bees, 
nothing  is  better  for  fuel  than  wood 
in  the  first  stage  of  decay. 

It  is  well  known  to  all  bee- 
keepers that  nothing  irritates  bees 
like  quick  motions ;  therefore  in 
handling  bees  he  who  would  not 
be  stung  must  never  strike  at  them,  shake  his  head,  or  in  any 
way  act  as  if  nervous.  It  is  doubtless  this — quick  jerks  or 
movements — which  causes  some  to  be  stung  so  frequently,  in- 
stead of  any  odor  of  perspiration. 

In  case  bees  attack  one  while  he  is  unprotected,  it  is  better 
to  cover  the  face  with  the  hands  and  quietly  walk  into  the  near- 
est room,  or  bury  the  head  in  thick  grass  or  bushes.  If  horses 
are  attacked  they  should  be  driven  quickly  into  a  barn,  as  bees 
are  slow  to  enter  a  building.  Ammonia  is  the  best  antidote  for 
bee  poison.  If  horses  are  badly  stung,  blankets  wet  in  cold 
water  should  be  spread  over  them. 

COMB  FOUNDATION. — This  is  made  of  bees-wax,  and  except 
for  thickness,  is  nearly  like  the  natural  comb  just  as  the  bees 
commence  to  raise  the  cells,  and  is  as  acceptable  to  the  bees. 
As  foundation  saves  the  bees  the  expensive  work  of  secreting 
wax  for  comb,  it  pays  an  immense  profit  on  its  cost,  besides  se- 
curing beautiful,  straight  combs.  Foundation  (Fig.  34),  to  be 
of  the  best,  must  have  a  very  thin  base,  and  high,  thick  side 
walls  which  ought  to  be  loosely  pressed  in  the  manufacture. 
There  are  two  styles  of  foundation  machines,  the  roller  and  the 
press.  Both  give  excellent  foundation,  though  the  press  alone 


BEES  AND  BEE  CULTURE. 


1163 


FIG.  31.— COMB  FOUNDATION. 


stamps  the  foundation  right  into  the  wired  frames.  To  make 
foundation,  wax  sheets  are  first  formed  by  dipping  a  board  into 
melted  wax,  then  into  cold  water.  The  sheets  are  then  passed 
through  between  two  stamped  rollers,  or  pressed  by  use  of 
the  plates  of  the  press,  which  opens  like  a  book  to  receive  the 
sheets. 

It  is  best  to  use  only  worker  foundation,  and  I  should  not 
wish  it  lighter  than  a  pound  to  seven  square  feet,  even  when  used 
in  sections.  Foundation  can  be 
used  with  great  profit,  either  in 
the  brood  frames  or  sections. 
In  the  latter  it  is  best  held  in 
by  dipping  the  edge  in  melted 
wax  to  which  a  little  resin  has 
been  added.  It  should  be  the 
size  of  the  section,  and  ought  to 
be  fastened  exactly  in  the  middle  of  the  top  bar.  In  the  brood 
frames  the  foundation  may  be  fastened  as  suggested  above,  or 
it  may  be  made  to  adhere  by  pressure,  or  best  of  all,  it  may  be 
pressed  into  wired  frames  where  it  must  be  held  true,  can  never 
warp  or  sag,  or  drop  from  the  frame.  If 
the  foundation  is  pressed  into  wired  frames 
when  stamped,  No.  36  tinned  wire  is  used ; 
if  it  is  to  be  pressed  in  by  hand,  then  No.  30 
wire  is  best.  In  this  case  the  foundation  is 
laid  under  the  wires  (Fig.  35),  which  are  then  pressed  in  by 
using  a  common  button  hook  with  a  groove  cut  into  the  convex 
side  of  the  hook. 

SAVE  THE  WAX. — As  foundation  has  become  so  important 
an  article,  wax  is  now  in  great  demand.  Every  scrap  should 
be  saved.  Whenever  we  see  drone  comb,  with  or  without  brood, 
it  should  be  cut  out  and  melted.  Old  combs,  all  pieces,  and  the 
cappings,  after  draining  off  the  honey,  should  be  similarly 
treated.  To  melt  the  wax,  the  comb  may  be  placed  in  a  bag 
and  this  in  hot  water,  care  being  taken  that  the  bag  does  not 
touch  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  holding  the  water,  or  it  will  be 
burned.  A  better  way  to  save  the  wax  is  to  use  a  regular  wax 


s 


\ 


1164 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


extractor  (Fig.  36.)  This  consists  of  an  inner  perforated  vessel, 
which  rests  in  a  steamer,  which  rests  on  a  vessel  containing 
water.  By  its  use,  we  get  our  wax  in  nice  condition  with  no 
trouble,  and  save  it  all.  By  letting  the  wax  cool  slowly  all 
impurities  settle. 

MARKETING  HONEY. — To  secure  the  best  price  for  our  honey, 
it  should  be  in  clean  sections  or  very  neat  vessels;  should  be  in 
quantities  from  one  pound,  or  even  half  pound,  to  two  pounds ; 


FIG.  36.— IN  THREE  PARTS. 


should  be  thoroughly  graded,  and  should  bear  the  name  of  the 
producer  on  the  showy  label  that  is  affixed  to  it. 

Extracted  honey  should  be  put  into  neat  pails  with  showy 
labels,  or  else  into  glass  cans  or  bottles,  as  the  market  demands. 
The  labels  on  vessels  containing  extracted  honey  should  state 
that  granulation  is  the  best  test  of  purity,  and  should  state  that 
mild  heat  would  reliquefy  with  no  loss  of  quality. 

If  all  bee-keepers  would  follow  the  above  directions,  and 
would  see  to  it  that  all  groceries  had  at  all  times  honey  on  hand 
for  sale,  there  would  be  almost  no  limit  to  the  amount  of  honey 
that  could  be  sold,  and  at  good  prices. 

HONEY  PLANTS. — Though  the  principal  part  of  the  honey 
comes  from  bloom  of  plants,  yet  at  times  the  bees  get  no  small 
amount  from  insect  secretions,'  from  the  juices  of  plants,  and 
other  glandular  secretions  than  those  of  the  flowers.  In  visit- 
ing flowers  bees  do  great  good  in  effecting  fertilization,  and  never 
injury,  as  is  sometimes  affirmed  by  those  who  know  nothing  of 
the  matter. 


BEES  AND  BEE  CULTURE. 


1165 


The  principal  honey  plants  are  the  willows  and  maples,  only 
important  as  they  come  so  early  that  they  stimulate  early  breed- 
ing, the  fruit  bloom,  white  and  alsike  clover  (Fig.  37),  raspberry 
bloom,  locust,  melilot  or  sweet  clover,  the  incomparable  bass- 
wood  (Fig.  38),  and  later 
the  fall  bloom,  which  in- 
cludes buckwheat,  asters 
(Fig.  39),  golden -rods, 
bonesets,  and  many  other 
composite  plants  which 
yield  bountifully  of  rich 
golden  honey.  These 
are  the  standard  honey 
plants  which  can  be  de- 
pended on,  while  there 
are  many  others  which 
can  be  planted  to  supple- 
ment the  ones  mentioned 
above.  Of  these  the  mus- 
tards, rape,  borage,  cat- 
nip, motherwort,  Rocky 
Mountain  bee-plant,  fig- 
wort,  and  spider  -  plant 
are  the  most  valuable. 
These  can  be  set  out  so 
as  to  furnish  pasturage 
at  any  desired  time. 

It  will  pay  well  for 
bee-keepers  to  set  out 
basswoods  and  locusts 
along  the  road-side,  scat-  FIG.  37. 

ter  figwort,  Rocky  Mountain  bee-plant,  catnip,  and  motherwort 
in  all  waste  places,  and  by  furnishing  seed,  if  that  be  necessary, 
induce  their  neighbors  to  sow  liberally  with  alsike  clover.  There 
is  no  question  but  that  by  taking  heed  to  these  suggestions  the 
honey  product  can  be  much  increased. 

To  close  this  subject,  I  must  refer  to  the  oft-repeated  accu- 


1166 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


sation  that  bees  destroy  grapes.  After  great  pains  to  learn  the 
truth  of  this  matter,  I  fully  believe  that  bees  never  attack  and 
destroy  sound  grapes.  Let  bird,  wasp,  or  nature  first  perforate 

the  grape, 
then  the  bees 
are  quick  to 
find  the  ooz- 
ing juice  and 
suck  it  up. 
The  great 
raids  usually 
are  made 
on  tender- 
s.k  i  n  n  e  d 
grapes  like 
the  D  e  1  a- 


wares,  when  they  are  very 
and  at  the  time  of  a 
very  warm,  damp  atmosphere. 
At  such  times  the  bees  all  at 
once,  as  if  moved  by  a  com- 
mon impulse,  swarm  on  the 
grapes,  and  soon  rob  them  of 
their  juice.  Now  no  one  who 
knows  the  habits  of  bees 
would  or  could  believe  that 
they  fell  all  at  once  to  eat- 
ing the  grapes ;  but  let  na- 
ture once  puncture  the  fruit  so  that  the  juice  exudes,  and  then 
it  would  be  exactly  like  bees  to  essay  to  pre- 
vent the  waste.  I  have  never  seen  it,  but  I 
believe  in  all  such  cases  close  observation  would 
detect  the  punctures  and  the  oozing  drops. 

WINTERING. — The  knowledge  to  winter  bees 
safely  would  be  worth  a  great  sum  to  bee-keep- 
ers. As  often  as  once  in  two  .or  three  win- 
ters there  is  such  a  mortality  among  bees  that  serious  loss  and 


FIG.  38. 


FIG.  39. 


SEES  AND  BEE  CULTURE.  1167 

discouragement  confront  the  apiarist.  Yet  the  fact  that  some  of 
our  number  meet  with  no  loss  encourages  us  to  believe  that  with 
more  knowledge  and  care  loss  from  this  cause  will  be  unknown. 
I  have  now  wintered  for  several  years  in  our  cellar,  a  period 
covering  two  disastrous  winters,  with  no  loss.  I  have  known  of 
several  similar  cases. 

To  winter  bees  the  most  successfully,  every  winter  they 
must  be  kept  as  inactive  as  possible.  To  secure  this  bees  should 
be  unmolested,  should  be  kept  in  a  uniform  temperature  of  from 
35°  to  45°  F.  about  the  hives,  should  have  thirty  pounds  of 
good  capped  stores,  and  should  be  kept  all  the  time  in  a  good, 
pure  atmosphere.  This  last  requires  good  ventilation.  I  think 
the  presence  of  pollen  in  the  hive  will  generally  cause  no  harm, 
but  sometimes  it  certainly  brings  disease  and  death ;  hence  I 
would  advise  its  preclusion,  for  the  most  part,  from  the  hives  in 
winter,  especially  as  this  causes  little  pains  and  trouble. 

The  uniform  temperature  would  not  be  necessar-y  if  the  bees 
could  fly  every  week  or  two,  so  in  the  southern  part  of  our 
country  bees  need  no  protection,  as  they  invariably  winter  well 
on  their  summer  stands ;  nor  is  pollen  harmful  in  such  a  climate. 
In  the  North,  during  open  winters,  bees  will  winter  well  with  no 
protection ;  but  as  the  severe  seasons  come  so  frequently,  it  is 
never  wise  to  neglect  preparation  for  the  most  rigorous  season. 

To  secure  the  uniform  temperature  some  use  chaff  hives. 
These  are  simply  double-walled  hives,  with  a  filling  of  dry  saw- 
dust or  chaff.  With  this  arrangement  a  four  or  six  inch  wall 
bounds  the  bees  on  every  side  and  above  and  below.  The  open- 
ing for  the  bees  to  pass  in  and  out  exists  in  winter,  so  the  bees 
can  fly  if  the  weather  induces  flight.  The  objections  to  such 
hives  are — cost,  weight,  making  them  heavy  and  awkward  to 
handle,  and  too  frequent  failure  even  in  the  hands  of  their  best 
friends.  Yet  some  of  our  ablest  apiarists  praise  them  as  most 
desirable. 

The  other  way  to  winter  is  in  a  thick-walled  house,  or,  bet- 
ter, a  cellar,  where  by  proper  ventilation  the  air  can  be  kept 
sweet  and  wholesome  all  the  time,  and  yet  the  temperature  will 
remain  invariable.  The  cellar  is  only  better  as  the  earth  aids 


1168  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

us  to  maintain  the  desirable  temperature.  That  such  a  room 
should  always  be  just  right,  a  tube  the  size  of  a  small  stove- 
pipe should  run  from  near  its  bottom  to  connect  with  the  pipe 
of  a  stove  in  the  room  above  which  is  much  used  in  winter. 
Another  larger  pipe  of  tile  should  run  one  or  two  hundred  feet 
under  ground  below  the  influence  of  out-door  temperature,  con- 
necting the  bottom  of  the  cellar  with  the  outer  air.  Thus  when- 
ever a  fire  burns  in  the  room  above  the  air  is  drawn  from  the 
cellar,  and  its  place  taken  by  other  air  drawn  through  the  long 
sub-earth  pipe  from  out-doors.  This  tempers  the  temperature  in 
rigorous  winter,  and  cools  it  when  the  weather  warms  up  in 
spring.  The  cellar  should  by  all  means  be  mouse-proof.  I  believe 
if  bees  are  properly  prepared  they  will  always  winter  in  such  a 
cellar. 

To  prepare  bees  for  winter  they  should  be  kept  breeding  till 
autumn  by  feeding  if  necessary ;  should  be  strong,  which  in 
case  of  nuclei  and  weak  colonies  necessitates  uniting. 

As  soon  as  the  honey  season  is  over  see  that  each  colony 
has  thirty  pounds  of  good  capped  honey  on  just  enough  frames 
to  comfortably  contain  them.  I  only  use  eight  of  the  Gallup 
frames.  Confine  them  by  use  of  division  boards.  Cover  above 
and  at  ends  with  thick,  warm  sacks  of  dry  sawdust  on  chaff. 
I  would  preclude  pollen  as  much  as  possible,  and  would  cut  a 
small  hole  through  the  center  of  each  comb,  so  that  the  bees  can 
pass  from  one  comb  to  another  without  passing  around.  Close 
the  entrance  so  that  it  is  not  more  than  an  inch  long,  when  if 
in  chaff  hives  they  are  ready  for  winter.  If  to  be  put  into  the 
cellar  leave  them  till  just  before  cold  weather  comes,  and  then 
carefully  remove  to  winter  quarters.  When  in  the  cellar  I  re- 
move the  cover  to  the  hive,  but  not  the  sawdust  sack,  and  open 
the  entrance  wide.  The  cellar  should  be  dark,  for  if  not,  and 
the  bees  become  a  little  too  warm,  they  will  be  attracted  to  the 
light  and  never  again  reach  their  hives.  Most  persons  say  that 
the  cellar  should  be  entirely  dry.  True,  the  atmosphere  should 
be  dry  and  sweet,  but  a  stream  of  water  passing  through  a  cel- 
lar, or  a  cistern  full  of  water  is  an  advantage,  as  the  latent 
heat  in  the  water  helps  to  preserve  the  uniformity  of  temper- 


BEES  AND  BEE  CULT URE.  1169 

ature.     Our  cellar  has  a  stream  of  water  passing  through  it,  and 
has  been  used  with  entire  satisfaction. 

If  every  thing  is  arranged  as  described  above,  the  bees  will 
continue  quiet  in  the  cellar  from  November  till  April.  If,  how- 
ever, the  bees  become  uneasy  in  winter,  they  need  to  empty 
their  distended  intestines,  and  should  be  carried  from  the  cellar 
the  first  warm  day  suitable  for  a  flight.  After  the  cleansing 
flight  they  should  be  returned  to  the  cellar.  Cooling  off  the 
cellar  or  enlarging  the  opening  of  the  hive  will  often  quiet  the 
bees.  If  the  bees  have  not  sufficient  food  for  winter  they  should 
be  fed  good  honey  or  syrup  made  of  granulated  sugar,  which  is 
equally  good.  If  destitute  of  food  in  mid-winter,  which  ought 
never  to  occur,  they  should  be  fed  common  or  the  "Good  candy." 
SPRING  DWINDLING. — By  this  is  meant  the  dying  off  of  the 
bees  in  spring.  It  is  often  the  source  of  terrible  loss.  The 
cause  is  poor  wintering,  and  few  and  feeble  bees  in  spring.  The 
remedy  is  care  to  winter  well,  protection  from  cold  in  spring, 
and  crowding  by  use  of  the  division  board,  so  that  the  bees  shall 
have  only  so  many  frames  as  they  can  cover.  I  have  never 
lost  a  colony  by  this  malady.  I  think  I  have  escaped  by  crowd- 
ing the  brood-chamber  and  by  use  of  warm  covering. 

DISEASES  OF  BEES. — Common  "  Dysentery,"  caused  by  unfav- 
orable wintering,  arises  from  improper  food  or  too  changeable 
temperature.  Care  to  observe  the  rules  already  given  as  to 
wintering  will  prevent  this  dreaded  malady. 

"  Foul  Brood,"  the  terrible  scourge  of  the  apiarist,  is  a  fun- 
goid disease,  the  germs  of  which  are  contained  in  the  honey  of 
all  the  diseased  colonies,  and  so  are  easily  carried  to  other  col- 
onies ;  thus  the  disease  is  as  contagious  as  it  is  deadly.  In  this 
disease  the  mature  bees  are  not  affected,  but  the  brood  becomes 
rotten.  The  symptoms  are  terrible  stench  from  the  decaying 
brood ;  rotting  brood,  which  if  pulled  from  the  hive,  comes  out 
as  a  brown,  stringy  mass.  Concave  caps  to  the  cells  containing 
the  rotting  brood,  and  often  a  small  hole  through  the  center  of 
these  caps.  The  best  remedy  for  the  most  of  us  to  practice  is 
to  bury  or  burn  all  affected  colonies  as  soon  as  the  disease  is 
discovered.  Two  remedies,  one  by  salicylic  acid,  the  other  by 

74 


1170          THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

making  the  bees  to  fast,  are  fully  described  in  my  Bee-keeper's 
Guide  or  Manual  of  the  Apiary. 

ENEMIES  OF  BEES. — The  bee  moth  is  generally  thought  the 
worst  enemy.  This,  however,  only  successfully  attacks  weak  or 
queenless  colonies,  and  is  no  dread  to  the  wise  and  cautious 
apiarist.  If  the  bee  moth  trouble  us  we  should  the  better  learn 
our  business.  If  combs  contain  not  too  many  larvae  of  the  moth, 
by  giving  one  each  to  good,  vigorous  colonies,  we  may  soon  rid 
our  combs  of  them.  Extra  combs  should  be  kept  in  close  boxes, 
so  that  no  eggs  can  be  laid  on  them. 

Wasps,  a. its,  cow-killers,  robber  flies,  tachina  flies,  bee  lice, 
the  stinging  bug,  spiders,  and  mites  also  disturb  bees.  These 
are  fully  described  in  my  work  on  bees.  Toads  often  eat  bees, 
but  they  can  be  easily  fenced  out  if  their  mischief  is  disturb- 
ing. The  king  bird  eats  worker  as  well  as  drone  bees ;  but  this 
bird  is  a  good  friend  of  the  farmer,  as  a  feeder  on  injurious 
insects,  and  we  should  be  slow  to  pronounce  the  death  warrant 
against  it.  Mice  and  shrews  are  serious  pests  if  they  gain  en- 
trance to  the  hives  in  winter.  By  lessening  the  size  of  the 
entrance,  or  putting  a  screen  of  perforated  zinc  before  it,  or, 
better,  having  mouse-proof  cellars,  these  vermin  can  be  kept 
at  bay. 


CHEMISTRY  OF  FOODS  AND  FEEDING.  1171 


CHARTER  XXI. 

THE  CHEMISTRY  OK  FOODS  AND  FEEDING.* 

IN  order  to  understand  this  subject  so  as  to  make  it  of  prac- 
tical value,  a  little  knowledge  of  the  composition  of  the 
animal  body  and  the  laws  of  nutrition  is  necessary. 

The  carcass  of  a  fat  ox,  exclusive  of  offal,  contains  in  every 
one  hundred  pounds  about  fifty-six  pounds  of  water.  A  lean 
animal  contains  a  much  larger  percentage  of  water.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  body  is  composed  of  three  principal  substances : 
muscle  and  similar  matter,  fat,  and  bones.  The  dry  substance 
of  muscle  contains  about  fifteen  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  and  is 
hence  called  nitrogenous  matter;  fat  contains  no  nitrogen;  and 
the  bones  are  composed  of  phosphate  of  lime,  in  connection  with 
a  nitrogenous  substance  called  gelatine. 

The  animal  lives,  grows,  and  gets  all  its  powers  and  facul- 
ties from  the  food  it  consumes,  and  its  tissues  are  built  up 
wholly  out  of  the  material  contained  in  the  food;  and  it  is, 
therefore,  necessary  that  the  food  should  contain  all  the  sub- 
stances which  are  to  be  contained  in  the  animal  body.  The 
animal  can  rearrange  these  substances,  but  has  no  power  to 
create  any  thing  not  contained  in  the  food. 

Starch,  sugar,  and  the  other  vegetable  substances  commonly 
described  as  carbohydrates,  are  composed  of  three  elements : 
carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen.  Fat  is  composed  of  these  same 
three,  only  arranged  in  a  little  different  proportion ;  muscle  con- 
sists of  these  three  elements,  and  also  of  nitrogen.  An  animal, 
therefore,  can  transform  starch  or  fat  into  fat,  but  can  not  con- 
vert them  into  muscle,  as  that  contains  a  substance  which  nei- 
ther of  the  other  materials  can  supply. 

•By   R.  S.  THOMPSON. 


1172  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Foods. — Vegetable  foods,  which  are  what  we  have  to  do 
with  in  feeding  animals,  are  composed  of  five  principal  sub- 
stances, which  resemble  the  four  chief  constituents  of  the  ani- 
mal. These  are:  Water;  Carbohydrates,  substances  of  the 
nature  of  starch  and  sugar,  which  contain  no  nitrogen ;  Fats, 
composed  of  the  same  elements  as  carbohydrates,  but  containing 
a  larger  proportion  of  carbon;  Albuminoids,  substances  com- 
posed of  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen,  and  nearly 
identical  in  composition  with  the  nitrogenous  matter  of  the  ani- 
mal body;  Ash,  that  which  remains  when  a  plant  is  burned. 
It  contains  phosphate  of  lime  in  considerable  proportion,  and 
supplies  the  material  for  the  formation  of  bones. 

We  thus  see  that  the  plant  is  exactly  fitted  for  the  support 
of  animal  life.  A  more  detailed  description  of  the  composition 
of  various  foods  will  be  given  later  in  this  chapter. 

Use  of  Food. — Food  in  the  animal  body  is  used  for  six 
different  purposes  :  1.  The  repair  of  waste;  2.  Growth;  3.  Pro- 
duction of  milk ;  4.  Production  of  fat ;  5.  Maintaining  animal 
heat;  6.  Supplying  energy. 

The  body  is  constantly  undergoing  waste.  The  substance 
wears  out,  breaks  down,  is  taken  up  by  the  blood,  and  removed 
by  the  excretory  organs  —  namely,  kidneys,  lungs,  and  skin. 
The  matter  thus  removed  must  be  as  constantly  replaced,  or  the 
animal  will  grow  thin,  and  ultimately  die.  To  supply  material 
for  repairing  this  waste  is  the  first  use  of  food. 

When  an  undeveloped  animal  is  given  more  food  than  is  re- 
quired for  repair  of  waste  and  for  supplying  heat  and  energy, 
the  additional  material  is  used  for  the  production  of  more  tissue, 
and  the  animal  grows.  If  no  more  food  is  supplied  than  is 
required  for  the  first,  fifth,  and  sixth  uses,  the  animal  can  not 
grow,  but  becomes  stunted. 

When  a  mature  animal  is  supplied  with  more  food  than  is  re- 
quired for  repair  of  waste  and  production  of  heat  and  energy, 
the  surplus  material  is  converted  into  fat.  It  is  much  more  dif- 
ficult to  make  a  young  animal  lay  on  fat  than  a  mature  one;  for 
if  the  food  is  of  the  right  character  it  will  use  the  surplus  in 
growth,  rather  than  in  production  of  fat. 


CHEMISTRY  OF  FOODS  AND  FEEDING.  1173 

The  greater  portion  of  the  food  consumed  by  the  animal  is 
used  for  the  last  two  purposes  named,  the  production  of  heat 
and  energy.  The  food,  after  being  digested,  is  taken  into  the 
blood,  and  carried  through  the  system ;  the  blood,  while  passing 
through  the  lungs,  absorbs  oxygen  from  the  air,  and  this  com- 
bines with  part  of  the  food  in  the  blood.  This  combination  is 
exactly  the  same  in  character  with  that  which  takes  place  when 
a  substance  is  burned,  and  consequently  it  is  often  said  that  the 
food  is  "burned  in  the  blood." 

By  this  process  the  heat  of  the  body  is  maintained,  and  the 
energy  required  to  keep  up  the  vital  process  and  enable  the 
animal  to  move  about  is  supplied.  For  this  purpose  all  the 
principal  constituents  of  food — albuminoids,  carbohydrates,  and 
fat — can  be  used,  but  are  not  of  equal  value,  fat  being  worth 
about  two  and  one-half  times  as  much  as  carbohydrates,  and 
more  than  twice  as  much  as  albuminoids. 

Use  of  Different  Food  Constituents. — Albuminoids  are 
capable  of  meeting  all  the  requirements  of  the  animul  system. 
They  can  be  changed  into  muscle,  and  so  provide  for  repair  of 
waste  and  for  growth;  they  can  also  be  converted  into  fat,  and 
can  be  burned  in  the  system  for  production  of  heat  and  energy. 
When  used  for  other  purposes  than  the  production  of  muscle, 
the  nitrogen  they  contain  is  separated  in  the  form  of  a  com- 
pound called  urea,  and  removed  from  the  system  through  the 
kidneys. 

Carbohydrates  and  fats  are  capable  of  being  converted  into 
fat,  and  of  being  burned  in  the  system  for  production  of  heat 
and  energy,  but  they  can  not  be  used  for  repair  of  waste  or 
for  growth. 

From  what  has  already  been  stated,  it  will  be  seen  that  it 
is  impossible  to  make  any  absolute  standard  of  valuation  for 
the  different  constituents  of  food.  The  albuminoids  possess  a 
special  value,  because  for  a  certain  purpose  no  other  food  con- 
stituent can  replace  them.  If  an  animal  is  not  supplied  with 
sufficient  albuminoids  the  deficiency  can  not  be  made  up  by  in- 
creasing the  supply  of  carbohydrates  and  fats.  But  if  a  food 
contains  sufficient  albuminoids  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  system 


1174  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

then  for  other  purposes,  they  are  but  little  superior  to  carbohy- 
drates, and  far  inferior  to  fat. 

Different  Foods. — We  are  now  prepared  to  consider  the 
composition  of  different  articles  of  food.  It  has  been  shown 
that  the  chief  constituents  of  all  foods  are :  Albuminoids,  or  sub- 
stances containing  nitrogen;  carbohydrates,  substances  such  as 
starch,  sugar,  etc.,  containing  no  nitrogen;  fat,  resembling  car- 
bohydrates, but  richer  in  carbon;  ash. 

The  nitrogen  in  foods  is  not  always  in  the  form  of  albu- 
minoids, but  is  sometimes  contained  in  a  class  of  substances 
called  by  chemists  amides.  So  little  is  yet  known  about  these 
substances  that  in  this  chapter  we  shall  not  attempt  to  make  the 
distinction  between  amides  and  true  albuminoids,  but  shall  class 
all  nitrogenous  matter  as  albuminoids.  Amides,  however,  have 
not  the  feeding  value  of  the  true  albuminoids,  and  in  estimat- 
ing the  value  of  foods  it  should  be  remembered  that  in  rich  foods, 
such  as  grains,  oil  cake,  etc.,  nearly  all  the  nitrogen  is  in  the 
form  of  albuminoids,  while  in  poor  foods,  such  as  straw  and 
roots,  a  considerable  portion  of  the  nitrogen — sometimes  as  much 
as  half — is  in  the  form  of  amides.  In  immature  plants  the 
amount  of  amides  is  usually  considerably  greater  than  in  those 
more  mature.  The  difference  in  value  of  rich  and  poor  foods  is, 
for  this  reason,  usually  considerably  greater  than  the  tables  of 
analysis  show. 

Carbohydrates  are  usually  divided  into  "soluble  carbohy- 
drates" and  "crude  fiber;"  they  are  of  the  same  character  and 
composition,  but  the  soluble  carbohydrates  are  more  digestible, 
and  therefore  more  valuable  than  crude  fiber. 

Many  writers  in  speaking  of  food  constituents  designate  the 
albuminoids  as  "flesh  formers,"  and  carbohydrates  and  fat  as 
"heat  producers."  From  what  has  been  already  shown  it  is 
evident  that  this  is  not  strictly  correct,  as  albuminoids  are  capa- 
ble of  being  used  for  the  production  of  heat,  and  carbohydrates 
and  fat,  while  not  convertible  into  muscle,  are  convertible 
into  fat. 

All  foods  contain  some  water ;  even  those  usually  called  dry, 
such  as  hay,  straw,  and  grains,  contain  from  ten  to  fifteen  per  cent 


CHEMISTRY  OF  FOODS  AND  FEEDING. 


1175 


of  water,  which  can  only  be  removed  by  exposing  them  to  a  heat 
equal  to  that  of  boiling  water.  Potatoes,  which  are  the  driest 
of  the  roots,  contain  seventy-five  per  cent  of  water,  while  tur- 
nips and  beets  are  often  ninety  per  cent  water.  The  following 
table  gives  the  number  of  pounds  of  water  nitrogenous  mat- 
ter, soluble  carbohydrates,  fat,  and  crude  fiber  contained  in  one 
ton  of  each  of  the  principal  foods: 

POUNDS  OF  EACH  CONSTITUENT   IN  ONE  TON  OF  VARIOUS  FOODS. 


NAME  OF  FOOD. 

Water  

N  ItroRenous. 
Matter..  

X 

Soluble  Car- 
bohydrates 

q 

n 
13 

1 

GRAINS,  CAKKS,  ETC. 

200 
230 
240 
290 
286 
260 
288 
280 
281  > 
228 
280 
200 

280 
320 
334 
28(1 
286 
280 

1600 
1(«)0 
1458 
1480 
1630 
1312 
H80 
1644 

1500 
1770 
IKM 
1890 

i  <;:;<) 
1700 

824 
492 
562 
510 
448 
258 
226 
212 
220 
208 
284 
28 

194 
246 

288 
60 
50 
60 

70 
66 

tii; 
W) 

w 

118 
50 
22 

42 
2-1 
22 
2ii 
20 
30 

2SO 
1J4 
240 
52 
40 
120 
30 
40 
40 
102 
84 
28 

50 
44 
50 
30 
40 
22 

16 
14 
18 
14 
12 
30 
28 
10 

6 
2 

4 
o 
o 

4 

360 
004 
606 
918 
1CWO 
1076 
1362 
1274 
1384 
1370 
1008 
880 

820 
7<>4 
450 
652 
764 
780 

384 
140 
298 
140 
164 
300 
3(Xi 
218 

410 
164 
106 
56 
308 
216 

180 
416 
220 
188 
128 
216 
60 
142 
70 

60 
•>•>.) 

*756 

526 
520 
800 
880 
800 
800 

90 
IX) 
146 
250 
112 
230 
146 
94 

O-) 

20 
20 
20 
26 
34 

Oats     

Wheat    

live  

Indian  corn  

HAY  AND  8TRAW. 

Moadow  hay     

Lucerne  liny,  cut  in  bloom       

GREEN  FODDER. 

Meadow  grass  

Clover,    

Rve 

Lucerne  in  blossom       

1  1  uiiir;iri;ui  grass  in  blossom,  

Sotvliuin     

ROOTS,   ETC. 

Potatoes     . 

Turnips  «   

T'umpKins      

Carrots,  

Such  a  table  as  this  can  only  give  averages.  The  same  food 
will  vary  in  composition  according  to  the  soil  on  which  it  was 
grown,  the  season,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  was  handled. 


1176 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


The  composition  of  hay  varies  greatly  with  the  date  of  cutting. 
The  following  table  gives  the  number  of  pounds  of  nutritive 
substances  contained  in  a  ton  of  hay  cut  at  three  different  dates  : 


NUTKITIVE  SUBSTANCES  IN  HAY. 

MAY  14. 

JUNE  9. 

JUNE  26. 

Nitrogenous  matter,     ..... 

303 

191 

145 

Fat,        .                  

55 

47 

46 

Soluble  Carbohydrates,        .... 

700 

742 

734 

Crude   Fiber,           ..... 

394 

598 

654 

The  first  date  represents  grass  rather  younger  than  would 
usually  be  cut  for  hay,  but  such  as  cattle  get  on  a  good  pasture 
in  spring;  the  second  date  represents  good,  early  cut  hay;  the 
third,  that  which  has  been  cut  late,  and  is  rather  coarse  and 
stemmy.  It  will  be  noticed  that  as  the  season  grew  later  there 
was  a  remarkable  decrease  in  the  amount  of  nitrogenous  matter 
and  a  remarkable  increase  in  the  crude  fiber.  Crops  that  have 
been  grown  on  highly  manured  land  usually  contain  more  nitro- 
genous matter  than  those  grown  on  poor  soil.  Root  crops  that 
have  been  grown  on  poor,  dry  soil,  are  more  nutritious  than 
those  grown  on  rich  soil,  as  they  contain  less  water.  Root 
crops  increase  in  nutritious  qualities  as  they  become  more  mature, 
as  a  portion  of  fiber  contained  in  the  immature  root  is  converted 
into  starch  and  sugar.  For  the  same  reason  they  are  more  valu- 
able later  in  the  winter,  if  properly  kept,  than  just  after  they  are 
harvested.  Clover  is  very  liable  to  lose  nutriment  in  curing. 
The  greater  part  of  the  albuminoids  which  render  it  so  val- 
uable, are  contained  in  the  leaves,  and  if  it  is  handled  and 
cured  in  such  a  manner  that  a  considerable  portion  of  these  are 
broken  off  and  lost,  its  feeding  value  will  be  greatly  diminished. 
Hay,  if  exposed  to  drenching  rains  after  curing,  loses  a  large 
portion  of  its  most  digestible  constituents  by  leaching,  and  if 
fermentation  takes  place  to  any  considerable  extent,  a  great 
loss  of  valuable  constituents  will  result. 

Digestibility  of  Foods. — The  analysis  of  a  food  does  not 
by  itself  determine  its  feeding  value.  A  food  may  contain  all 
the  material  needed  for  the  support  of  life,  in  abundance,  yet 
if  the  animal  can  but  partially  digest  it,  much  of  the  nutriment 


CHEMISTRY  OF  FOODS  AND  FEEDING. 


1177 


it  contains  will  be  wasted.  Failure  to  appreciate  this  fact  has 
in  many  cases  brought  discredit  on  chemical  analysis  as  a  means 
of  determining  the  feeding  value  of  foods.  A  comparatively 
poor  food,  if  all  digested,  may  be  of  more  real  value  than  a 
very  rich  one,  of  which  a  large  portion  is  indigestible. 

No  table  of  the  digestibility  of  food  could  be  prepared  which 
would  be  absolutely  and  always  correct.  The  same  article  will 
differ  in  digestibility  according  to  soil,  season,  and  manner  of 
curing.  Different  classes  of  animals  have  different  powers  of 
digestion,  and  no  two  animals,  even  of  the  same  kind,  are  ex- 
actly alike  in  this  respect.  Tables  of  digestibility,  therefore, 
can  only  be  approximate,  and  must  be  used  as  guides,  not  as 
absolute  rules. 

The  following  table  gives  the  number  of  pounds  of  digesti- 
ble constituents  in  a  ton  of  various  foods,  as  determined  by 
taking  the  average  of  a  large  number  of  experiments  with  cattle 
and  sheep.  It  will  be  noticed  that  in  many  respects  it  differs 
very  materially  from  the  preceding  table : 


NAME  OF  FOOD. 

NITROGENOUS 
MATTER. 

FAT. 

SOLUBLE  CAR- 
BOHYDRATES. 

FIBER. 

Linseed  cake, 

472 

21  6 

473 

? 

Beans,      ..... 

449 

30 

854 

? 

Oats,     

204 

101 

818 

52 

Barley  

163 

40 

1108 

? 

Indian   corn, 

164 

87 

1247 

? 

Wheat  bran,    .... 

213 

42 

706 

82 

Meadow  hay, 

109 

23 

508 

300 

Clover  hay,       .... 

135 

25 

527 

229 

Lucerne  hay, 

219 

19 

301 

320 

Oat  straw,          .... 

19 

12 

329 

488 

Wheat  straw, 

12 

11 

254 

494 

Horses  have  not  as  much  power  in  digesting  coarse  food  as 
cattle  and  sheep,  but  for  concentrated  food  their  digestive  pow- 
ers are  about  equal.  Swine  have  great  digestive  powers  on  con- 
centrated foods,  and  can  digest  well  a  reasonable  amount  of 
green  foods,  but  have  not  the  stomach-room  to  take  and  digest 
large  quantities  of  coarse  food,  like  cattle  and  sheep. 

The  degree  of  maturity  of  some  crops  has  great  influence  on 
their  digestibility.  Young  grass  is  much  more  digestible  than 


1178 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


that  which  is  nearer  ripe.  The  following  table  gives  the  num- 
ber of  pounds  of  digestible  constituents  contained  in  a  ton  of  hay 
cut  at  three  different  periods  : 


MAY  H. 

JUNE  9. 

JUNE  20. 

Nitrogenous  matter,     ..... 

222 

138 

80 

Fat,         

36 

24 

20 

Soluble  carbohydrates,          .... 

530 

459 

414 

Crude  fiber,     ...... 

313 

393 

400 

It  will  be  noticed  that  this  is  the  same  experiment  which  we 
recently  referred  to,  but  the  difference  in  value  of  the  young 
and  old  grass  is  now  seen  to  be  much  greater  than  was  shown 
before.  Not  only  does  the  young  grass  contain  a  much  larger 
amount  of  valuable  substances  than  that  which  is  older,  but  a 
larger  portion  of  what  it  does  contain  is  digested.  A  cow  would 
have  to  eat  about  fifty  five  pounds  of  hay,  made  the  latter  part 
of  June,  to  get  as  much  digestible  albuminoids  as  she  would  get 
in  eating  twenty  pounds  of  hay  made  in  May. 

This  fact  explains  in  a  measure  the  great  value  of  young 
pasture.  Stock  not  only  like  it  better  and  so  eat  more  of  it, 
but  that  which  they  eat  is  more  digestible  and  contains  a  larger 
proportion  of  albuminoids.  When  pasture  gets  old  cattle  can 
not  eat  a  sufficient  quantity  of  it  to  supply  the  needed  material. 
One  of  the  advantages  of  ensilage  is  that  it  enables  the  farmer 
to  preserve  his  green  fodder  at  the  season  when  it  is  at  its  best, 
both  as  regards  character  and  digestibility. 

The  digestibility  of  food  is  influenced  somewhat  by  the  pro- 
portion which  the  albuminoids  bear  to  the  carbohydrates.  If 
the  albuminoids  are  deficient  in  a  food  neither  the  albuminoids 
nor  the  carbohydrates  it  contains  will  be  as  completely  digested 
as  if  more  albuminoids  were  present.  When  a  food  is  deficient 
in  albuminoids  its  digestibility  will  be  increased  by  feeding  it  in 
connection  with  some  food  which  is  rich  in  these  substances. 

Albuminoid  Ratio. — This  is  a  term  which  will  often  be 
met  with  in  scientific  works  on  feeding,  and  is  not  as  difficult  to 
understand  as  is  commonly  supposed.  It  simply  means  the  pro- 
portion which  the  albuminoids  in  a  food  bear  to  the  non-nitro- 


CHEMISTRY  OF  FOODS  AND  FEEDING.  1179 

genous  constituents;  namely,  carbohydrates  and  fat.  As  fat, 
however,  is  a  much  more  concentrated  food  than  carbohydrates, 
it  is  customary  to  reckon  each  pound  of  fat  as  equal  to  two  arid 
a  half  pounds  of  carbohydrates. 

To  illustrate.  Suppose  that  a  given  quantity  of  a  certain 
food  contained  one  pound  of  albuminoids  and  seven  pounds  of 
carbohydrates,  we  would  then  say  that  its  albuminoid  ratio  was 
one  to  seven,  usually  written  thus  :  1  :  7,  by  which  would  be 
meant  that  for  every  pound  of  albuminoids  in  the  food  there 
was  seven  pounds  of  carbohydrates.  But  suppose  the  food  con- 
tained to  each  pound  of  albuminoids  four  and  a  half  pounds  of 
carbohydrates  and  one  pound  of  fat.  Its  ratio  would  then  still 
be  1 :  7,  as  the  one  pound  of  fat  would  be  equal  to  two  and  a 
half  pounds  of  carbohydrates,  which,  added  to  the  four  and  a 
half  pounds  of  carbohydrates,  would  be  equal  to  seven. 

Strictly  speaking,  a  pound  of  fat  is  only  equal  to  two  and 
forty-four  one  hundredths  pounds  of  carbohydrates,  but  in  prac- 
tice the  proportion  of  one  to  two  and  a  half  is  used,  as  being 
more  convenient  and  sufficiently  near  the  truth. 

A  food  is  said  to  have  a  high  albuminoid  ratio  when  the 
albuminoids  are  in  large  proportion,  and  low  when  the  reverse  is 
the  case.  Thus  cotton  cake  has  the  high  albuminoid  ratio  of 
1:1$.  while  wheat  straw  has  the  low  ratio  of  1 :  64 £. 

The  following  table  gives  the  albuminoid  ratio  of  the  leading 
articles  of  food,  calculated  from  the  digestible  portion  of  the 
food  only: 


Cotton  cake  decorticated,        ......  1 

Cotton  cake  undecorticated,  ,         .         .  1 

Linseedcake,          ........  1 

Beans,        .........  1 

Peas, .  1 

Wheat  bran, 1 

Oats 1 

Barley,       ......... 

Indian  corn,  ........  1 

Clover  hay,  .  .......  1 

Meadow  hay,         ........  1 

Turnips,     .........  1 

Mangels,         .........  1 

Potatoes;    .........  1 

Wheat  straw ...  1 


1.5 

1.8 

2.3 

2.4 

2.9 

4.2 

5.5 

7.6 

9 

5.9 

8 

6.2 

8 

10.6 

64.4 


1180  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

This  table  is  calculated  on  the  supposition  that  all  the  nitro- 
genous matter  in  the  food  is  in  the  form  of  albuminoids,  which 
we  have  seen  is  never  strictly  the  case,  and  the  true  albuminoid 
ratio  is  therefore  always  rather  lower  than  is  here  indicated. 
With  the  rich  foods,  such  as  grains  and  cakes,  this  difference  is 
small,  but  with  the  poorer  foods,  such  as  roots  and  straw,  the 
difference  is  quite  considerable.  For  example,  the  ratio  of  man- 
gels is  given  as  1:8,  while  the  real  ratio,  calculating  only  the 
nitrogen  contained  in  true  albuminoids,  is  only  1  :  32.  Unfor- 
tunately experiments  have  not  yet  been  pushed  far  enough  to 
make  it  possible  to  construct  a  complete  table  of  ratios  calcu- 
lated from  the  true  albuminoids  only. 

Influence  of  Water  in  Foods. — A  certain  amount  of 
water  is  necessary  to  the  life  of  the  animal,  but  if  an  excess  is 
contained  in  the  food  waste  will  be  occasioned,  as  the  water 
must  all  be  warmed  to  the  temperature  of  the  animal,  and  a 
part  must  be  evaporated  through  the  skin.  Considerable  food 
must  be  burned  to  produce  the  heat  thus  required. 

The  proper  proportion  of  water  is — for  sheep,  about  two 
parts  to  one  of  dry  substance ;  for  cattle,  four  parts  to  one. 
Cows  giving  milk  require  a  still  larger  proportion  of  water. 

In  feeding  grains  and  dry  fodder  there  is  little  probability 
of  supplying  too  much  water,  but  in  feeding  roots  alone  the 
quantity  of  water  is  liable  to  be  greatly  in  excess  of  the  ani- 
mal's requirements.  When  an  animal  is  fed  exclusively  on 
turnips,  a  large  part  of  the  dry  substance  consumed  will  be  used 
in  raising  the  temperature  and  evaporating  the  surplus  water. 

Hence,  roots  should  usually  be  fed  in  connection  with  dry 
food,  and  when  fed  in  this  manner  will  give  much  better  results 
than  when  fed  alone. 

Feeding. — We  have  seen  that  food  received  by  the  animal 
is  used  for  six  different  purposes:  1.  Repair  of  waste;  2.  Pro- 
duction of  heat;  3.  Production  of  energy;  4.  Growth;  5.  Pro- 
duction of  fat;  6.  Production  of  milk.  The  food  given  will  be 
used  for  the  first  three  purposes,  and  only  the  surplus  beyond 
what  is  required  for  these  will  be  applied  to  the  last  three. 
This  rule  is  practically  correct,  yet  in  strict  exactness  there  are 


CHEMISTRY  OF  FOODS  AND  FEEDING.  1181 

some  slight  variations.  If  a  cow  giving  milk  is  supplied  with 
only  the  exact  amount  of  food  required  to  meet  the  first  three 
requirements,  she  will  still  give  some  milk,  which  will  be  pro- 
duced from  food  which  should  have  been  used  for  repairing 
waste,  and  the  cow  will  grow  thin  in  consequence.  But  as  far 
as  practical  profitable  results  are  concerned  the  rule  as  laid  down 
may  be  considered  correct. 

The  food  required  for  repair  of  waste  and  production  of  heat 
and  energy  is  commonly  called  "  food  of  support ; "  it  is  what 
keeps  the  animal  alive.  Except  in  the  case  of  the  working  an- 
imal, it  pays  no  profit  to  the  feeder;  it  is  the  necessary  expense 
of  keeping  the  animal.  Under  all  circumstances  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  food  consumed  by  the  animal  must  be  used  in  this 
manner,  but  to  secure  profit  in  feeding  it  is  essential  that  this 
proportion  shall  be  as  small  as  possible. 

If  a  farmer  feeds  three  tons  of  hay,  all  of  which  is  used  by 
the  animals  to  which  it  is  given  as  food  of  support,  he  will  make 
no  profit  on  it,  and  get  no  return  for  the  hay.  If  he  feeds  three 
tons,  and  two  tons  are  used  as  food  of  support  and  one  ton  for 
growth  or  production  of  fat  or  milk,  he  gets  returns  for  one  ton, 
and  the  other  two  tons  are  the  cost  of  turning  one  ton  into  meat 
or  milk.  If  only  one  ton  is  used  for  food  of  support,  and  two 
tons  for  growth  or  production  of  fat  or  milk,  then  he  gets  two 
tons  converted  into  profitable  forms  at  the  expense  of  one  ton. 

There  are  two  ways  in  which  we  may  diminish  the  propor- 
tion which  the  food  of  support  bears  to  the  total  amount  sup- 
plied. To  secure  profitable  feeding,  both  these  plans  must  be 
used.  The  first  is— 

Reducing  the  Food  of  Support. — We  have  seen  that  the 
food  of  support  is  used  for  repairing  waste  and  production  of 
heat  and  energy.  The  amount  used  for  the  first  purpose  is  small. 
A  half  pound  of  digestible  albuminoids,  which  would  be  con- 
tained in  two  pounds  of  beans  or  five  pounds  of  oats,  will  re- 
pair the  necessary  waste  of  substance  during  twenty-four  hours 
on  an  ox  weighing  one  thousand  pounds. 

The  largest  part  of  the  food  of  support  is  expended  in  the 
production  of  heat  and  energy.  In  order  that  the  animal  may 


1182  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA, 

live,  it  is  necessary  that  its  body  must  be  kept  at  a  temperature 
of  about  one  hundred  degrees.  This  temperature  must  be  main- 
tained, if  the  animal  is  to  live,  no  matter  how  cold  the  weather. 
The  heat  necessary  is  obtained,  as  we  have  seen,  by  the  con- 
sumption of  food,  and  the  food  used  for  this  purpose  can  not  be 
used  for  any  other.  A  man  might  as  well  expect  to  enlarge  his 
house  with  wood  he  had  to  burn  to  keep  it  warm  as  to  expect 
to  fatten  an  ox  with  food  it  has  to  use  to  keep  itself  warm. 
It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  one  way  in  which  the  amount  of 
food  required  as  food  of  support  may  be  reduced  .is  to  protect 
the  animals  from  exposure  to  cold. 

When  labor  of  any  kind  is  performed  by  an  animal,  food 
must  be  burned  in  the  system  to  develop  the  needed  energy. 
All  the  processes  of  life — digestion,  assimilation,  thought — re- 
quire energy  which  must  be  developed  from  food.  Excitement 
of  any  kind  involves  an  expenditure  of  energy,  which  must  be 
developed  from  food.  Every  one  knows  that  the  power  in  an 
engine  comes  from  the  wood  or  coal  that  is  burned,  and  that  the 
more  energy  required  the  more  fuel  must  be  burned.  Every 
engineer  knows  that  any  unnecessary  friction  about  his  engine 
(a  journal  that  does  not  work  smoothly),  will  cause  an  increase 
in  the  amount  of  coal  that  must  be  burned.  The  animal  gets  its 
power  from  the  food,  as  the  engine  gets  its  power  from  the  fuel ; 
and  every  increased  expenditure  of  energy,  whether  physical, 
mental,  vital,  or  nervous,  involves  an  increased  consumption  of 
food  for  this  purpose.  It  is  evident  that  in  order  to  reduce  the 
amount  of  food  consumed  for  this  purpose  that  animals  being 
fed  for  production  of  meat  or  milk  should  be  required  to  make 
no  exertion  not  absolutely  necessary.  Cows  should  not  be  com- 
pelled to  go  far  in  quest  of  water,  or  be  compelled  to  roam  over 
a  ten-acre  field  to  gather  the  food  they  should  be  able  to  get  on 
a  quarter-acre. 

We  have  seen  that  not  only  physical  energy,  but  also  that 
by  which  the  vital  processes,  such  as  digestion  and  assimilation, 
are  carried  on,  is  obtained  from  the  food;  and  we  can,  there- 
fore, reduce  the  amount  of  food  of  support  by  providing  food 
which  is  easily  digested.  This  fact  probably  explains  some  of 


CHEMISTRY  OF  FOODS  AND  FEEDING.  1183 

the  claims  made  for  ensilage.  It  has  been  said  that  a  pound 
of  digestible  albuminoids,  or  any  other  food  constituent,  is  just 
as  valuable  in  dried  fodder  as  in  that  which  is  green,  and 
it  is  true  in  a  sense ;  but  if  the  dried  fodder  is  more  difficult 
of  digestion,  then  a  portion  of  the  food  digested,  which  in  case 
of  the  green  fodder  would  be  used  in  the  production  of  meat 
and  milk,  will  be  consumed  in  the  production  of  energy,  to 
overcome  this  difficulty  of  digestion. 

We  have  seen  that  nervous  energy  is  obtained  from  the  food. 
Hence,  if  an  animal  is  kept  in  terror  or  excitement,  teased  or 
annoyed  by  dogs  or  flies,  or  caused  to  fret  in  any  way,  there 
will  be  an  extra  amount  of  the  food  used  in  development  of 
this  energy,  which  otherwise  might  go  for  the  production  of 
meat  or  milk. 

In  order,  then,  to  reduce  to  the  lowest  point  the  amount  of 
'bod  used  as  food  of  support,  we  get  the  following  rules : 

The  animal  must  be  protected  from  the  cold. 

It  must  be  called  on  to  make  no  unnecessary  physical  exertion. 

It  must  be  kept  in  a  placid,  happy  temper,  free  from  all  an- 
noyance, excitement,  or  alarm. 

The  food  it  receives  must  be  easy  of  digestion. 

By  these  means  the  amount  of  food  used  as  food  of  support 
will  be  decreased,  and  the  proportion  which  the  food  of  support 
bears  to  the  total  amount  of  food  supplied  will  be  decreased. 

The  second  method  of  decreasing  the  proportion  which  the 
food  of  support  bears  to  the  total  amount  of  food  supplied,  is  by 

Increasing  the  Amount  of  Food  Supplied. — Suppose 
that  under  certain  conditions  a  cow  required  fifteen  pounds  of 
hay  daily,  as  food  of  support;  the  proportion,  then,  between  the 
food  of  support  and  total  amount  supplied  would  be  15  to  15. 
If  twenty  pounds  of  hay  were  given,  the  proportion  would  be 
15  to  20;  if  thirty  pounds  were  given,  it  would  be  15  to  30; 
if  forty  pounds  were  given  it  would  be  15  to  40;  and  so  on  up 
to  the  limit  of  the  cow's  capacity.  It  is  thus  evident  that  every 
increase  in  the  total  amount  of  food  supplied  causes  a  decrease 
in  the  proportion  which  the  food  of  support  bears  to  the  total 
amount  of  food  supplied. 


1184  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

The  above  calculation  is  not  strictly  accurate,  for  the  reason 
that  the  increase  in  quantity  of  food  supplied  would  cause  an 
increase  in  the  amount  which  must  be  consumed  for  the  pro- 
duction of  digestive  energy ;  but  it  is  sufficiently  near  the  truth 
to  demonstrate  the  principle,  and  to  show  that,  to  secure  the 
best  results  in  feeding,  not  only  must  the  food  of  support  be 
reduced  to  the  lowest  point,  but  the  food  supplied  must  be  in- 
creased to  the  highest  point. 

The  total  amount  of  food  that  can  be  supplied  to  an  animal 
is  limited  by  that  animal's  power  to  eat  and  digest  it.  If  the 
food  is  coarse  and  bulky,  requiring  a  large  quantity  of  food  to 
contain  a  small  amount  of  nutriment,  the  animal  can  not  take  a 
sufficient  quantity  to  accomplish  the  best  results.  If  the  food 
is  distasteful  to  the  animal  it  will  not  take  enough  to  accomplish 
the  best  results. 

Therefore,  to  secure  such  an  increase  in  the  quantity  of  food 
taken  by  the  animal  as  will  secure  the  largest  proportion  of 
food  of  profit  compared  with  the  food  of  support,  the  animal 
must  be  liberally  fed ;  the  food  must  be  in  as  concentrated  a 
form  as  is  consistent  with  the  health  of  the  animal;  the  food 
must  be  agreeable  to  the  animal,  so  as  to  cause  it  to  desire 
to  eat  all  that  it  can. 

Proper  Adjustment  of  Food. — There  has  been  a  popu- 
lar and  a  supposed-to-be  scientific  idea  that  food  was  valuable 
in  exact  proportion  to  the  amount  of  nitrogenous  matters  it  con- 
tains. This  is  only  partially  true. 

A  certain  amount  of  nitrogenous  matter  is  essential  in  a 
food,  and,  if  it  does  not  contain  this,  the  excess  of  carbonaceous 
matter  will  be  wasted,  To  illustrate  :  Suppose  a  pig  requires  a 
diet  with  an  albuminoid  ratio  of  1  to  7;  that  is,  containing  one 
pound  of  albuminoids  to  every  seven  pounds  of  carbohydrates, 
or  their  equivalents  in  fat;  and  suppose  this  pig  is  supplied 
with  food  containing  but  one  pound  of  albuminoids  to  every 
fourteen  pounds  of  carbohydrates.  The  extra  seven  pounds  of 
carbohydrates  will  be  rejected,  and  the  pig  will  get  no  more 
benefit  from  the  one  pound  of  albuminoids  and  fourteen  pounds 
of  carbohydrates  than  he  would  have  obtained  from  one  pound 


CHEMISTRY  OF  FOODS  AND  FEEDING.         1185 

of  albuminoids  and  seven  pounds  of  carbohydrates.  More  than 
this,  as  the  pig's  capacity  of  food  is  limited,  he  will  be  prevented 
in  the  second  case  from  taking  the  amount  of  available  nutri- 
ment essential  to  the  most  profitable  results. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  the  pig  is  given  a  diet  of  two  pounds 
of  albuminoids  to  six  pounds  carbohydrates  he  will  get  no 
more  benefit  than  from  one  pound  albuminoids  and  seven  pounds 
carbohydrates.  We  see  from  this  that  up  to  the  point  when 
the  correct  albuminoid  ratio  is  reached  the  value  of  the 
food  is  in  direct  proportion  to  the  amount  of  albuminoids  it 
contains,  but  after  this  point  is  attained  there  is  no  special  gain 
in  an  increase  in  the  proportion  of  albuminoids.  Inasmuch  as 
nitrogenous  material  in  food  is  generally  more  expensive  than 
the  other  constituents  it  is  desirable,  in  order  to  secure  the 
greatest  profit  in  feeding  to  know  what  is  the  correct  ratio,  and 
secure  food  that  comes  as  near  to  this  as  possible,  in  order  to 
avoid  waste  on  the  one  hand,  or  the  use  of  unduly  expensive 
food  on  the  other. 

Ratio  for  Young  Animals. — The  object  in  feeding  these 
is  to  secure  growth,  development  of  bone  and  muscle,  rather 
than  fat.  The  food,  therefore,  should  be  rich  in  albuminoids, 
and  experiments  have  shown  that  while  the  animal  is  making 
its  growth  the  correct  ratio  for  the  entire  food  is  about  1  : 5, 
calculating  all  the  nitrogenous  matter  in  the  food  as  albu- 
minoids. Oats,  clover,  bran,  and  young  grass  are  eminently 
fitted  for  the  use  of  the  young  animal.  When  hay,  straw,  or 
other  foods,  in  which  the  ratio  is  considerably  below  this  have 
to  be  used  as  a  portion  of  the  diet  it  will  often  be  profitable  to 
use  in  connection  with  it  some  food  rich  in  albuminoids,  such 
as  linseed  cake. 

The  young  animal  must,  however,  have  an  abundant  supply 
of  food  for  the  maintenance  of  animal  heat  and  supply  of  energy ; 
and  to  obtain  this  wholly  from  coarse  food  such,  as  straw  or  poor 
hay,  would  require  the  consumption  of  too  large  a  bulk  of  food. 
Fat  supplies  this  kind  of  material  in  its  most  concentrated  form, 
and  therefore  foods  containing,  in  connection  with  a  good  supply  of 
albuminoids,  plenty  of  fat,  are  well  adapted  for  the  young  animal. 


1 1 86  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

In  milk,  the  food  naturally  provided  for  the  young,  we  find 
just  this  combination,  as  it  is  rich  in  albuminoids  and  fats,  and 
the  carbohydrate  it  contains,  sugar,  is  exceedingly  digestible. 
Skimmed  milk  fed  in  connection  with  old  process  linseed  cake, 
to  make  up  for  the  fat  removed,  fed  in  connection  with  young 
grass  or  clover  hay,  makes  a  ration  which  is  scientifically  cor- 
rect and  practically  successful. 

If  the  albuminoids  are  deficient  in  the  diet  of  a  young 
animal,  it  will  be  apt  to  cause  it  to  lay  on  fat  prematurely. 
When  the  natural  work  of  developing  bone  and  muscle  is  thus 
changed  into  one  of  fat  production  its  health  is  impaired,  it 
becomes  stunted  and  "  pot-bellied,"  and  never  will  attain  its 
proper  size. 

Ratio  for  Milk. — The  cow  can  manufacture  milk  only  out 
of  the  food  given  her.  If  this  food  is  in  sufficient  quantity, 
and  contains  all  the  elements  contained  in  the  milk,  the  cow,  if 
naturally  fitted  for  milk  production,  can  yield  milk,  liberally,  but 
no  care  in  breeding  or  perfection  of  pedigree  will  enable  her  to 
put  into  the  pail  material  which  she  does  not  find  in  the  food. 
The  average  composition  of  cow's  milk  is  as  follows  : 

Water, 870 

Albuminoids,    ...                 ....  40 

Fat, 37 

Sugar, 46 

Ash, 7 

1,000 

The  albuminoids  in  the  milk  must  be  formed  from  the  albu- 
minoids in  the  food ;  the  fat  and  sugar  from  cither  albuminoids, 
carbohydrates,  or  fat,  usually  the  two  latter.  The  ash  is  chiefly 
phosphoric  acid. 

The  great  requirement,  therefore,  in  a  diet  for  milk  produc- 
tion is  a  sufficiency  of  albuminoids.  The  ratio  should  be  :.bout 
1:5.  Good  young  meadow  grass  has  a  ratio  of  about  1:4. 
This  explains  why  cows  do  so  well  on  the  early  pasture.  Later 
in  the  season  the  albuminoid  ratio  of  grass  falls,  and  old  stemmy 
grass  in  July  often  has  a  ratio  of  less  than  1 : 10.  Every 
farmer  is  familiar  with  the  fact  that  cows  on  pasture  usually 


CHEMISTRY  OF  FOODS  AND  FEEDING.  1187 

fall  off  in  their  mik  as  the  season  advances.  This  is  not  merely  due 
to  deficiency  in  the  quantity  of  food,  but  to  its  inferior  quality. 
It  would  take  at  least  one  hundred  pounds  of  grass,  such  as  is 
often  found  on  summer  pastures,  to  furnish  the  albuminoids 
contained  in  twenty-five  pounds  of  milk.  To  expect  a  cow  to 
give  milk  liberally  on  such  a  diet  is  manifestly  an  absurdity. 

Feeding  corn-meal  to  the  cow  when  the  pasture  begins  to 
fail  will  not  make  up  for  the  deficiency  in  albuminoids,  as  corn 
is  itself  deficient  in  this  respect.  The  corn-meal  will  enable  the 
cow  to  do  letter,  as,  being  a  more  concentrated  food,  she  will  be 
able  to  eat  a  larger  quantity,  but  it  will  not  enable  her  to  do 
what-  she  could  were  her  diet  properly  proportioned.  Bran  is 
good  for  this  purpose,  as  is  also  clover,  and  when  a  cow  can  be 
supplied  in  summer  with  a  pasture  of  mixed  grasses  and  clover, 
she  is  given  a  diet  suited  to  the  end  to  be  attained,  and  if  a  lit- 
tle bran  or  linseed  cake  is  given  in  addition  the  result  will  be 
still  better. 

In  winter  a  good  albuminoid  ratio  for  milk  production  can 
be  obtained  from  clover  hay,  fed  in  connection  with  corn-meal, 
or  from  meadow  hay,  straw  or  corn  fodder,  fed  in  connection 
with  bran.  Where  ensilage  is  used,  red  clover,  ensilaged  when 
in  bloom,  fed  in  connection  with  corn  fodder,  either  cured 
or  ensilaged,  makes  a  good  ration. 

Fattening  Animals. — Fat,  we  have  seen,  can  be  produced 
as  well  from  carbohydrates  or  fats  in  the  food  as  from  albumi- 
noids, and  the  diet  for  a  fattening  animal,  therefore,  need  con- 
tain no  more  albuminoids  than  is  required  for  the  repair  of 
waste  and  the  production  of  so  much  lean  meat  and  tissue  as 
must  always  accompany  the  production  of  fat.  The  diet  for 
this  purpose  must,  therefore,  be  rich  in  carbohydrates,  and 
especially  in  fats.  It  must  also  be  in  a  sufficiently  concentrated 
form  to  enable  the  animal  to  take  a  large  enough  quantity. 
As  has  been  before  shown  in  this  chapter,  it  is  to  the  interest 
of  the  farmer,  when  fattening  an  animal,  to  get  it  to  eat  as 
much  as  possible  without  deranging  its  digestion.  Straw,  if  fed 
in  connection  with  a  little  clover,  bran,  or  oil  cake  to  bring  up  its 
albuminoid  ratio,  would  not  be  a  bad  diet  for  fattening  could 


1188          THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

the  animal  eat  a  sufficient  quantity  of  it.  The  great  value  of 
corn  as  a  fat  producing  food  does  not  depend  merely  on  the  fact 
that  it  is  so  rich  in  carbohydrates  and  fat,  but  also  in  the  fact 
that  it  is  condensed  so  that  the  animal  can  eat  a  large  quantity 
of  it.  Ten  pounds  of  corn  is  equal  to  about  twenty-two  pounds 
of  good  hay,  and  its  bulk  is  very  much  smaller. 

The  correct  albuminoid  ratio  for  production  of  fat  varies 
with  the  animal.  For  fattening  full-grown  cattle  a  ratio  of  1 :  9 
is  sufficient.  Even  a  lower  ratio  would  do  were  it  not  for  the 
fact  that  when  the  ratio  falls  below  this  the  digestibility  of  the 
food  is  impaired.  For  fattening  immature  animals  which  are 
growing  while  taking  on  fat  it  is  evident  a  higher  ratio  will  be 
needed,  and  one  of  1 :  7  will  be  about  correct.  This  ratio  can  be 
obtained  by  the  use  of  young  grass  or  clover,  either  fresh  or 
ensilaged,  clover  hay,  or  meadow  hay  fed  in  connection  with 
bran  or  oil  meal.  When  corn  is  used  for  fattening  young  stock 
some  food  with  a  higher  albuminoid  ratio  should  be  used  in  con- 
nection with  it,  and  clover,  young  grass,  or  oil  meal  will  answer 
a  good  purpose. 

Hogs  require  a  higher  albuminoid  ratio  in  a  fattening  diet 
than  any  other  animal,  and  when  growing  pigs  are  to  be  pushed 
and  fattened  as  they  grow  a  ratio  of  1 :  5  is  desirable.  In  this 
country  where  beans  and  peas  are  so  little  used  as  food  for  stock 
this  high  ratio  can  be  obtained  by  feeding  skim  milk  in  connec- 
tion with  corn.  When  milk  is  not  obtainable,  the  food  may  be 
improved  by  feeding  green  clover  in  connection  with  corn.  Corn 
alone  is  not  a  complete  diet  for  the  hog  at  any  stage  of  his 
growth,  and  even  when  mature  hogs  are  fattened  on  an  exclusive 
corn  diet  loss  is  incurred.  If  one  hog  is  fed  on  corn  alone,  and 
another  on  corn  and  skim  milk — supposing  them  to  have  equal 
capacity  as  feeders — the  latter  will  make  more  pork  out  of  the 
corn  he  receives  than  the  former. 

In  some  English  and  American  experiments  in  feeding  swine 
the  English  experimenters  obtained  an  increase  of  one  hundred 
pounds  of  live  weight  for  every  four  hundred  and  sixty-nine 
pounds  of  food  consumed,  while  the  American  secured  one  hun- 
dred pounds  of  increase  to  every  five  hundred  and  thirty-three 


CHEMISTRY  OF  FOODS  AND  FEEDING.  1189 

pounds  of  food.  The  difference  was  not  due  to  any  superiority 
in  the  English  swine,  but  to  the  fact  that  the  English  feeder 
used  a  mixture  of  barley  and  pea  meal,  while  the  American  used 
corn  alone.  Corn  is  superior  as  a  fat  producer  to  barley,  and 
had  the  English  experimenter  used  corn  and  pea  meal  he  would 
doubtless  have  secured  still  better  results. 

Farmers  do  not  generally  appreciate  the  high  value  of  skim 
milk  when  fed  in  connection  with  corn,  as  a  diet  for  fattening 
hogs.  Its  albuminoid  ratio  is  very  high.  One  hundred  and 
fifty-seven  pounds  of  skim  milk  contain  about  as  much  albumi- 
noids as  a  bushel  of  corn.  Added  to  any  diet  it  greatly  improves 
its  albuminoid  ratio.  Skim  milk  and  corn  fed  in  equal  weight 
form  a  perfect  ration  for  fattening  pigs. 

In  determining  on  the  diet  for  any  fattening  animal  one 
should  be  selected  in  which  the  albuminoids  are  a  little  in  ex- 
cess, rather  than  one  in  which  they  are  deficient.  In  the  former 
case  the  only  loss  will  be  that  incurred  from  using  a  food  that 
was  more  expensive  than  was  absolutely  required;  in  the  latter, 
however,  there  will  be  an  actual  waste  of  the  excess  of  carbo- 
naceous matter  supplied,  and  the  digestibility  of  the  whole  food 
will  be  impaired. 

Feeding  as  Influenced  by  Age. — Animals  of  different 
ages  do  not  make  the  same  amount  of  increase  from  a  given 
amount  of  food.  Other  things  being  equal,  the  older  the  animal 
the  larger  the  amount  of  food  that  will  be  required  to  make  one 
pound  of  increase  in  live  weight.  Many  experiments  have  been 
made  in  this  direction,  all  with  similar  results.  In  one  case  a 
number  of  pigs  four  weeks  old  were  put  up  and  fed  on  corn 
meal.  The  food  was  weighed  and  the  pigs  were  weighed  at  the 
end  of  each  four  weeks.  The  number  of  pounds  of  meal  required 
to  make  one  hundred  pounds  of  increase  in  live  weight  for  each 
period  of  four  weeks  is  shown  in  the  following  table : 

Pounds  of  meal  required  to  make  100 
pounds  Inrreane  In  live  weight. 

First  period, 381 

Second  period,  ........  405 

Third  period, 422 

Fourth  period,  ........  524 

Fifth  period, 598 


1190  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

The  increase  in  the  amount  of  food  required  to  make  one 
hundred  pounds  increase  in  live  weight  would  probably  not 
have  been  so  great  had  the  pigs  been  fed  on  a  more  suitable 
diet.  The  constant  corn-feeding  doubtless  impaired  their  assim- 
ilative powers.  But  in  another  experiment  with  calves  fed  on 
skim  milk  the  same  principle  was  demonstrated.  They  were  fed 
for  ten  weeks,  and  the  number  of  pounds  of  skim  milk  required 
to  make  an  increase  of  one  hundred  pounds  live  weight  is  shown 
in  the  following  table  : 

Pounds  skim  milk  required  to  make  100 
pounds  increase  in  live  weight. 

First  week, •     .         .         .  1,102 

Second  week, 1,218 

Third  week, 1,317 

Fourth  week, 1,340 

Fifth  week, 1,460 

Sixth  week,    ....;....  1,505 

Seventh  week, 1,071 

Eighth  week, 1,680 

Ninth  week, 1,701 

Tenth  week, 1,608 

In  this  case  also  the  increase  in  the  amount  of  food  required 
to  make  a  given  increase  in  live  weight,  or  the  decrease  in  the 
amount  of  growth  produced  from  a  given  amount  of  food  sup- 
plied is  very  marked,  and  the  rule  holds  good  in  almost  every 
case.  The  young  animal  assimilates  a  larger  proportion  of  the 
food  supplied,  and  uses  less  for  the  repair  of  waste  and  carrying 
on  the  vital  functions. 

The  case  is  similar  with  fattening  animals.  As  the  period 
of  fattening  approaches  completion  the  amount  of  food  required 
to  produce  a  pound  of  gain  in  live  weight  continually  increases. 
The  following  table  gives  the  result  of  an  experiment  with  six- 
teen pigs  which  were  fed  ten  weeks  and  weighed  at  the  end  of 
every  two  weeks ;  their  average  weight  at  the  commencement  of 
the  experiment  was  135.8  pounds,  and  at  its  close  276.3  pounds. 
They  were  fed  on  barley  and  pea  meal : 

Pounds  of  food  required  to  make  100 
pounds  increase  in  live  weight. 

First  two  weeks, 386 

Second  two  weeks, 

Third  two  weeks, 500 

Fourth  two  weeks, 511 

Fifth  two  weeks, 618 


CHEMISTRY  OF  FOODS  AND  FEEDING.  1191 

In  this  experiment  it  cost  sixty  per  cent  more  to  make  a 
pound  of  pork  in  the  last  two  weeks  than  in  the  first  period. 

Profitable  Feeding. — To  feed  profitably  it  is  necessary 
'that  the  feeder  should  get  the  largest  possible  return  from  a 
given  amount  of  food.  It  is  not  enough  that  the  animal  shall 
be  made  to  grow  or  get  fat  or  give  milk,  but  this  must  be  done 
with  the  smallest  possible  expenditure  of  food,  and  to  under- 
stand how  to  do  this  constitutes  the  science  of  profitable  feeding. 

Two  farmers  may  be  engaged  in  raising  cattle ;  they  may 
have  equally  good  stock;  they  may  show  equally  heavy  weights 
at  the  butcher's  block,  and  take  equal  premiums  at  fairs,  but  if 
one  farmer  accomplish  these  results  with  less  expenditure  for 
food  than  the  other  it  is  evident  that  he  will  make  the  greater 
profit. 

To  attain  this  greater  profit  it  is  essential  that  the  largest 
possible  proportion  of  the  food  used  shall  be  converted  into 
growth,  milk,  or  fat,  and  the  smallest  possible  proportion  be  ex- 
pended in  production  of  heat  and  energy — that  the  least  possi- 
ble proportion  shall  be  rejected  by  the  animal  unused,  and  at 
the  same  time  that  the  food  used  shall  not  be  more  expensive 
than  is  necessary  for  the  attainment  of  these  results.  To  do 
this,  attention  must  be  given  to  all  the  various  points  heretofore 
laid  down. 

The  first  requisite  is  a  good  breed  of  stock,  animals  that  in- 
herit large  digestive  and  assimilative  powers,  and  quiet  and 
gentle  dispositions. 

Second.  Protection  from  cold.  The  animal  heat  must  be 
maintained,  and  food  used  for  this  purpose  can  not  be  used  for 
any  other.  Locomotive  boilers  are  covered  with  a  good,  warm 
coat  of  non-conducting  material,  and  this,  with  polished  sheet- 
iron  to  avoid  all  waste  of  heat,  as  waste  of  heat  means  waste  of 
coal.  Waste  of  heat  in  the  animal  means  waste  of  food,  and 
just  as  more  coal  will  be  required  to  accomplish  the  same  re- 
sults with  a  locomotive  if  the  boiler  is  exposed  without  protec- 
tion to  the  blasts  of  winter,  so  more  food  will  be  required  by 
the  animal  if  it  is  likewise  exposed.  And  this  food  brings  no 
profit ;  it  is  simply  wasted. 


1192  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Third.  The  animal  must  be  spared  all  unnecessary  exertion 
and  excitement.  Every  movement,  every  excitement,  consumes 
food  which  brings  no  profit. 

Fourth.  The  food  must  contain  a  sufficient  proportion  of  al- 
buminoids for  the  purpose  intended.  If  these  are  deficient,  the 
other  constituents  of  the  food  will  be  wasted.  What  is  the  cor- 
rect proportion  for  different  purposes  has  been  already  given. 

Fifth.  The  animal  must  have  all  the  food  it  can  eat  and  di- 
gest, in  order  to  secure  the  largest  amount  of  food  of  profit 
above  the  food  of  support. 

Sixth.  The  food  must  be  sufficiently  concentrated  to  enable 
the  animal  to  consume  the  required  amount. 

Seventh.  The  feeding  must  be  done  at  that  period  in  the  age 
of  the  animal  when  it  is  capable  of  giving  the  largest  returns, 
namely  in  youth. 

To  these  might  be  added  that  the  food  must  be  easy  of  di- 
gestion, calculated  to  promote  the  animal's  health,  and  agreeable 
in  flavor,  so  as  to  provoke  its  appetite. 


THE  BARN  AND  BARN- YARD.  1193 


XXII. 

THE    BARN  AND  BARN-YARD. 

IN  a  large  area  of  our  country,  due  regard  for  the  comfort  of 
our  cattle,  and  for  the  condition  of  the  farm,  requires  that 
for  nearly  half  the  year  our  stock  should  be  kept  in  the 
the  barn  or  barn-yard.  As  our  system  of  farming  improves  we 
must  abandon  the  wasteful  and  slovenly  method  of  allowing  the 
cattle  to  roam  over  the  farm  during  the  storms  and  mud  of 
winter,  getting  only  a  starvation  diet,  while  wasting  their  ma- 
nure and  injuring  the  land  by  tramping.  Our  stock  must  be 
sheltered  that  we  may  save  both  food  and  manure,  and  the 
farmer  should  plan  to  produce  the  largest  bulk  and  best  quality 
of  manure  possible,  and  will  find  that  under  a  wise  and  provi- 
dent system  of  cattle  feeding  and  manure  saving  his  winter's 
work  can  be  made  profitable  and  pleasant. 

In  all  that  pertains  to  the  barn  and  barn-yard,  there  should 
be  careful  thought  and  planning  that  every  thing  be  arranged 
with  a  view  to  economy  of  time  and  labor,  and  so  as  to  insure 
comfort  to  the  animals  and  a  saving  of  manure.  A  small,  cheap 
barn  may  be  so  conveniently  arranged,  and  so  supplemented  by 
sheds,  may  be  so  convenient  of  access,  and  the  drainage  of  the 
barn-yard  so  well  provided  for  as  to  give  better  satisfaction  to 
the  owner  and  more  comfort  to  the  stock  than  one  costing  twice 
as  much  money  where  these  details  have  not  been  made  a  mat- 
ter of  careful  thought  and  study.  There  are  many  old  barns 
which  may  be  greatly  improved,  and  often  at  a  small  expense, 
by  the  addition  of  sheds,  or  changing  the  interior  arrangements. 

The  farmer  intending  to  build  a  barn  should  never  be  hasty 
in  deciding  on  a  plan.  He  should  take  into  consideration  all 
that  is  connected  with  the  work  to  be  done,  the  handling  of 


1194  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

food  for  his  stock,  the  storing  and  handling  of  hay,  grain  and 
manure,  the  water  supply,  the  approaches  to  the  barn,  for  men, 
beasts,  and  vehicles,  and  should  be  sure  before  he  begins  to 
build  that  he  has  every  thing  planned  conveniently  and  econom- 
ically. It  will  pay  to  spend  a  day  (or  several  days)  in  visiting 
and  examining  the  barns  of  your  neighborhood,  noting  both  their 
defects  and  excellencies.  Do  not  make  the  mistake  of  using 
poor,  cheap  material  in  the  construction  of  a  barn  or  shed.  The 
best  is  the  cheapest  always,  and  all  the  work  should  be  done 
thoroughly,  and  in  a  workmanlike  manner.  It  is  far  wiser  to 
economize  by  putting  up  a  small  barn,  and  adding  to  it  when 
you  are  able,  than  to  build  a  large  one  of  poor  material.  We 
give  some  barn  plans,  not  with  the  expectation  that  they  may 
be  exactly  what  any  of  our  readers  will  wish  to  adopt,  but  with 
the  hope  that  they  will  be  found  helpful,  and  that  if  not  adopted 
they  will  at  least  furnish  some  suggestions  as  to  arrangement,  etc. 


A  TASTY  AND  CONVENIENT  BARN. 


The  engraving  shows  a  tasty  and  convenient  barn,  and  one 
which  the  farmer  can  modify  to  suit  his  wants  as  to  size  and 
interior  arrangements. 

The  illustration  on  page  1195  shows  a  basement  or  bank  barn, 
which  will  be  found  a  convenient  stock  barn.  The  upper  part  is 
used  for  storage,  and  the  stables  are  below.  The  wing  contains 
the  granaries  and  a  store-room  for  implements.  The  drive-way 
by  which  the  barn  is  entered  is  on  the  opposite  side  from  that 
shown  in  the  engraving.  The  basement  is  eight  feet  high. 


THE  BARN  AND  BARN- YARD. 


1195 


In  our  wheat  chapter  we  speak  of  barracks  for  storing 
wheat,  and  promise  in  this  chapter  an  engraving  and  bill  of 
lumber,  with  approximate  estimate  of  cost.  As  there  are  many 


A  BANK   BAKN. 


farmers  of  small  means  who  must  run  in  debt  for  a  barn,  and 
who  should  build  so  that  when  able  they  can  add  to  it  conven- 
iently, I  give  here  a  plan  which  will  meet  the  wants  of  such. 

One  of  the  wings  shown  in  the  engraving  can  be  put  up  and 
used  for  barracks,  or  as  a  cheap  barn;  and  when  more  room  is 
needed,  or  the  farmer  has  the  means,  the  other  wing  can  be 
added.  It  is  not  designed  to  use  any  timber  larger  than  six 


A  CHEAP  BARN  AND  BARRACKS. 

inches  square  in  this  building,  as  when  used  for  barracks  it  will 
be  filled  so  that  all  the  weight  will  rest  on  the  ground,  and  if 
one  wing  is  used  for  stabling  the  loft  can  be  so  well  supported 
by  studding  below  as  to  bear  all  the  weight  that  can  be  put  on 
it.  In  using  this  light  timber  it  is  not  best  to  build  wider  than 
twenty-six  feet.  The  bill  of  lumber  here  given  is  for  a  build- 


1196  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

ing  twenty-five  by  forty-two  feet;  but,  as  lumber  is  usually  cut 
in  even  lengths,  it  would  be  better  to  make  the  building  either 
twenty-four  or  twenty-six  feet  wide. 

BILL  OF  LUMBER 

FOR  BARN  OR  BARRACKS   TWENTY-FIVE   BY   FORTY-TWO  FEET,   WITH  SIXTEEN-FEET  POSTS. 

Two  sills,  6  by  6  inches,  42  feet  long,     .         .         .         .264  feet. 
Four  sills,      "         "        25  "  .         .         .         300 

Ten  posts,      "  16  ...     480 

Nail  ties,  two  run  all  around,  4  by  4  inches,  .  .  364 
Six  collar  beams,  or  tie  beams,  6  by  6  inches,  25  feet  long,  450 
Two  plates,  4  by  6  inches,  42  feet  long,  .  .  .  176 
Brace  timber,  3  by  4  inches,  .  .  .  .  160 

Forty-four  rafters,  2  by  5  inches,  16  feet  long,  .  .  586 
•Sheathing,  1  by  four  inches,  .....  900 

Total  frame  lumber,         ....  3,680     " 

To  inclose  this  building  will  require,  of 

Weather  boarding  ......      2,400     " 

Shingles,  9,500. 

The  price  of  lumber  will  vary  in  different  localities  ;  but  it 
would  cost  me,  delivered  on  the  ground,  as  follows  : 

3,680  feet  of  hard  frame  lumber,  at  $15  per  M.,   '  .         .     $55  20 
2,400  feet  of  weather  boarding,  at  $17.50  per  M.,        .  42  00 

5,500  shingles,  at  $4.25  per  M.,       .....       40 


Making  a  total  for  lumber  of   .         .         .         .         $137 

I  have  allowed,  on  the  plates  and  long  sills,  two  feet  of 
length  extra,  as  they  would  need  to  be  spliced,  as  we  could  not 
get  timber  sawed  forty-two  feet  long. 

Ten  dollars  would,  I  think,  be  a  liberal  allowance  for  nails 
and  hinges,  which  would  bring  the  cost  of  material  for  the 
building  to  a  little  less  than  $150.  I  have  not  an  exact  esti- 
mate of  the  carpenter  work  ;  but  I  read  over  my  plan  and  bill 
of  lumber  to  two  experienced  carpenters,  and  they  both  said 
the  cost  of  work  would  not  exceed  fifty  dollars.  At  my  esti- 
mate for  lumber,  it  can  be  built  so  as  not  to  cost  over  five 
dollars  per  lineal  foot,  or  $210  for  the  building,  forty-two 
feet  long. 

The  amount  of  storage  required  for  wheat  varies  so  with 
the  season,  variety,  degree  of  ripeness,  etc.,  that  no  exact  esti- 
mate of  capacity  can  be  given;  but  1  think  that  enough  wheat 


THE  BARN  AND  BARN-YARD.  1197 

to  thresh  out  from  five  hundred  to  eight  hundred  bushels  can 
be  stored  in  this  building. 

I  am  aware  that  this  plan  is  open  to  criticism,  from  the  fact 
that  considerably  less  lumber  and  shingles  would  be  required  to 
inclose  the  same  amount  of  space  if  the  building  was  made 
more  nearly  square ;  but  I  think  that  this  objection  is  more 
than  overbalanced  by  the  fact  that  much  heavier  timber  would 
be  needed  in  the  square  barn,  and  that  a  barn  such  as  shown 
in  our  engraving  furnishes  good  protection  to  the  barn-yard, 
and  enables  the  farmer  of  small  means  to  build  at  different 
times.  When  the  right-angle  barn  is  built,  it  is  best  to  locate 
the  stables  in  the  corner  where  the  wings  join,  so  that  food  can 
be  easily  taken  from  either  wing  The  stables  may  face  each 
other,  and  the  stock  feed  from  a  floor  some  two  feet  higher 
than  the  floor  of  the  stable,  as  this  is  much  more  convenient 
than  to  crowd  the  hay  or  fodder  into  a  manger.  When  the 
single  building  is  to  be  used  as  barracks  for  storing  grain,  I 
would  divide  into  three  parts,  two  fifteen  feet  wide,  and  a  mid- 
dle space  twelve  feet  wide,  and  hang  doors,  so  as  to  have  a 
drive-way  through  the  center.  The  bays  can  first  be  filled  on 
either  side,  and  afterwards,  if  the  space  should  be  needed,  the 
drive-way. 

Approaches. — I  advise  that  the  barn-yard  be  always  so 
located  that  there  will  be  no  necessity  of  passing  through  it  to 
reach  the  stable.  If  it  is  not  convenient  to  locate  the  barn-yard 
at  the  rear,  so  that  you  can  enter  the  stable  from  the  opposite 
side,  fence  off  a  passage-way  between  the  stable  and  the  barn- 
yard, wide  enough  for  a  wagon-drive,  and  turn  the  stock  across 
this  into  the  barn-yard.  It  is  impossible  to  keep  the  approaches 
to  the  barn  clean  if  the  stock  is  allowed  to  stand  at  the  doors 
tramping  and  dropping  their  dung.  There  is  no  reason  why  a 
barn  should  not  be  so  arranged  that  the  farmer  can  reach  it  at 
any  time  without  soiling  his  boots. 

On  many  farms  the  barns  afford  sufficient  room  for  storage, 
but  are  deficient  in  stable  room.  Our  engraving  shows  a  cheap 
and  good  method  of  attaching  a  shed  to  a  barn.  The  posts  which 
you  notice  lean  from  the  barn  answer  a  threefold  purpose. 


1198 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


LEAN-TO  SHED. 


They  support  the  manger  and  feed-boxes,  they  are  set  the  right 

distance  apart  for  partitions  to  the  stalls,  and  they  support  the 

roof.     By  making  this  shed  with  high  posts  quite  an  amount  of 

storage  room  will  be  furnished, 

and  the  weatherboarding  can  be 

taken  off  from  the  barn  to  cover 

it,  and  this  will  make  the  loft 

above  the  shed  accessible  from 

the  barn.     In  many  cases  such 

a  shed  would  add  largely  to  the 

comfort  of   the   stock    and    the 

convenience    of    the    owner    in 

caring  for  them,  and  the  expense 

of  building  it  would  be  but  little 

more  than  the  cost  of  the  roof. 

If  the  farmer  has  a  small  machine  for  threshing,  or  if  he  feeds 

a  large  amount  of  corn-fodder,  the  shed  and  rack  shown  in  the 

engraving  will  be  found  a  great  convenience.     It  may  be  located 

at  the  end  of  the  barn  floor,  so  that  the  straw  from  the  machine 

can  be  run  directly  into  it,  and  is  so  arranged  that  the  straw 

will  settle  down  as  fast  as  the  cattle  eat  it  out  from  below.     It 

can  be  made  of  a 
size  to  suit,  but 
should  be  at  least 
large  enough  to 
hold  the  straw 
from  fifty  bush- 
els of  wheat.  As 
the  farmer  will 
often  wish  to 
^  walk  through  the 
rack  either  in  fill- 
ing it  or  to  re- 
move any  waste 

that  may  accumulate,  there  should  be  a  board  twelve  or  fifteen 

inches  wide  fitted  in  the  center  for  a  walk. 

It  will  pay  on  every  farm  to  save  the  straw,  as  good,  bright 


A  CHEAP  FEEUlNU-SllIiD   AND  RACK. 


THE  BARN  AND  BARN-YARD. 

wheat-straw,  when  fed  in  connection  with  grain,  has  more  than 
half  the  feeding  value  of  average  hay.  On  many  farms  it  is  left 
in  the  field,  or  is  so  poorly  stacked  as  to  be  of  little  value.  It 
should  also  be  so  arranged  as  to  afford  shelter  as  well  as  food. 
Our  engraving  shows  a  good,  cheap,  and  strong  rack  for 
stacking.  There  should  be  two  of  them,  a  suitable  distance 
apart^  to  hold  the  straw.  The  forks  should  be  of  durable  wood, 
and  well  set  in  the  ground,  and  the  poles  strong.  The  sloping 
uprights  should  not  be  laid  close  together,  but  should  be  ten 
inches  apart,  so  that  the  cattle  can  get  enough  straw  through  to 
eat  and  bed  themselves.  One  upright  at  each  end  should  be 
fastened  to  the 
pole  at  the  upper 
end,  and  sunk 
in  the  ground  at 
the  bottom,  or 
the  cattle  will  be 

likely  to  push  it  UACK  FOK  STACKING  STUAW. 

down  when  the  pressure  of  the  straw  is  removed.  A  stack  of 
good  straw  in  the  barn-yard  is  a  great  comfort  to  the  stock,  as 
they  will  pull  down  enough  to  keep  the  yard  dry  and  comfort- 
able, and  none  of  the  droppings,  either  liquid  or  solid,  will  be 
lost  in  a  yard  well  bedded. 

The  barn-yard  should  always  be  so  arranged  that  no  water 
can  flow  into  it  from  adjoining  land.  If  from  the  natural  slope 
of  the  land  there  is  danger  of  this,  good  surface  ditches  should 
be  made  on  the  upper  side  to  carry  the  water  around  it.  If 
the  barn-yard  is  on  flat  land,  it  will  pay  to  raise  it  a  foot  or 
more  by  plowing  and  scraping  from  the  land  adjoining,  for  if 
this  is  not  done  in  a  few  years  the  barn-yard  will  be  lower  than 
the  general  level,  and  thus  receive  the  drainage  and  be  likely 
to  become  a  mud-hole.  With  a  barn-yard  of  such  a  size  that 
every  foot  of  it  is  covered  with  some  good  absorbent,  and  so 
made  that  there  shall  be  no  drainage  either  to  or  from  it,  and 
the  manure  managed  as  described  in  Chapter  IV,  there  need  be 
but  little  waste  of  fertilizers  on  the  farm. 

In  the  cattle  chapter  I  speak  of  the  manure  ditch  and   the 


1200 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


form  of  partitions  in  the  cow-stable.  Our  illustration  gives  a- 
good  idea  of  them.  The  floor  on  which  the  cows  stand  must 
be  as  short  as  will  answer,  or  they  will  drop  dung  on  it  and  lie 
down  in  it.  For  average  sized  cows  I  recommend  that  the  floor 
be  four  feet  nine  inches  long,  and  a  variation  of  a  few  inches 
either  way  will  adapt  it  to  large  or  small  cows.  The  floor  should 
be  of  such  length  that  when  the  cow  stands  with  her  head  in 
the  manger  the  dung  will  drop  into  the  ditch.  The  cow  in  lying 
down  soon  learns  to  lie  at  an  angle  in  the  stall  so  as  not  to  pro- 
ject over  the  ditch.  Make  the  manure  ditch  eight  inches  deep, 
and  of  such  width  that  you  can  easily  step  across  it,  and  then 
the  boots  will  never  be  soiled  when  you  go  into  the  stable  with 
a  poor  light.  The  ditch  may  be  made  deeper  and  wider  for  fat- 
tening and  stock  cattle,  so  as  to  hold  a  week's  droppings  if  de- 
sired, for  as  we  always  pass  through  the  manger  in  front  of  the 
cattle  in  fastening  or  loosening  them,  there  is  no  necessity  of 
going  behind  them,  except  to  clean  the  stable.  In  arranging  a 

stable  for  fattening  cat- 
tle two  rows  can  stand 
facing  from  each  other, 
with  a  manure  ditch 
between  them  six  feet 
wide,  and  large  doors 
at  each  end,  so  that  the 
wagon  can  be  driven 
through  and  the  manure 
taken  directly  to  the 
fields.  The  boards  in 
the  floor  of  the  manure 
ditch  should  always  run 
lengthwise,  so  that  the  shovel  will  slip  easily  on  them.  Arranged 
in  this  way,  a  building  a  little  over  twenty  feet  wide  would  ac- 
commodate two  rows  of  cattle,  as  two  and  a  half  feet  is  wide 
enough  for  the  mangers,  a  little  less  than  rive  feet  for  each  raised 
floor,  and  six  feet  for  the  manure  ditch. 

For  the  cow  stable  I  very  much  prefer  the  short,  sloping  par- 
titions shown  in  the  engraving,  as  the  milker  does  not  want  to 


COW-STALLS  AND  MANURE  DITCH. 


THE  BARN  AND  BARN- YARD. 


1201 


run  any  risks  of  being  crowded  against  a  partition,  and  all  that 
is  necessary  is  to  have  the  partitions  extend  back  far  enough 
so  that  the  cows  can  not  steal  each  other's  feed  or  horn  each 
other.  In  the  cow  stable  the  stills  should  be  full  four  feet 
wide,  but  for  other  cattle  they  may  be  a  little  narrower.  I 
would  prefer  some  other  material  than  boards  for  the  floor,  as  I 
have  always  found  a  board  floor  a  harbor  for  rats.  For  cows  a 
satisfactory  floor  can  be  made  by  pounding  in  tough  yellow  clay, 
as  they  will  always  urinate  in  the  ditch,  but  steers  would  be 
likely  to  make  it  too  soft  and  muddy  as  their  urine  would  fall 

on  the  floor.  The  cement 
called  "liquid  stone," 
which  is  used  for  pave- 
ment would,  I  think,  make 
an  excellent  floor.  When 
a  clay  or  cement  floor  is 
to  be  laid  a  timber  should 
be  put  down  next  the 
manure  ditch  for  the  edge. 
Another  way  in  which 
cattle  can  be  kept  clean 
in  the  stable  is  by  means 
of  a  slatted  floor.  This 
should  be  raised  high 
enough  above  the  stable 
floor  so  that  with  a  hoe 
or  shovel  it  will  be  easy 
to  take  the  dung  from 
under  it.  The  slats  should 
be  of  strong  and  dura- 
ble timber  three  inches 
wide  at  the  top  or  upper 
side,  and  beveled  to  two  inches  at  the  bottom,  which  will 
prevent  the  cracks  from  becoming  clogged.  The  best  width  for 
the  cracks  is  about  two  inches.  I  think  it  would  be  easier  to 
keep  this  slatted  floor  clean  if  the  slats  run  lengthwise  of  the 
stall  instead  of  across  as  shown  in  the  engraving,  for  there 

7G 


SLATTED  FLOOR. 


1202 


THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 


would  some  dung  lodge  on  it  which  would  need  to  be  scraped  off, 
and  it  would  be  easier  with  a  hoe  to  do  this  from  behind  if  the 
slats  run  lengthwise. 

Our  engraving  shows  how  a  stanchion  is  made  and  how  fas- 
tened. Both  the  upright  and  latch  are  secured  by  a  single  bolt 
which  is  loose,  so  they  play  freely  on  it.  I  would  have  stan- 
chions in  every  cow  stable,  but  would  not  leave  the  cows  in  them 

over  night,  as  cattle  can  not 
be  so  comfortable  in  them 
as  when  tied.  I  would  not 
tie  with  a  rope  around  the 
neck  unless  the  cow  was 
hornless,  but  I  would  use  a 
short  rope  or  strap  around 
the  horns  with  a  small  iron 
ring  on  it.  This  ring  should 
be  secured  so  as  to  hang  in 
the  middle  of  the  forehead, 
and  this  can  easily  be  done  by  wrapping  a  strong  string  around  the 
horns  and.  securing  the  ends  to  the  ring.  The  object  is  to  have 
the  ring  always  in  a  position  easy  of  access,  so  that  a  snap  can  be 
fastened  or  detached  in  a  twinkling.  When  the  rope  or  strap 
is  placed  around  the  neck  the  ring  always  hangs  underneath, 
and  in  stooping  to  reach  it  there  is  some  danger  of  being 
injured  by  the  horns.  I  have  tried  many  cattle  ties,  but  have 
found  nothing  so  satisfactory  as  the  ring  and  snap,  as  it  is  easily 
operated  and  never  comes  unfastened. 

There  should  be  in  every  stable  where  milking  is  done  a 
good,  safe  shelf  for  milk  pails  and  stools,  and  a  good  broom, 
shovel,  and  hoe  for  scraping  the  manure  from  the  floor  should 
always  be  ready  for  use. 


STANCHIONS. 


AGRICULTURAL  APHORISMS.  1203 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

AGRICULTURAL,    APHORISMS.* 

"Whatsoever  ye  would  that  men  should  do  unto  you,  do  ye  even  so  unto  them." 

IF  the  heart  \s>  not  in  the  farm,  the  life  should  not  be  upon 
it. — Profit  depends  more  upon  the  farmer  than  the  farm.— 
The  best  subsoil  is  a  wise  plan. — An  active  brain  is  a  greater 
labor-saving  machine  than  the  self-binder. — Plan  and  work  ahead  : 
bright  brains  and  brown  hands  make  the  farm  pay. — The  basis 
of  success  is  wise  management,  the  result  of  correct  reasoning 
from  facts  gained   by  the  experience,  observations,  and  investi- 
gations of  self  and  others. 

Do  not  fret. — Keep  a  diary. — Watch  the  markets. — Study 
crop  reports. — Assort  your  products. — Quality  is  as  important 
as  quantity. — Sell  when  your  produce  is  ready  for  market. — 
Neither  a  borrower  nor  a  lender  be. — Stick  to  your  business  and 
it  will  stick  to  you. — No  man  can  farm  by  proxy. — Reduce  all 
contracts  to  writing. — Pay  no  money  without  taking  a  receipt, 
buy  no  property  without  having  the  title  examined,  sign  no 
paper  for  a  stranger,  and  have  no  destructible  property  not 
insured. 

The  farmer's  wheel-of-fortune :  a  rotation  of  crops. — In  the 
rotation  of  crops  on  hilly  lands,  make  cultivated  crops  only  one 
spoke  in  the  wheel. — The  problem  of  making  a  farm  profitable 
is  solved  by  the  rule  of  three :  fewer  acres,  more  work,  larger 
yields. — Do  work  at  the  earliest  seasonable  moment ;  the  man 
chased  by  his  work  stumbles  over  many  dollars. — As  order  is 
neglected,  wastes  become  systematic,  and  losses  regular. — Cul- 
tivate the  home  market. — Be  courteous  enough  to  escort  every 
thing  to  its  place,  that  it  may  be  at  home  when  next  you  call 
on  it. — More  work  with  less  labor  is  reflected  from  bright,  sharp 
tools. — Effort  concentrated  on  small  areas  economizes  materials 

*By  JOHN  M.  STAHL,  editor  of  Farmers'  Call  and  South  and  West. 


1204  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

and  labor. — Feed  the  soil  with  the  food  it  needs. — Kindness  is 
accepted  at  par,  and  repaid  with  interest  by  stock,  employes, 
and  family. — It  is  not  good  policy  to  leave  any  work  to  do  itself, 
except  Sunday  work. — The  man  too  smart  to  pay  the  price 
asked  by  a  reliable  dealer  is  just  smart  enough  to  be  gulled  by 
a  sharper. — Accounts  are  sign-boards  which  both  show  where 
you  are  and  have  been,  and  point  to  the  right  road. — Better 
to  lose  a  good  horse  trade  than  self-respect,  and  it  is  very  hard 
to  keep  both. — When  a  farmer  once  owns  a  2:30  trotter,  he  can 
not  drive  fast  enough  with  even  that  to  overtake  his  money. — 
The  manure  bank  is  the  best  savings-bank,  and  the  safest  bank 
of  deposit  is  a  bank  of  earth. — The  man  who  takes  a  good  agri- 
cultural paper  has  the  Extract  of  Agriculture  in  his  house. — 
The  lack  of  a  haymow  is  the  possession  of  a  hole  in  the  pocket. — 
Some  farming  is  like  a  sieve :  small  holes,  but  the  profit  gets 
through. — Dig  no  holes  to  fill  again. — Aid  the  fairs. — Poor 
laborers  are  multiplied  evils. — Above  the  barn  door:  "0  ye 
that  enter  me,  leave  pipes  behind." — Raise  large  crops  that 
leave  the  farm  richer  than  they  found  it. — Not  only  increase 
your  productions,  but  save  and  market  them  better. — A  little 
ready  cash  will  not  wait  long  for  profitable  use ;  better  have 
money  in  your  pocket  than  land  unpaid  for. — Begin  with  new 
crops  and  varieties  on  a  small  scale,  enlarging  as  you  gain  ex- 
perience.— Generosity  to  man,  beast,  and  soil  is  profitable. — 
Cleanliness  is  health  in  the  house  and  stable. — If  Nebuchadnez- 
zar learned  the  virtues  of  grass,  he  got  some  valuable  agricult- 
ural information. — Very  often  the  problem  of  converting  an  im- 
poverished, unprofitable  farm  into  a  fertile,  profitable  one  is  the 
easy  addition  of  grnss  and  stock. — After  intelligent  and  careful 
deliberation  mark  out  your  course,  and  then  adhere  to  it;  ca- 
pricious changes  are  always  unwise. 

Debt  has  not  night  or  Sabbath;  interest  never  goes  a-fish- 
ing. — When  debt  enters  the  house,  content  departs;  and  when 
a  mortgage  shadows  the  home,  foreboding  and  disquiet  take  their 
places  at  the  fireside. — I  have  seen  a  man  too  poor  to  buy  shoes 
for  his  wife,  yet  rich  enough  to  buy  more  land. — Buy  a  farm 
suited  to  your  means,  adapted  to  your  tastes,  affording  a  good 


AGRICULTURAL  APHORISMS.  1205 

water  supply,  convenient  to  markets  reached  by  good  roads,  and 
in  a  moral,  wide-awake  community. — Mr.  Intensive  Farming 
bought  out  his  neighbor,  Mr.  Extensive  Farming,  some  years  ago, 
and  put  up  a  new  house  and  barn,  while  the  latter  went  West, 
where  land  was  cheap  and  the  cow  could  run  on  the  range. 

Underdrains  make  soil  faster  than  the  glaciers. — When  a 
man  plants  tile  he  plants  that  which  needs  neither  manure  nor 
cultivation,  and  which  yields  many  crops. — God  sends  his  rain 
upon  the  just  and  the  unjust  alike,  and  he  makes  his  seasons 
the  same  for  all  men;  but  tempered  drought  and  lessened  flood, 
earlier  spring  and  later  fall  has  the  man  with  a  well  drained 
farm. — I  have  seen  men  add  acres  to  their  farms  by  putting  in 
the  earth  tile,  or  manure,  or  labor. 

For  all  parties  it  is  cheaper  for  a  man  to  fence  his  own  stock 
in  than  to  fence  all  others  out. — Reduce  the  amount  of  fencing 
by  grouping  plowed  and  mowed  lands  together. — Have  fencing 
like  Aunt  Jane's  onion :  little,  but  strong. — Weak  fences  are  the 
teachers  that  graduate  breachy  stock. — The  crops  grown  in  the 
fence  corners  mar  many  a  farm. — The  man  who  puts  up  a  gate 
adds  a  day  to  the  year. 

An  idle  plow  half  hid  by  the  weeds  in  a  fence  corner  sug- 
gests improvidence  kicking  success  out  of  the  front  door. — Waste 
and  ill  luck  are  twins. — Rot  and  rust  eat  faster  than  wear  and 
tear. — Paint  to  the  wood,  and  oil  to  the  steel  of  farm  machinery 
not  in  use,  is  gain  to  the  farmer. — Paint  costs  less  than  new 
boards  and  beams. — A  workshop  both  makes  and  saves. — Re- 
pairs made  early  are  made  with  ease  and  cheapness. — It  is  bet- 
ter to  strengthen  a  weak  place  than  to  mend  a  break. — It  is 
fully  as  important  to  utilize  completely  as  to  produce  abun- 
dantly.— The  man  who  burns  his  own  straw  is  not  accounted  a 
felon;  yet  he  robs  his  stock,  his  farm,  his  family,  and  his  coun- 
try.— It  is  said  that  this  man  raises  thirty  and  that  man  sixty 
bushels  of  corn  per  acre,  but  no  note  is  taken  of  the  fodder,  so 
little  of  it  is  saved ;  yet  of  corn  the  fodder  is  almost  as  valuable 
as  the  grain. — If  straw  and  corn  fodder  were  saved,  we  could 
winter  more  than  twice  the  number  of  cattle  we  now  have. 

Uncle  Sam  could  better  afford  to  lose  half  the  revenues  of 


1206  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

his  government,  than  the  manure  his  tenants  waste. — I  have 
seen  a  man  throw  an  ear  at  a  pig  that  was  stealing  a  nubbin; 
and  I  have  seen  a  man  save  the  solid  manure  and  allow  the 
urine  to  waste. — Wind  and  rain  will  haul  the  manure  without 
wages,  but  they  are  dear  hands. — Collect  and  keep  manure  by 
the  use  of  absorbents  and  shelter. — Ammonia  loves  a  level,  solid 
manure  pile,  but  it  departs  from  a  conical,  loose  one. — Manures, 
like  some  drugs,  are  most  powerful  when  finely  divided. — Nature 
is  a  good  farmer,  and  it  puts  manure  upon  the  surface. — A  sandy 
subsoil  and  a  bare  surface  are  the  Scylla  and  Charybdis  of 
manure. — He  who  sows  a  crop  for  green  manuring  puts  to  work 
in  his  behalf  ten  thousand  alchemists  that  from  hidden  depths 
take  minerals  and  change  them  into  fertility,  and  that  coin  plant 
food  out  of  air. 

I  have  never  heard  a  man  complain  that  he  had  tilled  his 
land  too  well. — After  you  have  prepared  the  land  thoroughly 
for  a  crop,  harrow  and  roll  it  once  more. — Firm  the  seed-bed. — 
Plow  heavy  soils  as  deep  as  you  can  fine  them. — When  the  soil 
and  the  season  are  right  the  moon  is  right. — Weeds  are  robbers. — 
Weeds  are  always  hungry,  and  the  more  they  have  the  more 
they  want. — The  smallest  weed  is  the  one  most  easily  destroyed, 
yet  the  weed  most  easily  destroyed  is  the  one  not  allowed  to 
germinate. 

Keep  the  corn-planter  close  after  the  plow. — When  seed, 
selected  early  and  well  dried,  is  seasonably  planted  on  pulver- 
ized sod,  a  big  corn  crop  is  half  made. — Test  seed  corn  a  month 
before  planting  time. — Clover  for  corn,  stable  manure  for  wheat. — 
The  plow,  harrow,  and  roller  should  go  early  and  keep  close 
company  in  the  field  for  wheat. — Drill  one  bushel  of  wheat  per 
acre,  putting  it  one  inch  below  the  surface  of  a  powdered  seed- 
bed.— The  big  cotton  bale  said  it  was  planted  early. — The  gin 
and  the  ginner  make  or  unmake  one-fourth  of  the  price  of  the 
cotton. — Poor  baling  is  baleful  to  cotton,  as  poor  shocking  is 
shocking  to  wheat. — Killing  the  first  cotton  moth  is  killing  ten 
thousand  later. — Mix  the  cotton  seed  meal  with  corn  or  corn 
fodder  and  feed  it  at  home. — There  is  not  room  for  one  weed 
in  the  tobacco  seed-bed. — Plant  tobacco  plants  as  you  should 


AGRICULTI'RAL  APHORISMS.  1207 

diseased  carcasses — deep  and  solid. — The  early  tobacco  plant 
lost  only  its  head ;  the  late  one  half  its  body. — Plant  potatoes 
largely  when  they  go  begging. — When  sizing  the  potato  patch 
remember  that  every  hog  is  an  Irishman. — The  big  potato  grew 
early  on  fall  plowed  land. — The  potato  tuber  should  carry  an 
umbrella;  rain  or  sun  quickly  injures  it. — Raise  your  own  sweet 
potato  plants  from  perfect  seed  planted  a  month  before  the  plants 
are  wanted. — Puddle  the  roots  of  sweet  potato  plants  before 
transplanting,  and  firm  the  earth  about  them. — Sow  rye  between 
crops  for  pasture  and  manure. — Pumpkins  are  good  stock  med- 
icine.— Sow  turnip  seed  after  a  rain. 

A  tree  planted  will  blossom  with  pleasures,  and  fruit  with 
profits. — Good  corn  land  is  poor  fruit  tree  land. — An  orchard 
does  not  make  a  good  mule  pasture. — Fruit  trees,  like  grain  and 
stock,  must  have  food  and  care. — Commune  not  with  the  fruit 
tree  agent  armed  with  colored  plates  and  an  oily  tongue. — Plant 
fruit  trees  one  or  two  years  old. — When  selecting  new  varieties 
of  fruit,  consult  your  neighbors. — Hogs  in  the  orchard  furnish  a 
case  of  mutual  benefit. — Keep  a  young  orchard  in  low,  cultivated 
crops;  an  old  orchard  in  clover. — Neglect  never  made  a  success 
of  fruit-raising. — Make  a  bush  of  the  raspberry  by  pinching  the 
cane  off  when  two  feet  long. — Precede  strawberries  with  clover. — 
Good  taste  made  his  fruit  attractive,  and  got  the  highest  price  for 
it. — The  doctor  sighs  over  a  full  orchard  and  a  good  garden. 

Put  the  garden  on  rich,  warm,  well-drained  land,  free  from 
weeds. — When  a  man  tells  me  he  can  not  have  a  good  garden 
I  know  that  his  hoe  is  rusty. — You  can  not  make  a  fence  hold 
more  health  and  money  than  by  putting  it  around  a  good  garden. 

A  strong  plant  is  the  best  remedy  for  insects. — The  cut- 
worm is  sure  that  the  birds  should  be  killed. — When  the  Hes- 
sian Fly  turns  agricultural  writer,  he  will  make  his  first  article 
against  late  sowing  and  a  fast  growing  plant. — Fall  plowing, 
frequent  harrowings,  and  many  birds,  form  the  combination  to 
which  cut-worms,  white  grubs,  and  wire-worms  succumb. — The 
apple  tree  borer  is  one  of  the  few  things  which  will  not  endure 
soft  soap. — The  black  bird  acknowledged  the  corn,  but  proved 
it  had  an  appetite  for  grubs. 


1208  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

Forests  temper  drought  and  flood,  heat  and  cold. — Trees 
will  yield  a  steady  income  on  land  unfit  for  cultivation. — Pre- 
pare land  as  thoroughly  for  trees  as  for  grain. — A  tree  does  not 
need  annual  cultivation,  and  it  does  its  own  manuring. 

It  makes  both  the  farm  and  pocket  richer  to  put  crops  on 
four  legs. — An  old  cow  or  a  runty  pig  is  as  devoid  of  profit 
as  a  mule  is  of  poesy. — Regularity  is  a  valuable  indorsement  on 
feeding,  watering,  milking,  and  salting. — Better  green  feed  than 
medicine ;  better  to  go  to  the  lumber  yard  than  to  the  horse  doc- 
tor.— Shelter  and  kind  treatment  are  equivalent  to  food. — Put- 
ting up  stock  shelters  enlarges  the  cribs. — A  pound  of  flesh  lost 
is  twice  lost,  for  the  waste  of  the  body  must  be  provided  for 
while  it  is  being  regained. — Unnecessary  exercise  is  waste  of 
food. — The  strongest  feeding  consistent  with  health  and  com- 
plete digestion,  and  of  concentrated,  agreeable  foods,  is  the  most 
profitable  feeding. — The  more  easily  food  is  digested,  the  more 
of  it  is  digested;  and  a  certain  amount  of  digested  matter  di- 
gested easily  makes  more  gain  than  the  same  amount  digested 
with  difficulty. — Selling  two  poor  animals  to  buy  one  good  one 
is  the  beginning  of  wisdom  in  stock  raising. — Keep  the  best  and 
sell  the  rest. — To  breed  immature  animals  is  poor  policy. — Straw 
or  saw-dust  used  liberally  for  bedding  saves  the  urine  and  keeps 
the  animals  clean. — As  age  is  added  to  an  animal  a  certain  amount 
of  food  makes  less  growth,  i.  e.,  gain. — Summer-made  flesh  costs 
less  than  winter-made. — Generally,  the  profit  of  flesh  and  fat  is 
increased  as  the  time  of  their  production  is  decreased. — Good 
animals  regularly  supplied  with  reasonable  allowances  of  whole- 
some food  and  drink,  and  properly  sheltered  and  treated,  do  not 
eat  their  heads  off. — Keep  good  stock  suited  to  the  character 
and  size  of  your  farm,  so  fed  and  treated  as  to  lead  to  their 
best  development,  and  so  managed  as  to  increase  the  fertility 
of  the  land. — Feed  dry  food  with  roots. — Change  food  gradu- 
ally.— Better  one  animal  full-fed  than  four  half-fed. — For  stock 
for  the  shambles  make  each  day  a  day  of  gain. — Small  shel- 
ters are  poor  economy. — The  full  bite  is  the  profitable  one.— 
Though  pasture  be  in  excess  it  is  not  lost. — A  variety  of  food 
for  farm  stock  is  essential,  and  this  must  be  in  the  pasture  as 


AGRICULTURAL  APHORISMS.  1209 

well  as  the  feed  trough. — It  is  better  to  combine  grass  and  grain 
feeding  than  to  separate  them. — Adding  to  the  grazing  season  sub- 
tracts from  the  cost  of  flesh. — A  well  or  cistern  kept  closed  from 
impurities  is  the  only  safe  water  supply. — Soiling  saves  land, 
fences,  food,  and  weeds,  and  increases  valuable  products. — Grow- 
ing an  animal  and  fattening  it  afterwards  went  out  of  fashion 
some  time  ago. — The  man  who  pastured  corn-stalks  is  the  long- 
lost  brother  of  the  man  who  spoiled  his  knife  fashioning  a  flint, 
and  the  strawberry  mark  is  "Penny  wise  and  pound  foolish." — 
Every  farm  animal  should  be  a  pet. — Castrate  the  calves  when 
a  week  old. — Muscle,  not  fat,  makes  the  good  breeding  animal. — 
Breed  from  the  best. — The  best  animal,  valued  for  its  flesh, 
milk,  or  wool,  is  the  one  that  produces  most  and  best  from  a 
certain  amount  of  food. — The  best  animal,  valued  for  its  labor, 
is  the  one  with  the  most  bone  and  muscle  rightly  placed,  and 
the  most  spirit  and  energy  rightly  controlled. — Disease  renders 
unfit  the  best  formed  sire. — Never  deprive  breeding  animals  of 
moderate  exercise. — A  scrub  sire  is  a  bad  bargain  at  any  price. — 
Pedigrees  are  like  wine :  the  older  the  better. — Pedigrees  are 
good  evidence,  but  not  proof. — The  most  masculine  male  is  the 
best  sire,  and  the  most  feminine  female  the  best  nurse  and 
suckler  (but  not  always  the  best  mother). — Year  after  year  use 
the  best  pure-bred  males  on  the  highest  grade  females. — The 
male  determines  the  externals,  the  female  the  internals. — Fit- 
ting for  show  is  too  often  unfitting  for  breeding. — The  steak 
will  not  tell  you  the  color  of  the  hair  it  grew  under. 

Endurance,  breeding,  and  size  should  mark  the  stallion; 
soundness,  activity,  and  docility  the  mare. — Good  colts  are  not 
unprofitable. — Colts,  like  children,  should  have  work  and  educa- 
tion while  young. — Put  the  barn  high  and  keep  it  dry. — Kind- 
ness to  a  mule  is  not  misplaced. — A  good  mule  is  a  treasure ; 
but  a  mule  soured  by  abuse  is  worse  than  a  scolding  wife. — 
Good  pasture,  good  cattle. — The  beef  animal  should  grind  its 
own  corn,  a  hog  completing  the  work. — Butter  colors  should  be 
put  in  the  cow,  not  in  the  bowl. — Quality  determines  the  profit 
of  butter. — Butter-milk  is  the  inveterate  foe  of  the  butter. — 
In  a  dairy  the  thermometer  is  as  essential  as  the  cow. — Cold 


1210  THE  PEOPLE'S  FARM  AND  STOCK  CYCLOPEDIA. 

water  removes  the  caseine  better  than  elbow  grease. — The  mar- 
ket weakens  as  the  butter  grows  stronger. — Pregnant  ewes  must 
have  exercise. — Merinos  for  poor  land  and  the  range ;  English 
breeds  for  good  land  and  small  farms. — Give  the  sheep  fodder 
for  breakfast,  grain  for  dinner,  and  hay  for  supper. — Eternal 
vigilance  is  the  price  of  lambs. — The  best  articles  in  the  shep- 
herd's medicine-chest  are  good  feeding,  good  care,  exercise,  water, 
and  salt. — It  was  a  wet  foot  that  made  the  sheep  sick. — Grow 
and  fatten  early  spring  pigs  on  pasture  (mostly  clover)  during 
the  summer  and  early  fall,  and  then  rapidly  fatten  on  grain. — 
Clover  and  swine  plague  had  a  contest,  and  clover  was  victor. — 
Always  have  some  hogs  to  connect  with  the  kitchen  by  means 
of  the  slop-barrel. — A  hog  loses  profitableness  when  brought  on 
rolling  land. — It  is  of  very  doubtful  profit  to  furnish  a  hog  with 
a  cook. — The  only  valuable  remedy  for  swine  disease  :  inherited 
vigor,  pure  water,  a  variety  of  wholesome  food  regularly  given, 
and  clean,  airy  quarters,  equal  parts ;  mix,  keep  shaking  the 
bottle,  and  give  every  minute. 

It  was  dampness  that  made  Biddy  take  to  her  bed. — It  was 
a  sad  day  among  the  insects  and  grubs  when  the  poultry  marched 
into  the  field. — Set  out  plums  and  small  fruits  in  the  poultry- 
yard. — Make  heat  the  first  thing  on  the  breakfast  bill  of  fare  in 
the  poultry-house  in  cold  weather. — Ground  bone  put  the  egg 
foundry  in  operation. — When  the  hen  has  gone  to  grass  she 
goes  to  lay. — Give  poultry  green  food,  vegetable  scraps,  pure 
water,  lime,  gravel,  dust  bath  with  sulphur  in  it,  and  warm, 
lighted,  ventilated,  white-washed  quarters. — Three  things  are 
there  quoted  firm  in  the  market  reports  :  whisky,  tobacco,  and 
April  broilers. — Hamburgs  and  Leghorns  for  many  eggs,  Hou- 
dans  and  Black  Spanish  for  fewer  but  larger  eggs ;  Brahmas, 
Cochins,  Plymouth  Rocks,  and  Langshans  for  eggs  and  dressed 
meat  for  winter  market;  Plymouth  Rocks,  Dominiques,  and 
Wyandottes  for  early  broilers. — Do  not  choose  the  chicken- 
hearted  cock  for  breeding. — Build  the  apiary  on  promptness  and 
persistence. — The  quiet  colony  needed  little  crape  during  the 
winter. — The  three  points  of  successful  wintering :  uniform  tem- 
perature, sufficient  food,  pure  air. 


AGRICULTURAL  APHORISMS.  1211 

Have  a  home. — The  home  is  above  the  farm. — If  your  wife's 
lips  are  not  so  sweet  ten  years  after  marriage  as  ten  days  be- 
fore, something  is  wrong,  and  you  should  seriously  consider  if 
you  are  not  that  something. — There  is  a  large  number  of  farm- 
ers' wives  in  the  insane  asylum,  and  not  one  of  them  was  driven 
to  insanity  by  labor-saving  appliances  in  the  kitchen. — The  best 
products  of  your  farms  are  your  sons  and  daughters,  and  they 
should  receive  ten  times  the  care  bestowed  upon  other  crops. — 
Books,  papers,  pictures,  and  games  in  the  home  are  good  anti- 
dotes for  the  cityward  longing. — Money  spent  to  make  the  farm 
and  home  attractive  bears  good  interest. — A  damp  cellar  and  a 
slop-hole  at  the  back  door  are  good  luck  to  the  doctor. — Neg- 
lect of  house  drainage  is  an  invitation  which  disease  always  ac- 
cepts.— Well  and  wood-shed  near  the  kitchen  door  makes  wife 
smile. — The  farm  should  yield  more  than  money,  and  the  fam- 
ily more  than  work. — The  farm-house  is  for  use  before  orna- 
ment, but  comfort  need  not  sacrifice  beauty. — Begin  the  plan  of 
your  house  at  least  a  year  before  you  begin  to  build. — Make  air 
and  sunshine  the  first  items  in  the  specifications  for  the  house. — 
An  elm  is  a  good  annex  to  the  house. — Make  the  garden,  pump, 
wood-house,  smoke-house,  and  kitchen  close  neighbors. — The 
good  farmer  or  his  wife  or  his  children  or  his  man-servant  or 
his  maid-servant  does  not  chop  stove-wood  during  the  hot  sea- 
son.— Man  may  be  a  diamond,  but  he  is  in  the  rough  till  society 
polishes  him ;  this  the  farmer,  whose  vocation  sentences  him  to 
not  a  little  solitary  confinement,  should  never  forget. — If  Solo- 
mon had  been  a  farmer  he  would  have  organized  a  farmers'  club 
for  his  own  benefit,  and  made  a  signal  display  of  his  wisdom  by 
so  doing. — Clean  implements,  clean  harness,  clean  animals,  clean 
fence  corners,  clean  fields,  clean  garden,  clean  orchard,  clean 
yard,  clean  pasture,  clean  seeds,  clean  stables,  clean  shelters, 
clean  troughs,  clean  food,  clean  water,  clean  litter,  clean  sleep- 
ing quarters,  clean  granaries,  clean  cellar,  clean  house,  clean 
children,  clean  conscience,  clean  profits. 


APPENDIX. 


PRINCIPAL  CEREAL  PRODUCTIONS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

From  the  Official  Report  of  the  Tenth  Census,  1880. 


STATES  AND 

INDIAN  CORN. 

WHEAT. 

OATS. 

BARLEY. 

RYE. 

BUCKWH'T. 

TERRITORIES. 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

Alabama  .   .   • 

25,451,278 

1,529,657 

3,039,039 

5,281 

28,402 

363 

Arizona  .    •    . 

34,746 

136,427 

564 

239,051 

Arkansas  .  .    . 

24,156,417 

1,269,730 

2,219,822 

1,952 

22,387 

548 

California    .    . 

1,993,325 

29,017,707 

1,341,271 

12,579,561 

181,681 

22,307 

Colorado  .    .   . 

455,968 

1,425,014 

640,900 

107,116 

19,465 

110 

Connecticut   . 

1,880,421 

38,742 

1,  009,70(5 

12,286 

370,733 

137,563 

Dakota.  •    .    . 

2,000,864 

2,830,289 

2,217,132 

277,424 

24,359 

2,521 

Delaware  .  .    . 

3,894,264 

1,175,272 

378,508 

523 

5,953 

5,857 

Dist.  Columbia 

29,750 

6,402 

7,440 

.... 

3,704 

.   .    .    . 

Florida  .... 

3,174,234 

422 

468,112 

210 

2,965 

.    .    .    . 

Georgia  .   .   . 

23,202,018 

3,159,771 

5,548,743 

18,662 

101,716 

402 

Idaho  .... 

16,408 

540,589 

462,236 

274,750 

4,341 

.    .    .    . 

Illinois  .... 

325,792,481 

51,110,502 

63,189,200 

1,229,523 

3,121,785 

178,859 

Indiana  .   .   . 

115,482,300 

47,284,853 

15,599,518 

382,835 

303,105 

89,707 

Iowa  

275,024,247 

31,154,205 

50,610,591 

4,022,588 

1,518,605 

166,895 

Kansas  .... 

105J729',325 

17|324,'l41 

8,180,385 

300,273 

41  3^1  81 

24^421 

Kentucky   .   . 

72,852,263 

11,356,113 

4,580,738 

486,326 

668,050 

9,942 

Louisiana   .   . 

9,906,189 

5,034 

229,840 

1,013 

Maine  .... 

960,633 

665,714 

2,265,575 

242,185 

26,398 

382,701 

Maryland    .   . 

15,968,533 

8,004,864 

1,794,872 

6,097 

288,067 

136,667 

Massachusetts 

1,797,593 

15,768 

645,159 

80,128 

213,716 

67,117 

Michigan  .  .    . 

32,461,452 

35,532,543 

18,190,793 

1,204,316 

294,918 

413,062 

Minnesota  .    . 

14,831,741 

34,601,030 

23,382,158 

2,972,965 

215,245 

41,756 

Mississippi  .    . 

21,340,800 

218,890 

1,959,620 

348 

5,134 

.    .    .    . 

Missouri  .   .   . 

202,485,723 

24,966,627 

20,670,958 

123,031 

535,426 

57,640 

Montana  .   .    . 

5,649 

469,688 

900,915 

39,970 

430 

437 

Nebraska  .  .   . 

65,450,135 

13,847,007 

6,555,875 

1,744,686 

424,348 

17,562 

Nevada    •   •   . 

12,891 

69,298 

186,860 

513  470 

N.  Hampshire 

1,350^248 

169,316 

1,017,620 

77^877 

34,638 

94,090 

New  Jersey  .  . 

11,150,705 

1,901,739 

3,710,573 

4,091 

949,064 

466,414 

New  Mexico  . 

633,786 

706,641 

156,527 

50,053 

240 

.... 

New  York  .   . 

25,875,480 

11,587,766 

37,575,506 

7,792,062 

2,634,690 

4,461.200 

N.  Carolina  .  . 

28,019,839 

3,397,393 

3,838,068 

2,421 

285,160 

44,668 

Ohio     .... 

111,877,124 

4(5,014,869 

28,664,505 

1,707,129 

389,221 

280,229 

Oregon  .... 

126,862 

7|48oioiO 

4,385,650 

920^977 

13,305 

6,215 

Pennsylvania 

45,821,531 

19,462,405 

33,841,439 

438,100 

3,683,621 

3,593,326 

Rhode  Island 

372,967 

240 

159,339 

17,783 

12,997 

1,254 

S.  Carolina  .   . 

11,767,099 

962,358 

2,715,505 

16,257 

27,049 

Tennessee  .   . 

62,764,429 

7,331,363 

4,722,190 

30,019 

156,419 

33,434 

Texas  .... 

29,065,172 

2,667,760 

4,893,359 

72,786 

25,399 

535 

Utah  

1  63,342 

1,169,199 

418,082 

217,140 

9,605 

Vermont  .   .    . 

2,014,271 

337,257 

3,742,282 

267,625 

71,733 

356,618 

Virginia  .    .    . 

29,106,661 

7,822,504 

5,333,181 

14,223 

324,431 

136,004 

Washington   . 

39,183 

1,921,322 

1.571,706 

566,537 

7,124 

2,498 

West  Virginia 

14,090,609 

4,001,711 

1,908,505 

9,740 

113,181 

285,298 

Wisconsin  .    . 

34,230,579 

24,884,689 

32,905,320 

5,043,118 

2,298,513 

299,107 

4,674 

22,512 

78 

Total  U.  8.  . 

1,754,861,535 

459,479,505 

407,858,999 

44,113,495 

19,831,595 

11,817,327 

Census  of  1850 

592.071,104 

100,485.044 

146.584.179 

5,167,015 

14.188,813 

8.956,912 

Census  of  186( 

838,792,742 

173,104,924  172,643,185  15.SL'  :..v's 

21.1T)1,380 

17,571.818 

Census  of  1870 

760,944,549 

287,745,626  282,107,157129,761,305 

16,918,795 

9.821,721 

(1213) 


1214 


APPENDIX. 


NUMBER  OF  LIVE  STOCK  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  1880. 

Prom  the  Official  Returns  of  the  Tenth  Census,  1880. 


STATES  AND  TER- 

Horses. 

Mules  and 

Working 

Milch 

Other 

Sheep. 

Swine 

RITORIES. 

Asses. 

Oxen. 

Cows. 

Cattle. 

Alabama  .    . 

113,950 

121,081 

75,534 

271,443 

404,213 

347,538 

1,252,462 

Arizona.  .    . 

6,798 

891 

984 

9,156 

34,843 

76,524 

3,819 

Arkansas  .   . 

146,333 

87,082 

25,444 

249,407 

433,392 

246,757 

1,565,098 

California  .  . 

237,710 

28,343 

2,288 

210,078 

451,941 

4,152,349 

603,550 

Colorado  .   . 

42,257 

2,581 

2,080 

28,770 

315,989 

746,443 

7,656 

Connecticut 

44,940 

539 

28,418 

116,319 

92,149 

59,431 

63,699 

Dakota  .    .   . 

41,670 

2,703 

11,418 

40,572 

88,825 

30,244 

63,394 

Delaware  .   . 

21,933 

3,931 

5,818 

27,284 

20,450 

21,967 

48,186 

Dist.  Colum. 

1,027 

68 

4 

1,292 

271 

1,132 

Florida  .   .   . 

22,636 

9,606 

16,141 

42,174 

409,055 

56,681 

287,051 

Georgia.  .   . 

98,520 

132,078 

50,026 

315,073 

544,812 

527,589 

1,471,003 

Idaho    .    .    . 

24,300 

610 

737 

12,838 

71,292 

27,326 

14,178 

Illinois  .    .    . 

1,023,082 

123,278 

3,346 

865,913 

1,515,063 

1,037,073 

5,170,266 

Indiana    .   . 

581,444 

51,780 

3,970 

494,944 

864,846 

1,100,511 

3,186,413 

Iowa  .... 

792,322 

44,424 

2,506 

854,187 

1,755,343 

455,359 

6,034,316 

Kansas  .  .   . 

430,907 

64,869 

16,789 

418,333 

1,015,935 

499,671 

1,787,969 

Kentucky.  . 

372,648 

116,153 

36,166 

301,882 

505,746 

1,000,269 

2,225,225 

Louisiana  .  . 

104,428 

76,674 

41,729 

146,454 

282,418 

135,631 

633,489 

Maine  .    .   . 

87,848 

298 

43,049 

150,845 

140,527 

565,918 

74,369 

Maryland  .  . 

117,796 

12,561 

22,246 

122,907 

117,387 

171,184 

335,408 

Massachust's 

59,629 

243 

14,571 

150,435 

96,045 

67,979 

80,123 

Michigan  .   . 

378,778 

5,083 

40,393 

384,578 

466,660 

2,189,389 

964,071 

Minnesota  . 

257,282 

9,019 

36,344 

275,545 

347,161 

267,598 

381,415 

Mississippi  . 

112,309 

129,778 

61,705 

268,178 

387,452 

287,694 

1,151,818 

Missouri  .    . 

667,776 

192,027 

9,020 

661,405 

1,410,507 

1,411,298 

4,553,123 

Montana  .   . 

35,114 

858 

936 

11,308 

160,143 

184.277 

10,278 

Nebraska  .   . 

204,864 

19,999 

7,234 

161,187 

590,129 

199,453 

1,241,724 

Nevada  .  .   . 

32,087 

1,258 

765 

13,319 

158,137 

133,695 

9,080 

N.  Hampsh'e 

46,773 

87 

29,152 

90,564 

112,689 

211,825 

53,437 

New  Jersey 

86,940 

9,267 

2,022 

152,078 

69,786 

117,020 

219,069 

New  Mexico 

14,547 

9,063 

16,432 

12,955 

137,314 

2,088,831 

7,857 

New  York  . 

610,358 

5,072 

39,633 

1,437,855 

862,233 

1,715,180 

751,907 

N.  Carolina. 

133,686 

81,871 

50,188 

232,133 

375,105 

461,638 

1,453,541 

Ohio.   .   .   . 

736,478 

19,481 

8,226 

767,043 

1,084,917 

4,902,486 

3,141,333 

Oregon  .   .  . 

124,107 

2,804 

4,132 

59,549 

352,561 

1,083,162 

156,222 

Pennsylv'a  . 

533,587 

22,914 

15,062 

854,156 

861,019 

1,776,598 

1,187,968 

R.  Island  .  . 

9,661 

46 

3,523 

21,460 

10,601 

17,211 

14,121 

8.  Carolina  . 

60,660 

67,005 

24,507 

139,881 

199,321 

118,889 

628,198 

Tennessee  . 

266,119 

173,498 

27,312 

303,900 

452,462 

672,789 

2,160,495 

Texas   .   .   . 

805,606 

132,447 

90,502 

606,176 

3,387,927 

2,411,633 

1,950,371 

Utah.  .   .   . 

38,131 

2,898 

3,968 

32,768 

58,680 

233,121 

17,198 

Vermont  .    . 

75,215 

283 

18,868 

217,033 

167,204 

439,870 

76,384 

Virginia  .   . 

218,838 

33,598 

54,709 

243,061 

388,414 

497,289 

956,451 

Washington 

45,848 

626 

3,821 

27,622 

103,111 

292,883 

46,828 

W.  Virginia 

126,143 

6,226 

12,643 

156,956 

288,845 

674,769 

510,613 

Wisconsin   . 

352,428 

7,136 

28,762 

478,374 

622,005 

1,336,807 

1,128,825 

Wyoming    . 

11,975 

671 

718 

3,730 

273,625 

140,225 

567 

Total,  1880 

10,357,488 

1,812,808 

993,841 

12,443,120 

22,488,550 

35,192,074 

47,681,700 

Total,  1870 

7,145,370 

1,125,415 

1,319,271 

8,935,332 

13,566,005 

28,477,951 

25,134,569 

Total,  1860 

6?249,174 

1,151,148 

2,254,911 

8,585,735 

14,779,373 

22,471,275 

33,512,867 

APPENDIX. 


1215 


From  the  Tablet  of  the  Tenth  Census,  1880. 


STATES,  IN  ORDER  OF  PRO- 
DUCTION. 

POPULATION. 

COTTON  PRODUCTION. 

0 

F 

| 

F 
i 

g 

I 

> 
I 

g 

8 

1.  Mississippi  .... 
2    Georgia  

1,131,592 
1,542,180 
1,592,574 
1,262,505 
802,525 
995,577 
939,946 
1,399,750 
1,542,463 
269,493 
2,168,804 

479,371 
816,906 
1,197,499 
662,185 
591,531 
391,105 
454,954 
867,242 
1,139,120 
142,605 
2,023,568 

652,'JL'l 
725,274 
395,076 
600,320 
210,994 
604,472 
484,992 
532,508 
403,343 
126,888 
145,236 

2,093,330 
2,617,138 
2,173,732 
2,330,086 
1,042,976 
1,364,249 
864,787 
893,153. 
722,569 
245,595 
32,711 
35,000 
24,000 
2,667 

955,808 
814,441 
803,642 
699,654 
608,256 
522,548 
508,569 
389,598 
330,644 
54,997 
19,733 
17,000 
11,000 
1,367 

3.  Texas  

4.  Alabama    .... 
5.  Arkansas   .... 
6.  South  Carolina  .  . 
7.   Louisiana  .... 
8.  North  Carolina  .  . 
9.  Tennessee  .... 
10   Florida  

11.  Missouri  
12.  Indian  Territory  . 
13.  Virginia  

1,512,565 
1,648,690 

880,858 
1,377,179 

631,707 
271,511 

14.  Kentucky  .... 
Total  

16,808,664 

11,024,123 

5,784,541 

14,441,993 

5,737,257 

STATES. 

AVERAGE  PRODUCT  PER  ACRE  IN  POUNDS. 

TOTAL  IN  TONS. 

^      ? 

Si  2J? 
Slf 

—  '  O 

sf 

I1 

3 

E 

a 

si 

Q*^ 

•  D 

| 

[f 

Mississippi    

0.46 
0.31 
0.37 
0.30 
0.58 
0.38 
0.59 
0.44 
0.46 
0.22 
0.60 
0.49 
0.46 
0.51 

651 
444 
5-28 
429 
831 
546 
837 
621 
651 
318 
861 
693 
654 
729 

217 
148 
176 
143 
277 
182 
279 
207 
217 
106 
287 
231 
218 
243 

434 
296 
352 
286 
554 
364 
558 
414 
434 
212 
574 
462 
436 
486 

227,004 
193,430 
190,865 
166,168 
144,461 
124,105 
120,785 
92,530 
78,528 
13,062 
4,687 
4,037 
2,612 
325 

454,009 
386,859 
381,730 
332.336 
288,922 
248,210 
241,570 
185,059 
157,056 
26,124 
9,373 
8,075 
6,225 
649 

Georgia  

Texas     

Alabama   •   . 

Arkansas  ...       .    . 

South  Carolina  .... 
Louisiana  

North  Carolina   .   .    . 
Tennessee  

Florida      

Missouri    .    .    . 

Indian  Territory  .  .    . 
Virginia  

Kentucky  

Total  

0.40 

567 

189 

378 

1,362,599 

2,725,197 

HIGHEST  AND  LOWEST  PRICE  OF  COTTON  PER  POUND  IN  N.  Y.  FOR  42  YEARS. 


Year. 

U  H. 

Year. 

L  H. 

Year. 

L.  H. 

•  Year. 

I.    IT. 

Year. 

L,  II 

Year. 

L.  H. 

cu. 

CU. 

C't*. 

CU. 

cu. 

Cte. 

1839  . 

11  16 

1846. 

6  9 

1853  . 

10  11 

1860. 

10   11 

1867  . 

15  36 

1874  . 

15  19 

1840  . 

8  10 

1847  . 

7  12 

1854  . 

8  101 

1861  . 

11   28 

1868  . 

16  33 

1875  . 

13  17 

1841  . 

11  11 

1848  . 

5  8 

1855  . 

7  11 

1862  . 

20   681 

1869. 

25  35 

1876  . 

11  13 

1842  . 

7  9  11849. 

6  11 

1856  . 

9  12 

1863  . 

54   88 

1870. 

15  26 

1877  . 

11  13 

1843  . 

5  8|1850. 

11  14 

1857  . 

13  15 

1864  . 

72  1  90 

1871  . 

15  25 

1878  . 

9  12 

1844  . 

5  9 

1851  . 

8  14 

1858  . 

9  13 

1865  . 

33  1  22 

1872. 

18  25 

1879  . 

9  13 

1845  . 

4  9 

1852  . 

8  10 

1859  . 

11  12 

1866  . 

32   52 

1873  . 

13  21 

1880  - 

11  13 

1216 


APPENDIX. 


TOBACCO  PRODUCTION  OF  ALL  THE  STATES. 

From  the  Tenth  Census  of  the  United  States,  1880. 


STATES  AND  TERM- 
TORIES. 

Acres. 

Pounds. 

STATES  AND  TERRI- 
TORIES. 

Acres. 

Pounds. 

Alabama.    •    •    . 
Arizona  .... 
Arkansas  .... 
California    .    .    . 
Connecticut    .   . 
Dakota  
Delaware  .... 
Dist.  Columbia  . 
Florida  
Georgia   .... 
Idaho  

2,197 
1 
2,064 
84 
8,666 
5 
4 
2 

90 
971 
2 
5,612 
11,955 
692 
333 
226,120 
253 
1 
38,174 
3,358 
170 
163 
1,471 

452,426 
600 
970,220 
73,317 
14,044,652 
1,897 
1,278 
1,400 
21,182 
228,590 
400 
3,935,825 
8,872,842 
420,477 
191,669 
171,120,784 
55,954 
250 
26,082,147 
5,369,436 
83,969 
69,922 
414,663 

Missouri  .... 
Nebraska  .... 
Nevada    .... 
New  Hampshire 
New  Jersey    .   . 
New  Mexico  .    . 
New  York  .   .   . 
North  Carolina  . 
Ohio  

15,521 
101 
2 
88 
152 
7 
4,937 
57,208 
34,676 
43 
27,566 
2 
169 
41,532 
685 
84 
140,791 
8 
4,071 
8,810 

12,015,657 
57,979 
1,500 
170,843 
172,315 
890 
6,481,431 
26,986,213 
34,735,235 
17,325 
36,943,272 
785 
45,678 
29,365,052 
221,283 
131,432 
79,988,868 
6,930 
2,296,146 
10,608,423 

Oregon  
Pennsylvania  .  . 
Rhode  Island  .  . 
South  Carolina  . 
Tennessee  .    .   . 
Texas  

Illinois  

Indiana    .... 
Iowa  

Kiinsus  .... 

Kentucky   .   .   . 
Louisiana    .    .    . 
Maine  

Vermont.   .   .    . 
Virginia  .... 
Washington   .    . 
West  Virginia   . 
Wisconsin  .    .    . 

Total  U.  States 

Maryland    .    .    . 
Massachusetts  . 
Michigan  .... 
Minnesota  .   .   . 
Mississippi  .   .   . 

038,841 

472,661,159 

STATEMENT  OF  THE  TOBACCO  CROP  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  FOR  1879, 

IN  THE  SEVERAL  STATES  PRODUCING  IT  AS  A  STAPLE,  SHOWING  ACREAGE,  PRODUCTION,  VALUE  OF  CROP  II* 
FARMERS'  HANDS,  VALUE  PER  POUND,  VALUE  PER  ACRE,  AND  COST  OF  PRODUCTION  PER  POUND. 

From  the  Tenth  Census  of  the  United  States,  1880. 


] 

HANK. 

0 

3 

fit 

>t 

Sis' 

wag1 

n  C  S- 

M 

^ 

^ 

(fa 

a 

|§ 

3  * 

0 

*""*  2".  o 

tto 

ra 

-^2. 

STATES. 

CD 

o 

•  2. 

:-  "S 

PS 

§  O  ""** 

O  a 

n 

:L2L 

cf 

•  i 

S    *3 

a  c 

<W 

c* 

: 

p 

• 

S    o 

1  9 

: 

(B 

Pounds. 

Dollars. 

Dollars. 

Dollars. 

Dollars. 

1 

1 

1 

Kentucky  .   . 

220,120 

171,120,784 

11,089,782 

4904 

648 

4  90 

2 

2 

2 

Virginia  .  .    . 

140,791 

79,988,868 

5,406,744 

3840 

675 

5  33 

3 

7 

3 

Pennsylvania 

27,506 

30,943,272 

4,612,894 

16733 

1248 

8  42 

4 

6 

5 

Ohio  .... 

34,076 

34,735,235 

2,653,234 

7651 

703 

5  91 

5 

4 

8 

Tennessee  .   . 

41,532 

29,305,052 

1,538,757 

3704 

524 

4  50 

6 

3 

4 

N.  Carolina  . 

57,208 

20,986,213 

3,805,089 

6651 

1410 

9  33 

7 

5 

7 

Maryland  .    . 

38,174 

26,082,147 

1,825,750 

4782 

700 

5  91 

8 

11 

6 

Connecticut  . 

8,066 

14,044,652 

1,929,982 

222  70 

13  74 

9  85 

9 

8 

12 

Missouri  .  .    . 

15,521 

12,015,657 

600,256 

38(57 

499 

3  58 

10 

10 

9 

Wisconsin  .  . 

8,810 

10,608,423 

899,118 

10205 

847 

4  95 

11 

9 

13 

Indiana.    .    . 

11,955 

8,872,842 

443,642 

37  10 

500 

3  60 

12 

13 

10 

New  York  .  . 

4,937 

6,481,431 

720,868 

14601 

11  12 

8  00 

13 

15 

11 

Massachus'tts 

3,358 

5,369,436 

683,575 

20356 

1273 

9  72 

14 

12 

14 

Illinois  .    .    . 

5,612 

3,935,825 

202,745 

36  12 

515 

4  17 

15 

14 

15 

W.  Virginia. 

4,071 

2,296,146 

170,374 

41  85 

742 

6  00 

16 

17 

16 

Arkansas  .    . 

2,004 

970,220 

41,547 

20  12 

428 

2  70 

Total  .    .    . 

631,061 

469,810,203 

36,624,357 

APPENDIX. 


1217 


CITIZENSHIP,  WITH  THE  TOTAL  MALE  POPULATION,  1880. 

From  the  Official  Returns  of  the  Tenth  Census,  1880. 


VOTING  POPULATION. 

Males  of  21  years  and  over. 

^OPU  L  ATION 

STATES  AND  TER- 

White. 

RITORIES. 

Colored. 

Total. 

White. 

Colored. 

Native  In 

Foreign 

the  U.  States. 

Born. 

Alabama  .   .    . 

1,262,505 

662,185 

600,320 

136,058            5,403 

118,423 

Arizona.  .    .    . 

40,440 

35,160 

5,280 

9,790 

8,256 

2,352 

Arkansas  .   •    . 

802,525 

591,531 

210,994 

129,675 

6,475 

46,827 

California  .  .    . 

864,694 

767,181 

97,513 

135,209 

127,374 

66,809 

Colorado  .    .    . 

194,327 

191,126 

3,201 

65,215 

26,873 

1,520 

Connecticut    . 

622,700 

610,769 

11,931 

118,747 

55,012 

3,532 

Dakota.    .   .   . 

135,177 

133,147 

2,030 

25,476 

25,486 

641 

Delaware.  .   . 

146,608 

120,160 

26,448 

27,447 

4,455 

6,396 

Dist.  Colum.    . 

177,624 

118,006 

59,618 

23,764 

8,191 

13,918 

Florida.   .   .   . 

269,493 

142,605 

126,888 

30,351 

3,859 

27,489 

Georgia.  .   .   . 

1,542,180 

816,906 

725,274 

172,044 

5,923 

143,471 

Idaho    .... 

32,610 

29,013 

3,597 

7,331 

4,338 

3,126 

Illinois.   .    .    . 

3,077,871 

3,031,151 

46,720 

505,272 

277,889 

13,686 

Indiana    •    .    . 

1,978,301 

1,938,798 

39,503 

414,252 

73,446 

10,739 

Iowa  .             . 

1,624,615 

1,614,600 

10,015 

287,530 

126,103 

3  025 

Kansas  .... 

'996,096 

952,155 

43,941 

201J354 

53,'595 

10J65 

Kentucky.  .    . 

1,648,690 

1,337,179 

271,511 

287,362 

30,217 

58,642 

Louisiana  .  .    . 

939,946 

454,954 

484,992 

81,777 

27,033 

107,977 

Maine  .... 

648,936 

646,852 

2,084 

164,173 

22,486 

664 

Maryland  .  .    . 

934,943 

724,693 

210,250 

144,586 

38,936 

48,584 

Massachusetts 

1,783,085 

1,763,782 

19,303 

326,002 

170,690 

5,956 

Michigan  .   .    . 

1,636,937 

1,614,560 

22,377 

285,469 

176,088 

6,130 

Minnesota  .    . 

780,773 

776,884 

3,889 

88,622 

123,777 

1,086 

Mississippi  .    . 

1,131,597 

479,398 

652,199 

102,580 

5,674 

130,278 

Missouri  .   .    . 

2,168,380 

2,022,826 

145,554 

396,322 

111,843 

33,042 

Montana  .   .    . 

39,159 

35,385 

3,774 

12,162 

7,474 

1,908 

Nebraska  .   .   . 

452,402 

449,764 

2,638 

83,334 

44,864 

844 

Nevada  .... 

62,266 

53,556 

8,710 

11,442 

14,191 

5,622 

N.  Hampshire 

346,991 

346.229 

762 

88,790 

16,111 

237 

New  Jersey    . 

1,131,116 

1,092,017 

39,099 

190,656 

99,309 

10,67(1 

New  Mexico   . 

119,565 

108,721 

10,844 

26.423 

4,558 

3,095 

New  York  .    . 

5,082,871 

5,016,022 

66,849 

852,094 

536,598 

20,059 

N.  Carolina. 

1,399,750 

867,242 

532,508 

187,637 

2,095 

105,018 

Ohio  

3,198,062 

3,117,920 

80,142 

613,485 

191  ,386 

21  7OT» 

Oregon  .... 

174,768 

163,075 

11^693 

38,006 

13,630            7,993 

Pennsvlv'a  .    . 

4,282,891 

4,197,016 

85,875 

797,532 

272,860 

23.892 

R.  Island  .   .    . 

276,531 

269,939 

6,592 

47,904 

27,108 

1,886 

S.  Carolina  .    . 

995,577 

391,105 

604,472 

82,910 

3,9W 

118,883 

Tennessee  .    . 

1,642,359 

1,138,831 

403,528 

240,939 

9,116 

80,250 

Texas    .... 

1.591,749 

1,197,237 

394,512 

246,018 

55,719 

78,639 

Utah  

143,963 

142,423 

1,540 

13,795 

18,283 

695 

Vermont  .    .    . 

332,286 

331,218 

1,068 

77,774 

17,533 

314 

Virginia   .    .    . 

1,512,565 

880,858 

631,707 

198,277 

7,971 

128,257 

Washington    . 

75,116 

67,199 

7,917 

15,858 

8,393 

3,419 

W.  Virginia    . 

618,457 

592,537 

25,920 

123,56!) 

9,208 

6,384 

Wisconsin   .   . 

1,315,497 

1,309,618 

5,879 

149,460        189,469 

1,550 

Wyoming,  .    . 

20,789 

19,437 

1,352 

6.042            3,199 

939 

Total  .... 

50,155,783 

43,402,970 

6,580,793 

8,270,518 

3,072,487 

1,487,344 

1218 


APPENDIX. 


CROPS  OF  PRINCIPAL  CEREALS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1870-1880. 

Condensed  from  the  Reports  of  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture. 


1.    Indian  Corn. 

YEARS. 

Bushels. 

Acres. 

Value. 

Average 
yield 
per  acre. 

Average 
price. 

Average 
value 
per  acre. 

1870  

1,094,255,000 
991,898,000 
1,092,719,000 
932,274,000 
850,148,500 
1,321,069,000 
1,283,827,500 
1,342,558,000 
1,388,218,750 
1,547,901,790 

38,646,977 
34,091,137 
35,526,836 
39,197,148 
41,036,918 
44,841,371 
49,033,364 
50,369,113 
51,585,000 
53,085,450 

Dollars. 
601,839,030 
478,275,900 
435,149,290 
447,183,020 
550,043,080 
555,445,930 
475,491,210 
480,643,400 
441,153,405 
580,486,217 

Bushels. 
28.3 
29.1 
30.7 
23.8 
20.7 
29.4 
26.1 
26.6 
26.9 
29.2 

Cents. 
54.9 
48.2 
39.8 
48.0 
64.7 
42.0 
37.0 
35.8 
31.8 
37.5 

Dollars. 
15  57 
14  02 
12  24 
11  41 
13  40 
12  38 
9  69 
9  54 
8  55 
10  93 

1871  .    . 

1872  

1873  

1874  

1875  

1876  

1877  

1878  

1879  

Total  10  years 
Ann'l  average 

11,844,869,540 
1,184,486,954 

437,413,314 
43,741,331 

5,045,710,482 
504,571,048 

27.0 

43.9 

11  77 

2.    Wheat. 

1870  

235,884,700 
230,722,400 
249,997,100 
281,254,700 
308,102,700 
292,136,000 
289,356,500 
365,094,800 
420,122,400 
448,756,630 

18,992,591 
19,943,893 
20,858,359 
22,171,676 
24,967,027 
26,381,512 
27,627,021 
26,193,407 
32,108,560 
32,545,950 

245,865,045 
290,411,820 
310,180,375 
323,594,805 
291,107,895 
294,580,990 
300,259,300 
395,155,375 
826,346,424 
497,030,142 

12.4 
11.5 
11.9 
12.7 
12.3 
11.0 
10.4 
13.9 
13.1 
13.8 

Dollars. 
1  04.2 
1  25.8 
1  24.0 
1  15.0 
94.4 
1  00.0 
1  03.7 
1  08.2 
77.7 
1  10.8 

12  94 
14  56 
14  87 
14  50 
11  66 
11  16 
10  86 
15  08 
10  16 
15  27 

1871  

1872  

1873  

1874  

1875  

1876  

1877  

1878  

1879  

Total  10  years 
Ann'l  average 

3,121,427,930 
312,142,793 

251,789,996 
25,178,999 

3,774,532,171 
377,453,217 

12.3 

1  06.3 

13  10 

3.    Oats. 

1870  

247,277,400 
255,743,000 
271,747,000 
270,340,000 
240,369,000 
354,317,500 
320,884,000 
406,394,000 
413,578,560 
363,761,320 

8,792,395 
8,365,809 
9,000,769 
9,751,700 
10,897.412 
11,915,075 
13,358,908 
12,826,148 
13,176,500 
12,683,500 

107,136,710 
102,570,030 
91,315,710 
101,175,750 
125,047,530 
129,499,930 
112,865,900 
118,661,550 
101,945,830 
120,533,293 

28.1 
30.5 
30.1 
27.7 
22.0 
29.7 
24.0 
31.6 
31.4 
28.7 

Cents. 
43.3 
40.1 
33.6 
37.4 
52.0 
36.5 
35.1 
29.2 
24.6 
33.1 

12  18 

12  26 
10  14 
10  3" 
11  47 
10  86 
8  44 
9  25 
7  74 
9  50 

1871  

1872  

1873  

1874  
1875  .    . 

1876  

1877  .... 

1878  

1879  

Total  .... 
Ann'l  average 

3,144,411,780 
314,441,178 

110,768,216 
11,076,821 

1,110,752,234 
111,075,223 

28.3 

36.4 

10  22 

APPENDIX. 


1219 


CROPS  OF  PRINCIPAL  CEREALS— Continued. 


r~ 

4-.    Miscellaneous. 

YEARS. 

Bushels. 

Acres* 

Value. 

Average 

yield 

Average 

Average 
value 

per  acre. 

price. 

per  acre. 

BARLEY  — 

Dollars. 

Bushels. 

Cents. 

Dollars. 

Ann.  av.f  10  years  . 

33,704,652 

1,529,357 

24,885,502 

21.9 

74.7 

16  35 

RYE— 

Ann.  av.,  10  years  . 

18,460,985 

1,305,060 

12,945,136 

14.0 

71.9 

10  05 

BUCKWHEAT  — 

Ann.  av.,  10  years  . 

9,747,271 

551,104 

6,972,974 

17.5 

71.6 

12  74 

POTATOES  — 

Ann.  av.,  1870-79    . 

132,837,174 

1,514,044 

73,653,771 

87.8 

56.7 

50  05 

HAY— 

Tons. 

Crop  of  1879,  tons  . 

35,493,000 

27,489,991 

330,804,494 

1.29 

$932 

12  04 

COTTON  — 

Lbs. 

Cents. 

Crop  of  1879,  bales  . 

5,261,202 

12,595,500 

242,140,957 

188 

10.2 

19  22 

TOBACCO  — 

Crop  of  1879,  Ibs.   . 

391,278,350 

492,100 

22,727,524 

795 

5.8 

46  18 

AVERAGE  CASH  VALUE  PER  ACRE  OF  PRINCIPAL  FARM  CROPS,  1880. 

From  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  for  1879. 


STATES. 

Average 
value 
per  acre. 

STATES. 

Average 
value 
per  acre. 

STATES. 

Average 
value 
per  acre. 

Alabama    .... 
Arkansas  .... 
California  .... 
Connecticut  .    .   . 
Delaware  .... 
Florida  

$13  49 
20  40 
17  18 
16  82 
15  SO 
8  52 
10  35 
12  47 
14  66 
8  88 
9  11 
13  58 
22  40 

$13  51 
17  82 
26  71 
18  96 
10  29 
14  76 
10  78 
8  60 
13  56 
18  05 
14  15 
10  79 
15  58 

$17  11 
17  68 
29  32 
10  09 
12  39 
14  69 
11  69 
10  91 
12  74 
13  80 

16  13 

Maryland  .... 
Massachusetts  .   . 
Michigan  .... 
Minnesota  .... 
Mississippi   .    .    . 
Missouri    .... 
Nebraska  .... 
New  Hampshire  . 
New  Jersey  .   .    . 
New  York  .... 
North  Carolina    . 
Ohio    

Pennsylvania  .    . 
Rhode  Island  .    . 
South  Carolina    . 
Tennessee.  .   .   . 
Texas  

(jgorgia     .... 

Vermont  .... 
Virginia  
West  Virginia  .    . 
Wisconsin  .... 
Nevada,  Colorado, 
and  the  Terri- 
tories   .... 

Illinois  

Indiana  

Iowa   

Kansas  
Kentucky  .... 
Louisiana  .... 

SUGAR  PRODUCT  OF  LOUISIANA,  1832-1880.* 


YEARS. 

Hogsheads. 

YEARS. 

Hogsheads. 

YEARS. 

Hogsheads. 

YEARS. 

Hogsheads. 

l«:t!  .   . 

70,000 

1844  .    . 

200,000 

1856  .    . 

73,296 

1869  .    . 

87,000 

1833  .    . 

75,000 

1845  .    . 

186,000 

1857  .    . 

279,697 

1870  .    . 

144,881 

1834  .    . 

100,000 

1846  .    . 

140.000 

1858  -    . 

3H2.2JKJ 

1871  .    . 

128,461 

1835  .    . 

30,000 

1847  .    . 

240,000 

1859  .    . 

221,840 

1872  .    . 

108,520 

1836  .    . 

70,000 

1848  .    . 

220,000 

1860  .    . 

228,753 

1873  .    . 

89,498 

1837  .    . 

65,000 

1849  .    . 

247,923 

1861  .    . 

459,410 

1874  .    . 

116,867 

1838  .    . 

70,000 

1850  .    . 

211,201   ! 

1863  .    . 

76,801 

1875  .    . 

144,146 

1H31)  .    . 

115.000 

1851  .    . 

236,547  ; 

1864  .    - 

10.3S7 

1876  .    . 

169,331 

1840  .    . 

87,000 

1852  -    - 

321,934  ' 

1865  .    . 

18,070 

1877  .    . 

127,753 

1841  .    . 

90,000 

1853  .    .      44!i.:>,-JI 

1866  .    . 

41.  (XX) 

1878  .    . 

213,221 

1842  .    . 

140,000 

1854  .    .  1    346,<;:tf 

1867  .    . 

37,647 

1879  .    . 

169,972 

1843  .    . 

100,000 

1855  .    . 

231.427 

1868  .    . 

84,256 

1880  .    . 

218,314 

The  avvnige  weight  of  the  hogshead  is  reckoned  at  1.137  It*,  net.         •  Boucbermu'l  Statement. 


1220 


APPENDIX. 


AREA  OF  THE  STATES  AND  TERRITORIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


STATES  AND  TER- 
RITORIES. 

Sq.  miles. 

Acres. 

STATES  AND  TER- 
RITORIES. 

Sq.  miles. 

Acres. 

N.  Hampshire.  . 
Massachusetts.  • 
Rhode  Island 

9,280 
7,800 
1,306 

5,939,200 
4,992,000 
835,840 

Michigan    .  .   . 
Florida    .... 

56,451 
59,268 
55045 

36,128,640 
37,931,520 
35  228  800 

Connecticut  .    . 
New  York  .   .   . 
New  Jersey   .   . 
Pennsylvania    . 
Delaware  .... 
Maryland    .   .   . 
Virginia  .... 
North  Carolina  • 
South  Carolina  . 
Georgia   .... 
Kentucky   .   .   . 
Vermont  .... 

4,750 
47,000 
8,320 
46,000 
2,120 
11,126 
38,348 
50,704 
34,000 
58,000 
37,680 
10,212 

3,040,000 
30,080,000 
5,324,800 
29,440,000 
1,356,800 
7,120,640 
24,542,720 
32,450,560 
21,760,000 
37,120,000 
24,115,200 
6,151,680 

Texas     .... 
Wisconsin    .    . 
California  .  .   . 
Minnesota    .    . 
Oregon  .... 
Kansas  .... 
W.  Virginia     . 
Nevada     .   .   . 
Nebraska  .  .   . 
Colorado   .  .   . 
New  Mexico    . 
Utah  

274,356 
53,924 
157,801 
85,531 
95,274 
80,891 
23,000 
112,090 
75,995 
104,500 
121.201 
84476 

175,587,840 
34,511,360 
100,992,640 
54,739,840 
60,975,360 
51,770,240 
14,720,000 
71,737,600 
48,636,800 
66,880,000 
77,568,640 
54  064  640 

Tennessee  .   .   . 
Ohio.  ..... 

45,600 
39964 

29,184,000 
25  576  960 

Washington  .  . 
Dakota  .... 

69,994 
150  932 

44,796,160 
96  596  480 

Louisiana    .    •    - 
Indiana  .... 
Mississippi  .   .   . 
Illinois  
Alabama  .... 
Maine  

41,346 
33,809 
47,156 
55,414 
50,722 
35,000 

26,461,440 
21,637,760 
30,179,840 
35,464,960 
32,462,080 
22,400  000 

Arizona     .   .   . 
Idaho     .... 
Montana   .  .   . 
Wyoming  .  .    . 
Indian  Ter.  .   . 
Dist.  Columbia 

113,916 
86,294 
143,776 
97,883 
68,991 
64 

72,906,304 
55,228,160 
92,016,640 
62,645,120 
44,154,240 
41  060 

Missouri  .... 
Arkansas.  .    •  . 

65,350 
52,198 

41,824,000 
33,406,720 

Alaska  .... 

580,107 

365,529,600 

RELATIVE  NUMBER  OF  PLANTS  OR  HILLS  IN  AN  ACRE. 

Giving  Number  in  an  Acre  when  the  Direct  and  Cross  Rows  are  of  Equal  or  Unequal  Width. 


In. 

10  in. 

12  in. 

15  in. 

18  in. 

20  in. 

2ft. 

2%  ft. 

3ft. 

3%  ft. 

4ft. 

4%  ft. 

5ft. 

10 

62726 

12 

52272 

43560 

15 

41817 

34848 

27878 

18 

34848 

29040 

23232 

19360 

20 

31362 

26136 

20908 

17424 

15681 

24 

26132 

21780 

17424 

14520 

13068 

10890 

30 

20908 

17424 

13939 

11616 

10454 

8712 

6969 

36 

17424 

14520 

11616 

9680 

8712 

7260 

5808 

4840 

42 

14935 

12446 

9953 

8297 

7467 

6223 

4976 

4148 

3565 

48 

13068 

10890 

8712 

7260 

6534 

5445 

4356 

3630 

3111 

2722 

54 

11616 

9680 

7744 

6453 

5308 

4840 

3872 

3226 

2767 

2420 

2151 

60 

10454 

8712 

6969 

5808 

5227 

4356 

3484 

2004 

2489 

2178 

1936 

1742 

AREA  OCCUPIED  BY  THE  PRINCIPAL  CROPS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


CROP. 

Acres. 

Quantities. 

Sq.  miles. 

Relative  Area. 

Corn  ....     53,585,401 

1,754,861,535  bush. 

80,294 

w  neat  .   •   -    .)j,o45,oyy 

4oy,47y,  ouo  Dusn. 

nay  ....     z7,484,o7o 

oo,492,  o.w  tons. 

Oats  .    .    .    .  ;  12,683,490 

407,858,999  bush. 

19,818 

—  ™« 

Cotton  .    .   . 

12,595,510 

5,737,257  bales. 

19,680 

.*__ 

Barley  .    .    . 

2,680,750 

44,113,495  bush. 

4,188 

• 

Potatoes  .    . 

1,836,820 

181,369,340  bush. 

2,854 

• 

Rye  .... 

1,625,440 

19,831,595  bush. 

2,539 

• 

Buckwheat  . 

642,210 

11,817,327  bush. 

1,000 

1 

APPENDIX. 


1221 


DURATION  OF  ANIMAL  LIFE. 


NAME. 

Gestation 
or  Incubation 
in  months. 

Length  of 
Life  in  years 

NAMK. 

Gestation 
or  Incubation 
in  days. 

Length  of 
Life  in  years. 

Elephant  .    .   . 
Whale   .... 

20} 
14 

200 
100 

Swine  
Lion   

115 

108 

25 
65 

Giraffe  .... 

14 

\Volf  

63 

Ifi 

Camel    .... 

12 

50 

DOK  . 

63 

16 

Dromedary  .   . 

12 

45 

Fox  

63 

16 

Horse     .... 

11 

20 

Cat  ... 

55 

15 

11 

25 

Rabbit   .... 

30 

7 

Tapir  

10} 

Kangaroo  .    .    . 

29 

9 

20 

Squirrel  .... 

28 

7 

Rhinoceros  .   . 
Cow    

9 
g 

20 
20 

Opossum  .   .   . 
Swan  

16 
42 

100 

Reindeer  .   .  . 

8 

16 

Eagle  

100 

Bear  

6 

20 

Goose  

30 

80 

Sheep  
Goat  

5 
5 

10 
12 

Turkey  .... 
Duck  

30 
28 

Llama  

15 

Hen    

21 

16 

Chamois   .   .   . 

25 

Pigeon    .... 

18 

15 

RELATIVE  VALUES  AND  WEIGHTS  OF  WOODS. 


NAME. 

Val.* 

Weight,  t 

NAME. 

VaL* 

Weight.t 

Shellbark  Hickery     ... 

100 

4469 

Hard  Maple  

60 

2  878 

Pignut  Hickory  

95 

4,941 

White  Elm  

58 

o  592 

White  Oak    

81 

3821 

57 

2  834 

Western  Hickory  .... 

81 

3  705 

American  Holly  

57 

2*61)1 

White  Ash  

77 

3450 

Large  Magnolia  

56 

2  704 

Post  Oak   

74 

3,464 

II'-'  i  Cedar    

56 

2525 

Barren  STub  Oak  .... 

73 

3339 

Wild  Cherry    

55 

2  G68 

Pin  Oak  

71 

3,339 

Soft  Maple   

54 

"  (it  IS 

Scrub  Black  Oak  
Apple     

71 
70 

3,254 
3  115 

Yellow  Pine  
Yellow  Poplar  

54 
59 

2,463 
2516 

lied  Oak    

69 

3254 

Spanish  Oak    

5*> 

2  449 

67 

3  142 

Sycamore  

52 

2  391 

White  Beech    

65 

3  236 

American  Chestnut  •   •    • 

5? 

•'  :;:;:; 

Black  Walnut      

65 

3044 

Butternut  

51 

2534 

Black  Birch      

63 

3  115 

White  Birch    

48 

2,369 

Rock  Chestnut  Oak 

61 

:;o:;o 

Pitch  Pine    

43 

1  '.'(>.; 

Yellow  Oak      

60 

2  919 

White  Pine  

4*> 

1  868 

*  That  is,  value  for  fuel,  taking  shellbark  hickory  at  100  as  the  standard, 
f  That  is,  of  dry  wood,  in  pounds  avoirdupois  per  cord. 

WEIGHT  OF  A  BUSHEL  OF  PRODUCE. 

The  number  of  pounds  in  a  bushel  of  the  various  articles  of  Produce  varies  somewhat  in  the 
different  States.     The  majority,  however,  have  adopted  the  following  : 


PRODUCE. 

Its. 

PRODUCE. 

It*. 

PRODUCE. 

It*. 

\pples  (dried)  .   . 

28 

Grass  seed  (blue)  •  • 

14 

Onions  

57 

Hurley     

43 

Grass  seed  (clover)  . 

60 

Peaches  (dried)  .  .   . 

?8 

42 

G  rass  sec<  1  (  t  i  moth  y  ) 

45 

Peas  

»$0 

Il*'ans          

60 

Hemp  seed  

44 

Potatoes  

60 

lioans  (castor)   .    .    • 

4») 

Indian  corn    .... 

56 

Rve  

56 

Conl  (mineral)  •    •   • 

80 

Indinn  corn  (in  ear) 

68 

Rve  (meal)  

50 

30 

Indian  corn  (meal)  • 

50 

Salt  

50 

Klaxseed     

56 

Oats  

^ 

Wheat  

60 

1222 


APPENDIX. 


INTEREST  LAWS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Compiled  from  the  Latest  State  and  Territorial  Statutes. 


STATES  AND  TERRI- 
TORIES. 

Legal  Rate 
of 
Interest. 

Rate 
allowed  by 
Contract. 

STATES  AND  TERRI- 
TORIES. 

Legal  Rate 
of 
Interest. 

Rate 
allowed  by 
Contract. 

Alabama  

per  cent. 
8 

per  cent. 
8 

Missouri  

per  cent. 
6 

per  cent. 
10 

Arizona    

10 

Any  rate 

Montana     .... 

10 

Any  ratf 

Arkansas  
California    .... 

6 

7 

10 
Any  rate 

Nebraska  
Nevada    

7 
10 

10 
Any  rate 

Colorado  
Connecticut    .    .    . 
Dakota  

10 
6 

7 

Any  rate. 
6 
12 

New  Hampshire  . 
New  Jersey  .... 
New  Mexico  .    . 

6 
6 
6 

6 
6 
12 

Delaware  
Florida  

6 

8 

6 

\ny  rate 

New  York  .... 

North  Carolina  . 

6 
6 

6 

8 

7 

Any  rate 

Ohio  

6 

8 

Idaho   

10 

18 

Oregon  

8 

10 

Illinois     

6 

8 

Pennsylvania 

6 

6 

Indiana    

6 

8 

Khode  Island 

6 

Any  rate 

Iowa  

6 

10 

South  Carolina  •    . 

7 

Any  rate. 

Kansas  

7 

12 

Tennessee  .... 

6 

6 

Kentucky    .... 

6 

8 

Texas  

8 

12 

Louisiana    .... 

5 

8 

Utah    

10 

Any  rate 

Maine  

6 

Any  rate 

Vermont  

6 

6 

Maryland    .... 

6 

6 

6 

8 

Massachusetts   .   . 
Michigan  

G 

7 

Any  rate. 
10 

Washington  Ter'y 
\Vest  Virginia   • 

10 
6 

Any  rate. 
6 

Minnesota  .... 
Mississippi  .... 

7 
6 

12 

10 

Wisconsin  .... 
Wyoming    .... 

7 
12 

10 
Any  rate. 

COMPOUND  INTEREST  TABLE. 

Showing  the  Amount  of  $1.00  at   Various  Rates,  Interest  Compounded    Annually,  from  One 

to  Twenty  Years. 


Yrs. 

3  per  cent. 

4  per  cent. 

5  per  cent. 

6  per  cent. 

7  per  cent. 

8  per  cent. 

9  per  cent. 

10  per  cent. 

1 

1.030000 

1.040000 

1.050000 

1.060000 

1.070000 

1.080000 

1.090000 

1.100000 

2 

1.060900 

1.081600 

1.102500 

1.123600 

1.144900 

1.166400 

1.188100 

1.210000 

3 

1  092727 

1.124864 

1.157625 

1.191016 

1.225043 

1.269712 

1.295029 

1.331000 

4 

1.125509 

1.169859 

1.215506 

1.262477 

1.310796 

1.360489 

1.411582 

1.464100 

5 

1.159274 

1.216653 

1.276282 

1.338226 

1.402552 

1.469328 

1.538624 

1.610510 

6 

1.194052 

1.265319 

1.340096 

1.418519 

1.500730 

1.586874 

1.677100 

1.771561 

7 

1.  229874  j  1.315932 

1.407100 

1.503630 

1.605781 

1.713824 

1.828039 

1.948717 

8 

1.266770 

1.368569 

1.477455 

1.593848 

1.718186 

1.850930 

1.992563 

2.143589 

9 

1.304773 

1.423312 

1.551328 

1.689479 

1.838459 

1.999005 

2.171893 

2.357948 

10 

1.343916 

1.480244. 

1.628895 

1.790848 

1.967151 

2.158925 

2.367364 

2.593742 

11 

1.384234 

1.539454 

1.710339 

1.898299 

2.104852 

2.331639 

2.580426 

2.853117 

12 

1.425761 

1.601032 

1.795856 

2.012197 

2.252192 

2.518170 

2.812665 

3.138428 

13 

1.468534 

1.665074 

1.885649 

2.132928 

2.409845 

2.719624 

3.065805 

3.452271 

14 

1.512590 

1.731676 

1.979932 

2.260904 

2  578534 

2.937194 

3.341727 

3.797498 

15 

1  .557967 

1.800944 

2.078928 

2.396558 

2.759031 

3.172169 

3.642482 

4.177248 

16 

1.604706 

1.872981 

2.182875 

2.540352 

2.952164 

3.425943 

3,970306 

4.594973 

17 

1.652848 

1.947901 

2.292018 

2.692773 

3.158815 

3.700018 

4.327633 

5.054470 

18 

1.702433 

2.025817 

2.406619 

2.854339 

3.379932 

3.996019 

4.717120 

5.559917 

19 

1.753506 

2.106849 

2.526950 

3.025600 

3.616527 

4.315701 

5.141661 

6.115909 

20 

1.806111 

2.191123 

2.653298 

3.207136 

3.869684 

4.660957 

5.604411 

6.727500 

APPENDIX. 


1223 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  SOILS. 

THE  great  quantity  of  sand  in  most 
.soils,  and  its  presence  in  all,  have  sug- 
gested the  propriety  of  classifying  soils 
according  to  the  amount  of  sand  they 
contain,  as  follows : 

1.  Pure  clay,  from  which  no  sand  can 
be  removed  by  washing. 

2.  Strong  day,  when  the  soil  contains 
from  5  to  29  per  cent  of  sand. 

3.  Clay  loam,  when  it  contains  from  20 
to  40  per  cent  of  sand. 

4.  Loam,  from  40  to  70  per  cent  of  sand. 

5.  Sandy  loam,  from  70  to  90  per  cent 
of  sand. 

6.  Light  sand,  more  than  90  per  cent 
of  sand. 

7.  Calcareous  (or  marly)  soils  are  those 
which  contain  a  large  amount  of  calcium 
carbonate. 

8.  Peaty   soils   (vegetable    mold)    are 
those  showing  a  large  percentage  of  or- 
ganic matter. 

9.  Heavy,    the   presence    of    a   large 
quantity  of  clay  makes  a  soil  sticky  when 
»vet,  and  causes  it  to  hold  moisture  a 
long  time;   hence  such  soils  are  said  to 
"be  heavy.    A  large  quantity  of  sand  gives 
the  opposite  property — that  is,  of  not  re- 
taining moisture— and   hence  these  are 
said  to  be  light. 

The  soil  proper  is  the  surface  layer 
down  to  where  a  change  in  the  character 
of  the  material  takes  place,  generally 
from  six  to  ten  inches,  and  beneath  this 
is  the  subsoil. 


COMPARISON  OF  THE  MEASURES  OF  CAPACITY. 

One  gallon  or  4  quart  wine  measure 
contains  231  cubic  inches. 

One-half  peck  or  4  quart  dry  measure 
contains  208  4-5  cubic  inches. 

One  gallon  or  4  quart  boor  mensniro 
contains  282  cubic  inches. 

One  bushel  dry  measure  contains 
2150J  cubic  inches. 


MEASUREMENTS  OF  CIRCLES. 

To  Find  the  Diameter. — Divide  the 
circumference  by  3.1416,  and  the  quotient 
will  be  the  diameter. 

To  Find  the  Circumference. — Multi- 
ply the  diameter  (which  is  double  the 
radius)  by  3.1416. 

To  Find  the  Area.— Multiply  the 
square  of  the  diameter  by  the  decimal 
.7854;  or  multiply  the  square  of  the  cir- 
cumference by  .07958 ;  or  multiply  half 
the  circumference  by  the  decimal  half. 
In  either  case  the  product  will  be  the 
area  in  square  roots  of  the  denomination 
of  the  multiplicand. 

To  Find  the  Solidity  (or  Solid  Con- 
tents) of  a  Sphere.— Multiply  the  cube  of 
the  diameter  by  the  decimal  .5236,  and 
the  production  will  be  the  solidity. 

To  Find  the  Side  of  an  Equal  Square 
containing  the  Same  Area  as  a  Given 
Circle. — The  square  root  of  area  will  be 
the  side  of  the  equal  square. 


MEASURES  OF  AN  ACRE  PLOT. 

Either  of  the  following  measures  in- 
clude about  an  acre  plot: 


3  by  53  1-8 
4  bv  40 

rods. 
it 

8  bv  20  rods. 
9  bv  17  7-8  rods. 

5  bv  32 
6  bv  26  2-3 

ii 

a 

10  by  16 
11  bv  14  6-11  " 

7  by  22  6-7 

tl 

12  bv  13  1-3    " 

12  rods,  10 

feet,  and  8J  inches  square 

make  an  acre. 

SQUARE  FEET  AND  FEET  SQUARE  IN  FRACTIONS 
OF  AN  ACRE. 

Fract'n 
of  an 
nrrr. 

Square 
feet. 

Feet 
square. 

Frac. 
of 
sore. 

SOUATO 
feet. 

Feet 
Bqunre. 

1-16 
1-08 

1-03 

1 

2722| 
5445 
10SPO 
14520 

52* 
73} 
104* 
120J 

1 
o 

21780 

.1  •-,  o 

87120 

147J 
2081 
295J 

1224 


APPENDIX. 


TO  MEASURE  CISTERNS  AND  CASKS. 

To  Measure  the  Contents  of  Cis- 
terns.— To  ascertain  the  contents  of  cir- 
cular cisterns,  multiply  the  square  of  the 
diameter  in  feet  by  the  depth  in  feet, 
and  that  product  by  ¥VA  for  the  con- 
tents in  hogsheads,  or  by  jV^  for  barrels, 
or  V  f°r  the  contents  in  gallons. 

Square  Cisterns. — Multiply  the  width 
in  feet  by  the  length  in  feet,  and  that  by 
the  depth  in  feet,  and  that  again  by  Tyff 
for  hogsheads,  or  }§  for  barrels,  or  7T^ 
for  gallons. 

Another  and  simpler  method  is  to 
multiply  together  the  length,  width,  and 
depth  in  inches,  and  divide  by  231,  which 
will  give  the  contents  in  gallons. 


TO  MEASURE  LAND. 

If  the  field  be  a  square  or  parallelo- 
gram, multiply  the  length  in  rods  by  the 
width  in  rods,  and  divide  by  160,  the 
number  of  square  rods  in  an  acre.  If 
the  field  is  triangular,  multiply  the  length 
of  the  longest  side  in  rods  by  the  great- 
est width  in  rods,  and  divide  half  the 
product  by  160.  If  the  field  be  of  irreg- 
ular shape,  divide  it  into  triangles,  and 
find  the  acreage  of  each  triangle  as  above. 
All  straight-sided  fields  can  be  thus  meas- 
ured. Where  the  sides  are  crooked  and 
irregular,  take  the  length  in  rods  in  a 
number  of  places  at  equal  distances 
apart,  add  them,  and  divide  by  the  num- 
ber of  measurements,  which  will  give 
the  mean  length ;  proceed  similarly  with 
the  width,  multiply  the  mean  length  by 
the  mean  width,  and  divide  by  160. 
Where  the  field  is  in  a  circle,  find  the 
diameter  in  rods,  multiply  the  square 
of  the  diameter  by  7.854,  and  divide 
by  160. 

To  Lay  Out  an  Acre  in  Rectangular 
Form. — An  acre  of  land  contains  160 
square  rods,  or  43,560  square  feet.  Hence, 
to  lay  out  an  acre  at  right  angles  (square 
corners),  when  one  side  is  known,  divide 
the  units  in  the  square  content  by  the 
units  of  the  same  kind  in  the  length  of 
the  known  side.  Thus:  if  the  known 


side  be  4  rods,  divide  160  by  4,  and  the 
quotient  40  will  be  the  depth  of  the  acre 
plot.  If  the  length  of  the  known  side  be 
90  feet,  divide  43,560  by  90,  and  the  quo- 
tient 480  will  be  the  depth  of  an  acre 
plot. 


MEASUREMENT  OF  HAY. 

The  only  exact  method  of  measuring 
hay  is  to  weigh  it;  but  the  rules  given 
below  will  be  found  sufficient  for  ordi- 
nary practical  purposes. 

To  Find  the  Number  of  Tons  of  Hay 
in  a  Mow. — Multiply  together  the  length, 
height,  and  width  in  yards,  and  divide 
by  15  if  the  hay  be  well  packed.  If  the 
mow  be  shallow,  and  the  hay  recently 
placed  therein,  divide  by  18,  and  by  any 
number  from  15  to  18,  according  as  the 
hay  is  well  packed. 

To  Find  the  Number  of  Tons  of  Hay 
in  Square  or  Long  Stacks. — Multiply  the 
length  of  the  base  in  yards  by  the  width 
in  yards,  and  that  by  half  the  height  in 
yards,  and  divide  by  15. 

To  Find  the  Number  of  Tons  of  Hay 
in  a  Load. — Multiply  together  the  length, 
width,  and  height,  in  yards,  and  divide 
the  product  by  20. 

To  ascertain  the  value  of  a  given  num- 
ber of  pounds  of  hay,  straw,  or  other 
commodity  sold  by  the  ton,  at  a  given 
price  per  ton,  multiply  the  number  of 
pounds  by  one-half  the  price  per  ton, 
and  point  off  three  figures  from  the  right. 
The  result  will  be  the  price  of  the  article. 


TO  MEASURE  CORN. 

To  measure  corn  in  a  crib,  multiply 
the  length  of  the  crib  in  inches  by  the 
width  in  inches,  and  that  by  the  height 
of  the  corn  in  the  crib  in  inches,  and  di- 
vide the  product  by  2,748,  and  the  quo- 
tient will  be  the  number  of  heaped  bush- 
els of  ears.  If  the  crib  flares  at  the  sides, 
measure  the  width  at  the  top  and  also  at 
the  bottom,  add  the  two  sums  together, 
and  divide  by  two,  which  will  give  the 
mean  width. 


APPENDIX. 


1225 


MEASUREMENT  OF  WOOD  AND  LUMBER. 
A  Cord  of  Wood  contains  128  cubic 
feet  To  ascertain  how  many  cords  there 
are  in  a  pile  of  wood,  multiply  the  length 
by  the  height,  and  that  by  the  width, 
and  divide  the  product  by  128. 

To  ascertain  the  circumferences  of  a  tree 
required  to  hew  a  stick  or  timber  of  any 
given  number  of  inches  square,  divide 
the  given  side  of  the  square  by  .225,  and 
the  quotient  is  the  circumference  re- 
quired. 

Round  timber,  when  squared,  loses 
one-fifth. 

To  measure  round  timber,  take  the 
girth  in  inches  at  both  the  large  and 
small  ends,  add  them,  divide  by  2,  which  I 
gives  the  mean  girth;  then  multiply  ; 
the  length  in  feet  by  the  square  of  one- 
fourth  of  the  mean  girth,  and  the  quo- 
tient will  be  the  contents  in  cubic  feet. 
This  rule  is  commonly  adopted,  and 
gives  four-fifths  of  the  true  contents,  one- 
fifth  being  allowed  to  the  purchaser  for 
waste  in  sawing. 

To  Measure  Inch  Boards. — Multiply 
the  length  in  feet  by  the  width  in  inches, 
and  divide  the  product  by  12.  The  quo- 
tient will  be  the  contents  in  feet.  For 
lumber  1 \  inches  thick,  add  \  to  the  quo- 
tient If  li  inches  thick,  add  $.  If  If 
inches  thick,  add  f.  If  2  inches  thick,  di- 
vide by  6  instead  of  by  12.  If  2J  inches 
thick,  add  }  to  the  quotient,  and  so  on. 
If  3  inches  thick,  divide  by  4.  If  4 
inches  thick,  divide  by  3.  If  six  inches 
thick,  divide  by  2.  To  ascertain  the  con- 
tents (broad  measure)  of  timber,  multi- 
ply the  width  in  inches  by  the  thickness 
in  inches,  and  that  by  the  length  in  feet, 
and  divide  the  product  by  12.  The  re- 
sult will  be  the  number  of  feet 

To  ascertain  how  many  feet  of  lumber 
can  be  sawed  from  a  log,  from  the  diam- 
eter of  the  log  in  inches  subtract  4 ;  one- 
fourth  the  remainder  squared  and  mul- 
tiplied by  the  length  of  the  log  in  feet 
will  give  the  correct  amount  of  lumber 
that  can  be  sawed  from  the  log. 


QUANTITY  OF  SEED  OR  PLANTS  REQUIRED 
PER  ACRE. 

Barley 2j  bush. 

Beans,  bush,  in  drill  2$  feet  ij  bush. 

Beans,  pole,  Lima,  4  by  4  ft.  20  qts. 

Beans,  Carolina,  4  by  3  ...  10  qts. 

Beets,  drills  2J  feet 9  Ibs. 

Broom-corn  in  drills  ....  4  qts. 

Cabbage,  for  transplanting  .  12  oz. 

Cabbage  sown  in  frames  .    •  4  oz. 

Carrot,  in  drills  2}  feet  ...  4  Ibs. 

Celery,  seed 8  oz. 

Celery,  plants  4  by  i  feet .  .  25,800  pl'nts. 

Clover,  white  Dutch  ....  12  Ibs. 

Clover,  Lucerne 10  Ibs. 

Clover,  Alsike 6  Ibs. 

Clover,  red  with  timothy  .  .  6  Ibs. 

Clover,  red  without  timothy  10  Ibs. 

Corn,  sugar 10  qte. 

Corn,  field 4to6qta. 

Cucumber,  in  hills    ....  2  qts. 

Flax,  broadcast 16  to  20  qta. 

Grass,  timothy,  with  clover .  6  qts. 

Grass,  timothy,  without  clover  10  qts. 

Grass,  orchard 2  bush. 

Grass,  red-top  or  herds .  .  10  qts. 

Grass,  blue 28  qts. 

Grass,  rye 20  qts. 

Grass,  millet 32  qts. 

Hemp,  broadcast   .    •    •  \  bush. 

Lawn  grass 35  Ibs. 

Melons,  water,  hills  8  by  8  ft  3  Ibs. 

Oats 2  bush. 

Onion,  in  rows  for  large  bulbs  4  Ibs. 

Parsnip,  in  drills  2J  feet  .   .  5  Ibs. 

Pumpkins,  in  hills,  8  by  8  ft.  2  qts. 

Peas,  in  drills,  short  varieties  1}  bush. 

Peas,  broadcast 3  bush. 

Potatoes 5  to  8  bush. 

Rye,  broadcast U  bush. 

Rye,  drilled 1  bush. 

Squash,  running,  8  by  8  feet  2  Ibs. 

Sorghum 2  to  4  qts. 

Turnips,  in  drills,  2  feet .   .  31  Ibs. 

Turnips,  broadcast 1  lb. 

Tomatoes,  in  frame  ....  3  oz. 

Tomatoes,  in  hills,  3  by  3  ft  8  oz. 

Tomatoes,  plants 3,800  pl'nts. 

Wheat,  in  drills IJ  bush. 

Wheat,  broadcast IJ  bush. 


I  N  D  KX. 


PAGE. 

ABERDEEN- ANGUS,  Galloway  or 

Polled  Cattle 749 

Adaptation  for  farm-work,  of  in- 
dividuals       19 

Adjustment  of  foods,  Proper 1184 

Age,  Feeding  as  influenced  by... 1189 

Albuminoid  ratio  of  foods 1178 

Alderney   Cattle 765 

Alfalfa 131 

Alsike  Clover 130 

Amount    of  Food   supplied,   In- 
creasing  1183 

Apiary  (see  Bees) 1133 

Apples  in  orchard 261 

How  far  apart 261 

Varieties 262 

Apple-tree  Borer 343 

Army-worm 364 

Artichokes 252 

Asparagus  and  its  cultivation 293 

Ass,   The 673 

Ayrshire   cattle 761 

In  the  United  States 764 

BAG-HOLDER 434,  409 

Barley,  Treatment  of. 189 

Barn,  The,  and   Barn-yard 1193 

Plans  of 1194 

Lumber  required 1 1 96 

Approaches  to 1197 

Lean-to  shed 1198 

Feeding  shed  and  rack 1198 

Rack  for  stacking  straw 1199 

Cow-stalls  and  manure  ditch...  1200 

Slatted  floor 1201 

Stanchions 1202  ' 

Barn-closet 434 


PAGE. 

Barn-yard  Manure 103 

Barrel  chair 426 

Barrel  coop 432 

Barrel  Sled 436 

Barrel  well-curb 416 

Barrow  for  stable  use 436 

Barrow  ladder 419 

Bean  weevil 329 

Beans  in  garden 295 

Pole-beans 295 

Beans,  their  varieties 192 

Where  to  plant 192 

How  much  seed  to  the  acre....  193 

Harvesting  and  threshing 193 

Bees  and  bee  culture 1133 

Apicultural  journals 1 1 33 

Hindrances  to  the  industry 1134 

Requisites  to  success 1134 

Natural  history  of  Bees 1135 

The  Queen 1135 

Ovaries  of. 1136 

Mating 1136 

The  Drones 1136 

Organs  of  copulation 1137 

Drone  cells 1137 

Worker  Bees 1139 

Races  of  Bees 1140 

Black  or  German  bee 1140 

Italian  bee 1 1 40 

Syrians 1141 

Cyprian  bee 1141 

Products  of  bees 1141 

Honey 1141 

Wax  and  comb 1141 

Pollen  or  bee-brend 1141 

Propolis  or  bee-glue 1142 

Practical  bee-keeping 1142 

12  7 


1228 


INDEX. 


Bees  and  Bee  culture — 

Of  Hives  and  sections 1 142 

Langstroth  hives 1142 

Sections 1147 

Frames  and  crates 1147 

Location  of  an  Apiary 1148 

Transferring 1149 

Feeding  and  feeders 1150 

Queen-rearing 1152 

Clipping  the  queen's  wings 1155 

Fertile  workers 1 155 

Uniting  colonies 1156 

Hiving  a  colony 1 157 

To  prevent  swarming 1157 

How  to  Italianize 1158 

To  introduce  a  queen 1158 

Shipping  cage 1159 

Shipping  queens 1159 

The  Good  candy  for  food 1159 

Shipping  bees 1160 

Extracting  Honey 1160 

Handling  bees 1161 

Smoking  bees i  162 

Comb  foundation 1162 

Save  the  wax 1163 

Marketing  honey 1 1 64 

Honey  plants 1 1 64 

Do  bees  attack  grapes? 1166 

To  winter  bees 1167 

Spring  dwindling 1169 

Diseases  of  Bees 1169 

Dysentery 1169 

Foul  Brood 1169 

Enemies  of  Bees 1170 

Beef-rack 416 

Beetles,  Blister 340 

Beetle,  Colorado  Potato 317 

History 317 

Permanence 318 

Remedies  against 319 

Enemies  of 321 

Beetle,  The  May 324 

Beets...  .  296 


Beets  and  Mangold-wurzels 250 

Soil,  cultivation,  and  gathering  250 
Binding    corn-fodder    with    rye- 
straw  160 

Blackberries 278 

Blue-grass 120 

Bommer's  method  with  manures.     81 

Bone-meal 111,85 

Bonus  given  for  good  work 30 

Borer,  Apple-tree 343 

Flat-headed 345 

Twig 347 

Borer,  Currant 358 

Borer,  Peach 354 

Bran  as  a  manure 83 

Broom-corn 194 

Va  rieties 195 

Soil  best  adapted  to  it 196 

Planting  seed,  and  how  much..  196 

Harvesting 197 

Curing 198 

Preparing  for  market 199 

Broom-corn  scraper 409 

Brooms,  Making 199 

Buckwheat 200 

Buckwheat  as  a  green  manure ...     91 

Building  Associations 377 

Bushel  Box 418 

Butter  and    Butter-making    (see 

Dairy) 850 

Butting  Preventer 423 

CABBAGES 296 

Varieties 297 

Early  plants 297 

Cabbage  insects 298 

Storing  cabbages 298 

Cabbage  Moths 337 

Cabbage  Fly 338 

Cabbage  Leaf-roller 335 

Cabbage-worm 334 

Canker-worm 347 

Capital  in  farming 28 


INDEX. 


1229 


PAGE. 

Carrots 251,  299 

Caterpillar,  Tent 349 

Fall  web-worm 350 

Cattle,  Breeds  of — 

Short-horns  or  "  Durham" 738 

Hereford* 745 

Aberdeen,  etc 749 

Gal  lo way  (Aberdeen ,  etc. ) 749 

Polled  (Aberdeen,  etc.) 749 

Holstein 752 

Devon 755 

Ayrshire 761 

Jersey  (Channel  Islands) 765 

Alderney  (Channel  Islands)  ...  765 
Guernsey  (Channel  Islands)...  765 

Spanish 768 

Texan  (Spanish) 768 

Cattle,  Diseases  of 899-930 

(See  Index  to,  on  p.  898.) 

Cattle-feeding:    Soiling   and  En- 
silage— 

What  is  soiling? 809 

Saving  of  land 810 

Saving  of  fences 811 

Extermination  of  weeds 812 

.  Saving  of  food 812 

Saving  of  manure 812 

Greater  production  of  milk 813 

Objections  to  soiling 814 

Who  should  soil? 816 

Soiling  crops 818 

Double  cropping  in  soiling 820 

Cattle,  Management  of. 770 

Mistakes  of  stock-men 770 

Raising  calves 772 

Fall  calves 774 

Plan  of  J.  G.  Oxer 775 

Pastures  and  grazing 778 

Water  supply 7H1 

Winter  care  of  cattle 782 

Feeding  for  beef. 786 

Different  systems  of  feeding —  786 
Profits  of  feeding 786 


Cattle,  Management  of — 

Labor-saving  system  of  feeding  788 

Feeding-box  for  shock-corn 789 

Stall-feeding  of  cattle 789 

Feeding  Cattle :  feed 790 

Stanchions 793 

Stalls 794 

Bedding  795 

Foddering  in  barn 796 

Feeding:  whole  corn,  or  meal?  797 
Object  of  feeding :  regularity...  798 

When  to  begin  feeding 799 

Grass  and  grain  combined 800 

Roots  as  feed 801 

Summer-feeding 802 

Examples  of  feeding  given 803 

Cattle:  Short-horn 738 

Celery 299 

Cereal   Productions  of  U.  States, 

Table  of. 1203 

Chafer,  Rose 363 

Chair  and  step-ladder  combined..  427 

Changing  character  of  soil 99 

Channel  Island  Cattle 765 

Character  of  community 21 

Cheese,  Cheese-making  and  Cheese 

Factories  (see  Dairy) 854 

Chemistry  of  foods  and  feeding..  11 71 

Cherries 268 

Varieties 268 

Chinch-bug,  remedies  against 331 

Chickens  (see  Poultry) 1041 

Clay 98 

Climbing  cut-worms 361 

Closet  in  Barn 434 

Clothes-line  Lifter 425 

Clover  as  a  manure 87 

Clover  for  fodder 129 

Clover  in  the  orchard 261 

Codling  Moth 341 

Commercial  fruit-growing 280 

Commercial  manures 110,  85 

Condition  of  soil  on  farms 20 


1230 


INDEX. 


Corn  as  a  green  manure 92 

Corn-cribs 164 

Corn-crop  of  the  U.  States  (see 

also  Cereals) 140 

Average  yield  per  acre 140 

Reports  of  corn-growers 141 

Corn-fodder  and  fodder-corn 158 

Cost  of  drainage 71 

Cost  of  fences 34 

Cost  of  tillage  to  be  considered 

in  farming 28 

Cottage,  Farm 383 

Cotton 203 

Cultivation 204 

Picking  season 204 

Sorting 205 

Ginning 205 

Baling 206 

Enemies  of 206 

Cotton  moth 206 

Army- worm 207 

Boll-worm 207 

Diseases 208 

Cotton  Production  in  the  U.  S., 

table  of. 1204 

Cotton-seed  and  its  Uses 208 

Meal  of. 209 

Cotton-worm 364 

Boll-worm 364 

Crab  for  shocking  corn 409 

Cream  (see  Dairy) 862 

Crops,  Rotation  of 24 

Cucumbers 302 

Cucumber  Beetles,  striped 340 

Culture  of  corn,  hill  and  drill....  156 

Curculio,  Plum 351 

Curing  clover-hay 134 

Currants 278 

Currant  Borer 358 

Cutting  grass  for  hay 127 

Cut-worms 321 

Cut-worms,  climbing 361 

Cut-worms,  to  keep  from  corn 152 


DAIRY,  The :  (Cattle)— 

Farm  dairying 833 

Selecting  the  cows 834 

Testing  the  milk 835 

Breeds  of  cattle 836 

' '  Gilt-edged  "  Butter 837 

Pastures  and  food 838 

Full  feeding  profitable 840 

Milking 841 

Milking  tubes 842 

How  to  manage  the  milk 843 

Deep  can  for  milk 844 

Milk-house 845 

Ice-house 846 

Ice-chest  for  milk-pans 848 

Bad  flavor  in  butter,  causes...  849 

Skimming 849 

Skimmer  for  deep  cans 850 

Churns  and  churning 850 

Washing  and  working 852 

Butter-worker 852 

Keeping  butter 853 

Brining  butter 854 

Family  cheese-making 854 

Cheese-basket 855 

Cheese-ladder 85.5 

Rennet 855 

Setting  the  milk — temperature.  856 

Applying  the  rennet 856 

Handling  the  curd 856 

Pressing  the  cheese 857 

Curing 858 

The  factory  system,  etc 858 

Milk  for  cheese 859 

A  good  cow 859 

Maintenance 861 

Handling  of  milk 861 

Modern  invention 861 

Lowering  temperature 862 

Deep  or  shallow  setting 862 

The  centrifugal  cream-separator  863 

Its  superiority 864 

Noticeable  results 865 


INDEX. 


1231 


PAGE. 

Dairy,  The :  (Cattle)— 

Associated  dairying 865 

The  Patron  cheese  factory 866 

Stock  factory 866 

Milk-selling 867 

Private  factories 867 

Different  factory  systems 867 

Creamery,  At  a 868 

A  full  stock  cheese 868 

Curing  room,  The 869 

Supply  houses 870 

The  exclusive  creamery 870 

The  general  plan 870 

Co-operative  Creameries 871 

A  New  System 872 

Creamery  butter 872 

The  keeping  of  butter 874 

Working  butter 874 

•    Packing  butter 874 

Sweet  and  sour  cream  butter...  874 

Gentle  warnings 876 

Wastes  of  the  dairy 876 

Devons  (Cattle) 754 

In  the  United  States 758 

Different  foods 1173 

Digestibility  of  foods 1176 

Digging  the  ditch  for  drains 69 

Diseases  of  Cattle 899-930 

(See  Index  to,  on  p.  898.) 

Diseases  of  Horses 689-737 

(See  Index  to,  on  p.  687.) 

Diseases  of  Sheep  (see  Sheep) 1033 

Diseases  of  Swine  (see  Swine)  ...  943 

Distance  apart  of  drains 64 

Ditches,  Open 63 

Door-yard,  The 384 

Double-bar  plow 157 

Double-pivot  gate 419 

Draft  horses 476 

Dragging  the  soil :  the  drag 154 

Drags,  how  made 154 

Drainage -. 54 

Advantages  of. 54 


Drainage,  how  it  helps  the  soil.  101,  55 
Drainage  lengthens  the  season —     58 

Prevents  winter  freezing 59 

When  to  drain 60 

Drains,  Material  used  for 62 

Drying  rack,  Wheel 425 

Ducks  (see  Poultry) 1103 

Dumping  sled 413 

Dwarf  Pears 265 

EFFECT  of  farm  products  on  fer- 
tility      24 

Effect  of  manures  on  plants 80 

Effect  of  wet  and  drained  soils...     56 

English  Bent  grass 122 

English  horses,  when  first  used...  471 

Race-course,  First 471 

Ensilage 821 

Cost  of 826 

Crops  for 826 

Experiments  with 828 

Evener  for  horse  draught 415 

Exhaustion  of  soils 108 

Expenses  of  cultivation 27 

FALLOW 109 

Farm  Products,  Choice  of. 22 

Farm,  Selection  of 18 

Farming  a  science 17 

Farms,  how  large 18 

Farmer's  horse 508 

Fat 1171 

Fattening  animals. 1187 

Feed-box,  Hinged 422 

With  handle 422 

With  cover 422 

Feed  cooker 414 

Feeding,  Purposes  of 1180 

Fence  rows 49 

Fences 34 

Fences  and  walks  about  dwelling  391 

Fences,  Portable 47 

Fermentation  of  manure 105 


1232 


INDEX, 


Fertile  soil,  what  constitutes 100 

Fertility  of  soils 93 

Fertilizers,  Special 83 

Flat-headed  Borer 345 

Flax 201 

Culture  of 202 

Flea-beetle,  Striped 336 

Grape 336 

Flood-gates 50 

Fly,  Hessian 326 

Fodder-corn 161,  158 

Food  and  manure 115 

Foods  and  Feeding — 

Starch  and  Sugar,  Component 

elements 1171 

Fat 1171 

Foods  and  their  use 1172 

Different  use  of  food  constit- 
uents  1172 

Different  foods 1173 

Comparative  value  of. 1175 

Nutritive  qualities 1176 

Digestibility 1176 

Albuminoid  ratio 1178 

Water  in  foods 1180 

Purposes  of  feeding 1180 

Reducing  food  of  support 1181 

Increasing  food  of  support 1183 

Proper  adjustment  of. 1184 

Ratio  of  food  for  young  animals.  1185 

Ratio  of  food  for  milk 1186 

Fattening  animals 1 187 

Feeding  influenced  by  age 1189 

Profitable  feeding 1191 

Foods,  Comparative  value  of. 1175 

Foods  increasing  manures 104 

Food  of  support,  Reducing 1181 

Foot-scrapers 426 

Forests,  Value  of. 367 

Fountain-pump 343 

Fowl  Meadow-grass 122 

French  Draft-horse 480 

French  Horse,  Ohio  investigates.  483 


Fruit-growing,  Commercial 280 

Fruits  on  the  farm 253 

Fruits,  Small  (berries) 272 

Fruit-trees,  Selection  of. 255 

GALLOWAY  cattle 749 

Gardening  and  truck-farming 282 

Garden  reel 429 

Gate  hung  with  weight 418 

Gates  on  farm 51 

Lift-gate 51 

Hung  on  hinges 52 

Geese  (see  Poultry) 1110 

Gooseberry  saw-fly 360 

Gooseberries 279 

Grapes 269 

Trellis  for  vines 269 

Wire  trellis 270 

Varieties 27! 

Grass-crop  of  the  country 118 

Grasses,  Varieties  of. 120 

Timothy 120 

Blue-grass 120 

Orchard  grass 121 

Red-top  121 

Meadow  Foxtail 122 

Fowl  Meadow  grass 122 

Rough-stalked  Meadow  grass...  122 

Perennial  Rye  grass 122 

English  Bent  Grass 122 

Meadow  Fescue 122 

Sweet-scented  vernal  grass 123 

Millet 129 

Clover 129 

Alsike  clover 130 

Lucern  or  Alfalfa 131 

White  clover 131 

Red  clover 132 

Grass-seed,  when  to  sow 125 

Grass  improving  the  soil 119 

Green  manures 107 

Green  manuring  and  manures.  107,  86 
Guano...  .   112 


INDEX. 


1233 


Guernsey  cattle, 765 

Gy psu m Ill 

HANGING  rack  for  hogs 405 

Handy  things  about  a  farm 403 

Harness  clamp 435 

Hay -feeding 126 

Hay-gatherer 407 

Hay -hook 408 

H-iy-making 126 

Hay,  shrinkage  of  in  barn 128 

Hedges 37 

Herding  Cattle- 
Herding  in  Kansas 878 

Elements  of  success 879 

Experience  of  Herders 880 

Herding,  Method  of 883 

Selecting  a  Ranch 886 

Fire-guards 888 

The  best  breed 890 

Land  titles 891 

New  beginners 892 

Markets 893 

Brands 894 

Brand-chutes  and  Corrals 894 

Castration 896 

Opportunities  for  cattle-raising.  896 

Hereford*,  the  (Cattle) 745 

Hessian  Fly 326 

Hinny,  The 685 

Hired  help  on  farm 29 

Hives  for  Bees  (see  Bees) 1142 

Hog-jack 405 

Hog  loader 423 

Hogs  (see  Swine) 931 

Hogs  in  the  orchard 261 

Holstein  cattle 752 

Home  and  its  surroundings,  The.  378 

Honey  (see  Bees) 1141 

Hoof-hook 436 

Horse,  The 449 

History  of,  Fossil 450 

Written  History 451 

78 


Horse,  The — 

Lesson  of  History 453 

The  Hebrew  horse 454 

Greek 455 

Egypt,  Improvement  came  from  456 

Races  instituted 457 

Endurance  and  docility  sought.  457 
Olympian  Races,  Influence  of..  458 

Monument  to  a  Mare 459 

Southern  European  horses  im- 
proved   459 

Ideal  Greek  horse 460 

Roman  horse 460 

Inferior  to  the  Greek 461 

Arab  horse 461 

Origin  of. 463,  468 

Barb,  The 463 

Degraded  with  man 464 

Influence  of   Barb  on  other 

horses 465 

Godolphin  Arabian 46<> 

Darley  Arabian 466 

Arab  Mare  as  war-horse 468 

Unique  character  of 46.S 

Thoroughbred,  The 469 

Arab  element 47<> 

Barb  element 470 

German  element 47<> 

Spanish,  Norman,  and  Flan- 
ders Blood 471 

The  Horse  in  Agriculture...  477 

Flanders  element 477,  472 

The  Historic  Trio 473 

Stud-book,  The 47,3 

Climatic  influence 474 

Size  and  power  sacrificed  to 

speed 474 

Soil  and  climate  affect  size...  479 

Percheron 482 

Flemish  Blood 4*6 

Norman  name 486 

French  Blood  in  Canada  and 

New  Jersey 487 


1234 


INDEX. 


Horse,  The— 

French  Horse  in  Ohio 487 

French  Horse  in  Illinois 488 

Percheron  Horse,  Model  for.  490 

Percheron  Mare,  Model  for..  491 

French  Horse  in  motion 493 

Norman  Horse  again 493 

Canadian  Horses 495 

Their  origin 496 

Climate  and  environment.  497 

English  Draft 498 

Effect  of  soil  and  climate..  500 

Heavy  Black  English 500 

Points  of  English  Dray...  501 

Scotch  Draft 501 

Boulonuaise  and  Conestoga..  504 

Cleveland  Bays 506 

Horse,  the  Farmer's 508 

Horse,  Fast-trotting 511 

Early  records  of  trotting 512 

First  trot  for  money  in  America  512 

Trotting-clubs  organize 512 

Messenger  Trotters 513 

Light  vehicle  introduced 514 

Trotting  ability  discovered 515 

Description  of  great  sires : 

Diomed 515 

Canada  Trotters 517 

Mambrino  family 518 

Running  Blood  in  Trotters 519 

Remarkable  Trio 522 

Noted  Double  Teams 522 

Element  of  Running  Blood....  523 

.Maud  S 524 

Horse-will  near  to  stubbornness  525 

Goldsmith  Maid 525 

Power  of  kindness 526 

Dexter 526 

Hambletonians,  The 527 

The  Russian  Trotter 529 

Horse-breeding 533 

Jacob  a  color-specialist 533 

Bake  well  bred  for  quality 534 


PAGE. 

Horse-breeding — 

Heredity 535 

Atavism 535 

Pedigree,  Value  of. 536 

Earliest  records  of. 537 

High  breeding  more  than  ap- 
pearance   537 

Breeding  back 538 

Breeding  for  color  of  Short-Horn 

cattle 538 

Breeding  for  color  of  Berkshire 

swine 538 

The  law  essential   to   improve- 
ment   539 

Breed  for  a  special  purpose 539 

American  farmers  not  careful 

enough 539 

English  farmers  more  careful...  540 

Breeding  for  increased  size 541 

Increase  size  gradually 541 

Breeding  for  docility 542 

Vice  follows  vice 542 

Work  the  breeders 543 

Evils  of  confinement 543 

Endurance  may  be  increased...  544 

Family  trait  important 544 

Effect  of  short  race 544 

In-and-in  breeding 545 

Defects  inheritable 545 

Close  breeding 545 

In-and-in  breeding  necessary...  546 
General  principles  of  breeding.  546 

Cross-breeding 550 

Doubtful  advantages 551 

Difficulties  attending 552 

Mania  for  out-crossing 552 

Grades  better  than  crosses 553 

Grade  or  cross-bred  sires  to  be 

avoided 553 

Large   male  and  small   female 

crossed  553 

Difficulties  in  parturition 554 

Uses  of  cross-breeding 554 


INDEX. 


1235 


Horse-breeding — 

Influence  of  previous   impreg- 
nation   555 

Soundness  of  parents 556 

Best  age  for  breeding 557 

The  farmer  as  a  breeder 557 

Kind  of  mares  for  farmers 558 

Inherited  defect. 558 

Color  of  mare 559 

Size  of  mare 559 

A  profitable  mare 560 

Relation  of  size  in  sire  and  dam.  560 

Choosing  the  stallion 561 

Pedigree,  then  quality 562 

Some  defects  may  be  corrected.  562 

The  ideal  farm-horse 563 

A  farmer's  team  of  mares 564 

How  size  may  be  increased 566 

The  stallion 567 

Feminine-looking  male 567 

influence  of  sire  and  dam 568 

Importance  of  a  quiet,  sound 

mare 569 

Temperament  important 570 

Condition  at  breeding  time 571 

Condition  of  sire  and  dam 572 

At  conception 573 

After  conception 573 

Mare  and  stallion  should  be 

worked 573 

A  matter  of  economy 574 

Mischief  comes  with  idleness...  574 

Care  of  stallions 574 

The  two  methods 575 

Care  of  breeding  mares 576 

Effeminacy  comes  with  idleness.  576 

Feed  and  care  important 576 

How  to  know  a   mare  is  with 

foal 577 

Period  of  gestation 577 

How  to  know  foaling  time 578 

Treatment  at  foaling  time 579 

After  foaling 579 


Horse-breeding — 

Care  and  feeding  of  colts 580 

Abortion 581 

Age  to  breed— (the  Heifer)....  582 

Age  to  bred — (the  Sow) 583 

Age  to  breed — (the  Mare) 583 

Aged  brood-mares 584 

Sex — Can  it  be  controlled? 584 

Importance  of  first  impregna- 
tion   587 

Valuable  Hints 590 

Horse — Buying  and  selling 594 

Why  difficult 594 

What  is  uusouudnes.s? 594 

Warranty 595 

Definition  of  unsoundness 596 

Vices  and  disabilities 597 

The-eyes 599 

The  feet 600 

The  limbs 601 

Back  and  body 606 

General  hints  to  purchasers —  607 

Points  of  a  horse 610 

Horse,    Anatomy    and    Physiol- 
ogy of. 611 

The  skeleton 611 

Framework,  an  index  of  value.  612 

Muscular  development 614 

Physiology  of  muscle 615 

The  blood 616 

Respi  rati  on 617 

Digestion 617 

Secretion  and  excretion 618 

Nervous  system 620 

The  foot..! 621 

Mouth,    and    teeth   at  different 

ages 623 

Irregularities  of  teeth 633 

Diseases  of  teeth 633 

Horses,  Diseases  of. 689—737 

See  Index  to,  on  p.  687. 

House,  Dwelling,  on  farm 378 

Location  of...                             .  379 


1236 


INDEX. 


House,  Dwelling,  on  farm — 

Size  of  house  lot 380 

Character  of  house 382 

Cottage,  Elevation  of. 383 

Convenient  farm-house 384 

Plans  of  farm-house 385 

Hoven 139 

How  much  to  cultivate 24 

How  to  get  a  home 397 

Humus,  or  partially  decayed  veg- 
etable matter 98 

Husking-table 408 

Hygiene  and  Sanitary  conditions 

on  farm 635 

Air 635 

Ventilation 636 

Location  of  barns  and  stables..  637 

Bank  barns '. 638 

Light  and  pure  air 639 

Impure  air  poisonous 639 

Warm  stables 640 

Temperature  of  stable1 641 

Size  of  stable 642 

Ventilators 642 

Sub-ven  tilators 643 

Vitiated  atmosphere  a  source  of 

disease 643 

Causes  of  disease 657,  644 

The  stable-floor 645 

Care  of  the  feet 647 

Cleaning  or  grooming 647 

Stalls 649 

Rack,  or  manger 650 

Disinfectants 651,  656 

Dry  earth    an   absorbent  and 

disinfectant 652 

Artificial  disinfectants 653 

Fresh  lime 653 

Charcoal 654 

Chloride  of  zinc  654 

Chloride  of  lime 654 

Chlorine 654 

Carbolic  acid,  etc 655 


Hygiene  and  Sanitary  conditions — 

Labor  and  fatigue 657 

Feeding 658 

How  to  feed 659 

What  to  feed 660 

Economy  in  feeding 661 

Value  of  bulky  food 662 

Feeding  corn-meal 664 

Accumulated  experience 665 

Cost  of  keep 667 

Drink 667 

Pure  water 668 

Grooming  for  health 669 

Condition  Powders 670 

Hospital 671 

The  horse-blanket 672 

IMPORTANCE  of  wheat  as  a  crop..  166 

Improvement  of  soils 107,  101 

Drainage 101 

Cultivation 102 

Manures 102 

Injurious  insects 316 

JERSEY  cattle,  etc 765 

KICKING,  To  cure,  Method 424 

Killing-post  for  fowls 410 

Kitchen  and  house-slops 394 

LADDER,  Barrow 419 

Self-supporting 419 

Combined  straight  and  step 420 

Pole 420 

Ladder  for  loading  fodder 408 

Lambs  (see  Sheep) 1017 

Land  measurer 432,  415 

Lawn,  House 389 

Laying  out  drains 67 

Laying  the  tiles  in  drains 70 

Less   acreage   tilled,    the    tillage 

more  thorough 26 

Lettuce...  ..  304 


INDEX. 


1237 


PAGE. 

Lice  and  mites  on  animals 364 

Lime  as  a  manure 110 

Liquid  manures. 82 

Locality  of  farm 20 

Location  of  the  house 379 

Locust-growing  for  timber 371 

How  to  start  a  plantation 374 

Log-holder 406 

Log-lifter 406 

Lot,  size  of  house 380 

Louse,  Bark,  apple-tree 346 

Plant 350 

Lucern 131 

MANAGEMENT  of  manures 78 

Managing  a  small  farm 399 

Manures 105,  73 

How  to  get  the  most 74 

How  to  save  the  most. 75 

Shape  of  heaps 76 

To  what  crops  to  apply 77 

Manures  for  corn 152 

Market  gardening,  and  its  profits.  283 
Selecting   and   preparing   the 

garden-spot 283 

Laying  out  the  ground 285 

Crops  to  be  planted 286 

Garden  implements 286 

Hot-beds 287 

Cold  frames 288 

When  to  plant 288 

Insects 289 

Rotation  and  succession  of  crops  289 

Planting 290 

Disposing  of  garden  crops 292 

Maximum  crops  only,  profitable..  2o 

May-beetle 324 

Meadow  Fescue 122 

Meadow  fox-tail 122 

Meadows  in  grass,  how  long 123 

Melons,  Musk 304 

Method  of  preparing  manures —  81 

Midge,  Wheat 325 


Milk  and  Cream  (see  Dairy) 835 

Millet 129 

Mink-trap 432 

Money-making  on  small  home-lot.  400 

Muck,  how  formed 95 

Mule,  The 676 

In  America 676 

Breeding  and  breaking 678 

Experience  in  breeding 678 

Breaking  and  managing :  kind- 
ness   679 

Will-power  and  stubbornness...  681 

Economy  of  mule- power 682 

Longevity  of  the  Mule 683 

Winter  care  of  Mules 684 

The  Hiuny 685 

Musk  melons 304 

NITROGEN  in  soils,  Source  of 96 

Norman  Conquest  mingles  bloods  477 

Norman  name,  The 477 

Nose-jewel  to  prevent  sucking.....  411 
Nutritive  qualities  of  foods 1176 

OATS 187 

Oats,  on  what  soils 188 

How  to  plant 188 

Onions 245 

Soil 245 

How  much  to  plant 245 

Garden  drag 246 

Seed 246 

Drill 247 

Scuffle-hoe  for  weeding 247 

Harvesting 248 

O  rohard  -grass 121 

Orchard  site,  Selection  of. 254 

Origin  of  the  soil 94 

Out-buildinps 392 

Outlet  of  drain 66 

PARSNIPS 307 

Peaches...  .  262 


1238 


INDEX. 


PAGE. 

Peach  Borer 354 

Pears 263 

Varieties 263 

Blight 263 

Transplanting 264 

Dwarf  varieties 265 

Peas 309 

Pea-weevil 328 

Pedigree  of  Race-horse 473 

Pedigree  seed-corn 149 

Peppers 310 

Percheron  Horse,  so-called  ...482,  485 

Perennial  Rye-grass 122 

Pests,  Farm    (see    Injurious   In- 
sects)   316 

Pickles 303 

Pig- pens  (see  Swine) 966 

Pivot-hinged  gate 418 

Plant-bug,  tarnished 331 

Planting  an  Orchard 258 

Setting  the  trees 259 

Pruning 260 

Cultivation 260 

Planting  young  trees 256 

Plant-lice 357,  350 

Platform  for  fence-building 407 

Plow  for  corn 157 

Plums 266 

Varieties 267 

Polled  Cattle 749 

Ponies 531 

Shetland 531 

Mustang  and  Indian 531 

Pop-corn 301 

Portable  fences 47 

Portable  shelter 429 

Post  and  board  fence 40 

Plans  for  making 40 

Post-holder 405 

Posts,  Live  fence 39 

Poultry  :  Chickens — 

Is  poultry-keeping  profitable?.. 1041 

Poultry  on  the  farm 1042 


Poultry:  Chickens — 

Poultry-keeping  for  women 1043 

Poultry-keeping  for  boys  and 

girls 1044 

Number  of  fowls  for  a  farm 1044 

Capital  needed 1 044 

Location  of  poultry  farms 1045 

Poultry  houses 1045 

Plans  for  poultry  houses 1048 

Inside  fixtures 1052 

Yards  and  fences 1055 

Open   roosting-shed   for  young 

chickens 1056 

Movable  poultry-fence 1057 

Best  breeds  of  fowls 1059 

Hamburgs 1060 

Leghorns 1061 

Houdans,   La  Fleche,   Black 

Spanish 1062 

'  Polish 1064 

Bramahs 1064 

Cochins 1065 

Langshans 1066 

Plymouth  Rocks 1069 

Dominiques 1 069 

Wyandottes 1069 

Dorkings 1069 

Improve  the  common  fowl 1072 

Choice  of  a  cock 1072 

Eggs,  or  market  poultry 1073 

Management  of  Laying  Hens.. 1073 

Food  and  drink 1074 

Gravel,  oyster-shells,  etc 1075 

Best  market  for  eggs 1076 

Best  prices  for  eggs 1076 

Packing  eggs 1077 

Preserving  eggs 1078 

Spring  chickens 1080 

Eggs  for  hatching 1081 

Nests  and  Sitting  Hens 1082 

Egg  testers  and  testing 1083 

Artificial  incubation 1084 

Eclipse  Incubator 1 085- 


INDEX. 


1239 


Poultry:  Chickens — 

Care  of  young  chicks 1086 

How  to  raise  Incubator  chicks.  1088 

Coops  and  runs  for  chicks 1090 

Plans  for  same 1091 

Feeding-pens 1092 

Marketing  spring  chickens 1093 

Fall  and  winter  chickens 1094 

Capons 1094 

Poultry :  Ducks — 

Water-fowls :  water 1 103 

Leading  varieties 1 1 04 

Pekins 1104 

Rouens 1105 

Aylesburys 1 105 

Black  Cayugas 1105 

Muscovies 1106 

The  management  of  Ducks 1108 

Picking  for  feathers 1109 

Poultry:   Geese 1110 

Varieties 1111 

Toulouse 1111 

Embden 1111 

China 1112 

Time  of  laying 1112 

Goslings 1113 

Fattening  for  market 1113 

Picking  Geese  (see  for  Ducks).  1114 
Poultry :  Turkeys — 

Best  breeds 1096 

Bronze  turkeys 1096 

White  Holland 1098 

Feeding,  nesting,  setting 1099 

Young  turkeys  cared  for 1101 

Fattening  turkeys 1 1 03 

Poultry,  Preparing  for  market...H14 

New  York  law 1114 

Killing  fowls 1115 

Picking 1115 

Packing 1116 

Shipping 1117 

Wild  Game-birds 1117 

New  England  rules  for  poultry.  11 18 


Poultry:     Their    Diseases,    and 

Remedies  therefor 1119 

Prevention  of  disease 1119 

"Douglass  Mixture"  for  fowls..!  121 

Care 1121 

Lice,  to  get  rid  of. 1121 

Lice  on  chicks 1122 

Chicken  cholera 1123 

Roup 1125 

Gapes .' 1127 

Chills. 1128 

Cramps 1129 

Scaly  legs 1129 

Leg  weakness 1 1 29 

Rheumatism 1129 

Canker 1129 

Bumble-foot 1130 

Diarrhoea 1130 

Frost-bites 1130 

Crop-bound 1130 

Egg-bound 1131 

Egg  broken  in  oviduct 1131 

Apoplexy 1131 

Soft-shelled  eggs 1131 

Egg-eating 1132 

Feather-eating 1132 

Moulting 1132 

Obscure  diseases  of  chicks 1132 

Potatoes 226 

Preparing  the  soil 227 

Planting 228 

Cutting  the  tubers  for  seed 229 

Time  for  planting 232 

Covering  with  straw 232 

Varieties 233 

Cultivation 233 

Colorado  Beetle 234 

Harvesting,  storing,  and  mar- 
keting   234 

Implements  for  digging 235 

Bin  for  storing 236 

Pitting 236 

Potato  screen...  .  413 


1240 


INDEX. 


Preparing  soil  for  corn 153 

Press,  Home-made 434 

Preventives  for  self-sucking,   on 

Cattle 428,  410 

Products  of  farm,  Leading 23 

Product,  The  wheat 167 

Profitable  feeding 1191 

Pulverizing  manures 79 

Pumpkins 200 

Purposes  of  soil 97 

QUINCES 267 

RACE-HORSE,  Pedigree  of. 473 

Rack  and  manger  for  cattle  or 

horses 431 

Radishes 310 

Radish-fly 339 

Rain-gauge 431 

Rape  Butterfly 338 

Raspberries 276 

How  to  manage  them 277 

Mulching 277 

Varieties 278 

Ratio  of  food  for  young  animals.. 1185 

For  milk 1186 

Rat-trap 433 

Red  clover 132 

Nutritive  value 133 

Curing  clover-hay 134 

Time  to  sow 135 

For  pasture 136 

Fertilizers  for 137 

Growing  seed 137 

Testing  the  seed 138 

Hoven,  clover-bloat,  and  slob- 
bers   139 

Red-top  (herd's-grass) 121 

Reducing  cost  of  fences,  Mode  of.     35 

Reel,  Garden 429 

Rent  received  for  farms 32 

Revolving  shelves 428 

Rhubarb...  .  311 


PAGE. 

Ringing  a  hog 433 

Roads,  convenience  to  market 21 

Rock  Phosphate Ill 

Roller  cover 414 

Root-cutter,  Home-made 424 

Rose-chafer 363 

Rotation  of  crops 24 

Rough-stalked  Meadow-grass 122 

Rye 190 

Straw,  its  value  and  uses 190 

Can  be  grown  on  poor  land —  191 

Prevents  soil  from  washing 191 

Rye  for  a  green  manure 90 

SADDLE-HORSE,  The 509 

Salsify 312 

Sand 98 

Sand  in  garden  soils,  Using 291 

Saving  seed-corn 149 

When  to  gather  it,  and  how....  150 

Saw-buck  for  long  wood 435 

Saw-fly,  Gooseberry 360 

Scare-crows 421 

Seed-corn 148 

Seeding  to  grass 124 

Selection  of  farm 18 

Selection  of  varieties  of  fruitrtrees  257 

Self-supporting  ladder 419 

Shade-trees  about  house 387 

Shearing-table 423 

Sheep — 

The  Spanish  breed,  or  Merino.  993 

Best  climate  for  sheep 994 

Mutton 995 

British  sheep-husbandry 997 

Atlantic  States  for  sheep 998 

The  West 999 

Sub-montane  District 1000 

Prairie  section 1000 

Systems  of  the  Far  West 1001 

The  Pacific  Coast 1002 

Wool 1002 

Few  diseases  among  sheep 1003 


INDEX. 


1241 


Sheep — 

Australian  sheep-husbandry — 1003 

South  America 1004 

Mexico 1005 

Cotswold  breed 1006 

Leicester 1007 

Southdown 1007 

Comparison  of  values 1009 

Breeding  the  ewe 1009 

In-aud-in  breeding 1012 

Time  for  dropping  lambs. 1012 

Treatment  of  ewes  in  winter. ..1013 

Feed  during  gestation 1014 

Roots,  and  corn-fodder 1014 

Sheep  stables 1015 

Tagging 1016 

Lambing 1017 

Castration  of  lambs 1020 

Lambs  running  with  the  flock.  1020 

Care  of  lambs  in  winter 1021 

Watering  sheep 1021 

Fattening 1022 

Sheep  for  stock  and  for  wool...  1024 

Washing 1026 

Shearing 1027 

Wool-press 1028 

The  fleece. 1030 

Ticks 1031 

Maggots 1031 

Water,  change  of  pasture,  win- 
ter feeding 1032 

Salt 1032 

The  fly 1032 

Paper-skin 1033 

Scald-foot  or  fouls. 1034 

Toe-shears 1034 

Scab 1035 

Sheep-barns 1035 

Sheep-hook  or  shepherd's  crook.  1038 
Sheep  as  scavengers  of  land...  1038 

Dogs 1039 

Sheep-rack 421 

Shelf,  Hanging,  Rat-proof. 425 


PAGE. 

Shelter,  Portable 429 

Shelves,  Corner 435 

Shipping-box  for  fowls 416 

Shocking-horse 408 

Shocking  wheat 180 

Short-horn  Cattle 738 

Short-horn  Cattle,  Characteris- 
tics of. 743 

Shrubs  and  flowers  about  house..  390 
Silo,  A— 

How  to  make 823 

Filling 825 

Silos  and  ensilage 821 

Silt-basins 68 

Slat  shelves 428 

Sled-marker  for  corn 155 

Slobbers 139 

Slugs,  Pear  or  cherry  tree 356 

Small  farms  for  poor  men 395 

Snow-plow 41 1 

Soil  adapted  to  corn 151 

Soil,  Condition  of. 20 

Soil,  Fertility  of  the 93 

Sorghum 209 

Soil 211 

Cultivation 211 

Productiveness 212 

Manufacture 213 

Spanish  (or  Texan)  Cattle 768 

Spinach 312 

Squash,  Summer 312 

Winter 312 

Squash-bug 330 

Squash-vine  Root-borer 332 

Stable-barrow 436 

Stables  (see  Barn)  1193 

Stacking  stage 430 

Starch,  what  composed  of 1171 

Stock-feeding 163 

Stock  handling — Introduction 439 

Suggestions  and  hints 440 

Stock  on  hiph-prired  lands 442 

Views  of  Chambers  Stewart...  442 


1242 


INDEX. 


Stock  pasturing  on  the  highway...     36 

Strawberries 272 

Soil..  273 

Culture 273 

Winter  protection 274 

Planting 275 

Striped-bug 331 

Stump-puller 412 

Success  in  farming 17 

Sugar,  Elements  of 1171 

Super-phosphate 112 

Surface  draining 72 

Sward  on  plow-lands 124 

Sweet  corn  in  garden 200 

Sweet-scented  Vernal  grass 123 

Sweet  Potatoes 238 

Selecting  seed 239 

Starting  beds  for  sprouting 240 

Varieties 242 

Preparing    soil,   planting,   and 

cultivation 242 

Storing 245 

Swine  and  their  management — 

First  Swine  in  the  West 931 

On  "the  range" 932 

Of  no  particular  breed 932 

Better  breeds  introduced 933 

Statistics  of  Swine 934 

Who  should  raise  hogs? 935 

Improvement  of  stock 935 

Selection  of  breeding  stock 937 

Treatment  of  the  boar 938 

Sows  for  breeding,  Choosing...  939 

Entering  dates 939 

Caring  for  the  sow  and  young 

pigs 940 

Best  time  for  the  sow  to  far- 
row   941 

Profit  of  litters 942 

Diseases  of  Swine 943 

Causes  of  disease 944 

Hog  cholera 944 

Preventive  measures 945 


PAGE. 

Swine,  Breeds  of — 

Poland-chinas 948 

Berkshires 951 

Chester  Whites 954 

The  Essex 956 

Jersey  Reds 957 

Suffolks 959 

The  Yorkshire 961 

The  Cheshire 961 

Lancashires 963 

Victorias 964 

Swine,  Housing  and  Fattening — 

Hog  houses  and  pens 966 

Size 967 

Plans  for 968 

Portable  pig-pens 971 

House    for    brood-sows    with 

stove 972 

Swill-barrels  and  troughs 973 

Cooking  food  for  hogs 974 

Experience  of  swine-raisers 975 

Green  food  for  hogs.. 977 

Grass  and  clover 978 

Confining  hogs 979 

Winter  care  of. 980 

Fattening 982 

Feeding,  Science  of 983 

Experiments  in 986 

When  to  fatten 987 

How  much  pork  from  a  bushel 

of  corn 989 

The  hog  as  a  manure-maker...  990 

TAGGING  table  for  sheep 422 

Tenants  on  farms 31 

Testing  clover-seed 138 

Tether-pin 415 

Texas  (or  Spanish)  Cattle 768 

Tile  for  draining:  their  size 61 

Where  to  be  laid 62 

Tile-hoe  or  pull-scoop 69 

Timber-growing 366 

Timothy  grass 120 


ISDEX. 


1243 


Tobacco 219 

Varieties 219 

Seed  and  seed-beds 219 

Soil  and  planting 221 

Worming 222 

Priming 222 

Topping 223 

Suckering 223 

Harvesting 223 

Stripping 224 

Properties 225 

Tomatoes 313 

Tomato-rack  for  growing  vines...  429 

Tomato-worm 333 

Tool-box  chair 427 

Top-dressing  grass  lands 126 

Treatment  of  manures 105 

Trees,  Selection  of,  for  fruit 255 

Trees,  what  to  plant. 368 

Where  to  plant 369 

How  to  plant 369 

Trimming  hedges 38 

Truss  fence 47 

Ditto,  with  stakes  and  wire 48 

Turkeys  (see  Poultry) 1096 

Turnips 315,  248 

Flat  varieties. 249 

When  to  sow 249 

Profits  of  the  crop 250 

UNDERDRAININO 57 

Use  of  food 1172 

VALUATION  of  fertilizers. 113 

Value  of  corn-fodder 159 

Varieties  of  grass  (see  Grasses)...  120 

Varieties  of  Wheat  (see  Wheat).  176 

Vegetables,  Description  of. 293 

Ventilators  for  corn-cribs. 164 

Ventilators  for  hay-stacks 417 

WAGES  for  hired  help 30 

Wagon-bed  attachment 412 


Wagon-jacks 403 

War  demands  for  horses,  Effect  of.  482 

Water-gap 430,  412 

Water-gaps  and  flood-gates 50 

Water  in  foods,  Influence  of. 1180 

Water  melons 306 

Water,  Pure,  for  house  use 393 

Water  supply  of  farms 21 

Water-tight  box 436 

Weevil,  Pea 328 

Bean 329 

Wet  lands  need  draining 601 

Wet  soil,  Effect  of 56 

Wheat 16& 

Wheat,  Barracks  for 181 

Small  barn  threshers 182 

Wheat,  Clover  with 185 

Wheat-crop,  Increase  of 167 

Wheat,  Fertilizers  for 172 

How  and  when  to  sow 173 

Seeding,  thick  or  thin 174 

Depth  of  planting 174 

Wheat-growing,   Cost   of,   and 

profits 183 

Wheat,  Harvesting 179 

Wheat,  Remedy  for  enemies  of...  186 

Wheat,  Soil  for 16& 

Drainage 168 

Preparation  of  seed-bod 1 69 

On  corn  lands 171 

Wheat  straw,  Value  of. 182 

Wheat,  Varieties  of 174 

Clawson 176 

Fultz 176 

Silver  Chaff. 177 

Velvet  Chaff. 177 

Arnold's  Gold-medal 177 

Golden  Straw 177 

Mediterranean 177 

Lancaster 177 

Zimmerman 178 

Sandom  irka 1 7& 

Rickenbrode...  .  17& 


1244 


INDEX. 


Wheat,  Varieties  of — 

German  Amber 178 

Beige's  Prolific 178 

Theiss 178 

York  White  Chaff. 178 

Rice 178 

McGhee's  Red 179 

Tappahannock 1 79 

Treadwell 179 

Smith's  Improved 179 

Russian  No.  2 179 

Red  Amber 179 

•Champion  Amber 179 


PAOE. 

Wheat,  Varieties  of — 

Finley 179 

White  clover 131 

Wire  fences 41 

How  to  make  them 42 

Their  cost 43 

Different  styles  of. 44 

Wire  stand  or  support 430 

Wire-worm 327 

Wood-holder 406 

YOUNG  trees  for   fruit   to  be 

planted 256 


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